Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes was born in 1588 Malmesbury in England. It was time of political upheaval as
confrontation between monarchy and parliamentary government which cause civil war in
England. Thus, it was a period of ceaseless chaos, fear and insecurity. Hobbes’ opinions about
human nature, state of nature, sovereignty, social contract.etc was shaped according to prevailing
condition in England. During civil war some people were in favour of monarchical system
while others supported parliamentary form of government. His period was marked by emergence
of new scientific discoveries, explorations and new scientific theories. Newton's theory of
gravity influenced entire Europe.

His Literary condition - ‘Leviathan’ is the most important literary work of Hobbes, apart
from it, his others literary contributions are ‘De Cive’, ‘De carpore’ and De Homine.

MECHANICAL- MATERIALISM
‘Leviathan’ is most important source of Hobbes political thought. His thinking was influenced
by scientific revolution going on in Europe. Hobbes methodology for studying political science
is neither philosophical like Plato and Aristotle nor it was historical like that of Machiavelli.
He utilised study of physics, geometry and psychology for studying political science. He
utilized mechanical materialism as a new method of study. He was influenced by Law of
Motion of Galileo and geometry of Euclid.
Applying physics he said that everything in this universe is made up of matter. Matter is
made up of particle and particles are in state of motion. By applying psychological he said that
every person has unlimited desires and attractions towards some objects and repulsion towards
then In his work, ‘Leviathan’, he said that ‘Human Desires comes to an end only after his
death.’ Hobbes said that self-preservation is the most important and fundamental desire of
human being. In order to ensure self-preservation, person acquires more and more power and
influence. He also utilized geometry and made Hypothesis about human nature, like in
geometry. Nobody can deny the logic and rationality of Hobbes but nobody can accept the
result of Hobbesian thought because of justification of absolute monarchy.

Structure of Thought
(A) Human Nature
Hobbes said that basic assumption about human nature is very similar to principle of
geometry which says that sum of all the three angles of triangles is 180. ° Similarly, Hobbes said
that every human beings wants to fulfill unlimited desires. And desires come to end only after his
death. Man has liking for something and aversion for others. Thus, they enter into social contract
to remove anarchy of state of nature and ensure their self preservation.

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(B) State of Nature: Features of state of nature can be summaries as follows:-
1. Absence of state and government
2. Absence of morality
3. Absence of private, property and culture
4. Absence of law
5. Absence of Justice property and culture
6. Absence of Society

There is ceaseless conflict between individuals in state of nature. This makes their life
insecure. Thus, in Hobbes state of nature, the life of individuals is poor, short, nasty and
brutish. There is absence of any authority to control individuals in state of nature. Thus, in order
to abandon anarchy of state of nature, man exercises his reason and forms state by entering
into social contract.
Vaughan criticized Hobbes who said that individuals. Life is endangered in state of nature.
However, under state, they will become like slave. According to Rousseau, ‘individualism ends
with end of freedom.’

Natural Law

Hobbes theory of social contract is based on his concept of natural law. According to Hobbes,
individual’s desires are endless. But they have reason too. He termed this law of reason as
natural law. It should be remembered that Hobbes concept of natural law is different from
universal religious law of medieval times. Hobbes is a materialist thinker. He believes that law
of reason prevents people from self-destruction. In his work ‘Leviathan’, he has elaborately dealt
with his concept of law of reason or natural law. This law of reason makes life more secure
peaceful and meaningful. Law of nature means law of prudence. Crux of natural law can be
sunned up in the following terms: -
1. All people must strive for peace.
2. Individuals should be ready to surrender some of our rights for larger peace and security.
3. We must enter into social contract.

(C) Social Contract:- Natural law makes ground for making social contract. Social contract
theory implies that Individuals must come together to form state.’ In Hobbes word, “I authorize
and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to assembly of man, on this
condition, that they give up the right to him, and authorize all his actions in like manner”.
According to Hobbes, people will surrender all their natural rights and power to supreme King
for sake of self-preservation. ‘State and King are outcome of social contract and not a party to
contract.’ The basis of Hobbes theory of social contract is reason, power and utility. The nature
of Hobbes social contract is hypothetical, theoretical and not historical. According to Hobbes,
emergence of state is based on rational self Interest.

