Stress and Wellbeing

at the Work Place

Block III

INTERPERSONAL
PROCESSES

81
 INTRODUCTION
The third block of this course consists of two units which reflect upon the
interpersonal processes that take place in organizations.
In the first unit of this block, you will come to know about the meaning, relevance
and functions of communication. You will also be explained about the elements
of communication process, the various types of communication and also about
the barriers to effective communication.
The second and the last unit of this block deals with the definition and theories
of leadership. The unit discusses about the challenges to leadership construct.
At the end of this unit, you will be explained about the Indian