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Method of Contract
State, society and government comes into existence through a single contract with self-
preservation as ultimate goal. State, society and government are artificial institutions. On
dissolution of social contract, people will revert to state of nature. Thus, after social contract
people will surrender all their rights and powers to king. And they will not have any right
except self preservation.

Mechanistic State
Social contract implies that state is not natural or divine institution. It is an artificial
organization. State is machine made by the people for their self-preservation. State is utilitarian
because it removes anarchy.
Fear, Reason and Power
Entire Hobbesian thought can be understood with the help of three terms- Fear, Reason
and Power. Hobbes was a premature baby and said that I and fear are born together. In state of
nature there is a fear of violent death. After formation of state fear of absolute king is present.
Social contract is a result of reason which changes interest into rational self-interest. Hobbes
said that each and every individual want to get more and more power and glory. They are
selfish and egoist too. In absence of strong king there will be anarchy. Power of absolute king
is the only way to regulate the behaviour of selfish human being.

Legitimizing power of King

Social contract is a mechanism by which he legitimized the power of King. Because King is
result of consent of the people. Consent display the element of democracy. Contract indicates
towards consent. King is not part of the contract but. King is result of the contract. Although
King is an outcome of contract but King is all powerful and absolute. Hobbes attract on
democracy, because support the power of absolute Monarch. But He is democratic too, due to
acceptance of social contract.

Absolutist State

State is all powerful. The power of state is inalienable, undivided. Command of state is
law. State is not restricted by morality, customs or traditions. For Hobbes, state is absolute
and powerful institution. It should be obeyed even by minorities and any protest against
state is unreasonable and is against security of state.
Individuals are being denied of their rights against state. This makes him authoritarian/or
supports of absolute state.
According to Hobbes, government resort to use of coercion against citizen, will not
be considered as illegitimate. Because government and state are result of consent of people
and protest against government will be considered as protest against people. Thus, only state

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 will have all the power and rights. According to Sabine, the state is like a hypothetical
corporation where its rights are greater than its members. Thus, Hobbes has favoured
absolute, powerful and despotic king.
Hobbes has completely subordinated Church to state. And no institutions,
organizations will have any right to make any law which is against state. He believed that
state should be governed by fear of punishment which is closer to Machiavelli’s concept of
state.
According to Hobbes, command of state is law. Powers of the three branches of
government-legislative, executive and Judiciary should be monopolized by the state. He is
against separation of powers. Hobbes made king as immortal god and his powers are
indivisible. Hobbes ignores traditions, customs and morality. King is not bound by anything.
Hobbes removes hurdles, put by French scholar Jean Bodin. Bodin said that King is subject
to limitation of natural law and divine law. But Hobbessian King is not under any
limitation. Hobbes said that King is mortal God or earth. Hobbes laid the foundation of legal
sovereignty which is developed by John Austin in a more comprehensive concept.

Individualism
Hobbes concept of Government is based on his theory of consent. He has considered man as
rational being. The seed of liberal ideology exist in thought of Hobbes.
Individual is rational: -Individual is an unit in thought of Hobbes. Individual makes society,
state and government. Self-Preservation is an ultimate objective of individuals. They can
deny order of state if self-preservation is in dangered society is merely aggregation of
individuals. Thus society is Atomistic in nature.
 According to Sabine, individualism is a means and absolute state is an end. He went on to
extent of saying that if state fails to secure self-preservation of its citizens, it does not
deserved to be obeyed.
 According to Hobbes, state is an artificial and utilitarian institution and not any divine or
natural Institution. Thus, Hobbes thinking forms basis of Bentham’s is utilitarianism.

Base of Liberalism and Utilitarianism

Hobbes says that individual is rational. He is rationalist who did not accept traditions,
customs and culture. Every individual knows his interest best and everyone is selfish. Thus,
he established the philosophical foundation of liberalism. Liberals also believes in
rationalism and refuse to accept traditions and customs. Hobbes never spoke against the right
to property. He said that state is an instrument which is essential for self-preservation.
Therefore, it is an utilitarian institution. State is not created by God but it is a result of
consent of the individual. But he is not liberal due to support of absolute state.

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 Secular State

Church is not divine institution. It is made by the people. Hobbes is a materialistic thinker, who
refused to accept divine origin theory of state and considered Church as subordinate institution
to state. Thus, he approved Machiavelli’s idea of separation of Church from state on reasonable
grounds. Church is created by individuals. State has unlimited power and all others institutions
are subordinate to state.
 Everyone is free to choose his faith. State will never dictate faith of individuals.
 Religious beliefs are not objective in nature. The, institution of state is necessary to contain
conflict over religious matters whenever it arises.
 Hobbes has considered Church merely as an institution like any other institution, but state is
supreme of all.

Democracy
Instead of accepting parliamentary form of Government Hobbes has supported despotic
king. Instead of favouring citizen’s right, Hobbes has supported rights of king. Hobbes has
considered King as embodiment of power. Who is freed from all the restrictions. He
considered King as source of all law. As are mentioned features shows that Hobbes ideas are
anti democratic. But following characterise proves that his ideas associated with democracy
too. Hobbes attacked on democracy, democratically because he justified absolute monarch
on the basis of social contract. And following democratic element inherent in Hobbessian
thought:-
(1)Hobbes theory of consent is a results of contract among people.
(2)State is an utilitarian institution and its main function is to preserve lives of people.
(3)According to Hobbes, creation of state, society and government is result of contract.
Consent involves democracy.
(4)If there is threat to people’s live, it will not be obligatory upon people to obey state.
(5)He was the first thinker, who said that physical and mental abilities of people are same.

Macpherson

In this work- ‘The political theory of possessive individualism’:- Hobbes, Locke

(1962) termed Hobbes Locke as ‘possessive individualist’. According to Macpherson, Hobbes
is capitalist and supporter of market who commodified labour. There is flaw in his concept of
state of nature. His concept of state of nature is reflection of capitalist society. Thus, Hobbes has
created a hypothetical state of nature to provide legitimacy to capitalism. Says that Hobbes
absolute power of monarch is also unreasonable. He supported despotic and powerful king to
protect the interest of capitalist class. And maintaining peace and stability in society. In absence
of powerful sovereign property of the capitalist class will be threatened and insecure.

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 Political Obligation

Social contract of Hobbes is not historical but is it hypothetical or philosophical. Contract does
not explain about origin of state but utility of state. It means why we should obey the order of
the state. Political obligation tells about state is essential for self-preservation. Powerful state is
far better then anarchy. Self-preservation is an danger in state of nature. Social contract is done
for justifying the necessity of state.
Hobbes theory of social contract is not historical but philosophical interpretation of origin
of state. His main objective is to analyze whether state should be obeyed. This gives emergence
to theory of political obligation. Leo Strauss said that base of obligation in Hobbes is physical.
Since state hold the absolute power. Taylor is of the view that political obligation of Hobbes is
derived from law of nature. Law of nature stands for law of prudence. However, Michael
Oakeshott said that obligation in Hobbes is comprehensive in nature. Which includes physical,
rational and moral obligation. Contract is made for rational self-preservation. And people
transferred all their power to king. Therefore, it is moral obligation for the people to obey the
order of state. State is the most powerful institution which keeps all power in his hand.

Liberty

Hobbes said that silence of law is liberty. Law is command of King. King is all powerful and
despotic. But liberty is not available in the state of nature. State of nature is state of anarchy.
Liberty requires law, which is possible under state. Because self-preservation is in danger in
state of nature. Liberty does not mean violation of law or Hurting the life of others. Thus
motion of every individual is not unrestrained. Hacker says that liberty is available in idea of
Hobbes. Hacker is of the view that Hobbesian state is absolutist and it is not totalitarian.
Totalitarian state implies a fascist state which control each and every part of individual’s life.
Individuals are free to engage in act of their choice.
Nobody is allowed to oppose the state. Opposition of state means inviting state of
nature. Nobody can enjoy liberty in state of nature. Although, Vaughan criticized Hobbesian
notion of Liberty. Liberty is not available in anarchy and it vanishes under powerful state. Thus
individual is bound to fall either in deep sea or in deep george. Liberty finishes in both the
conditions.

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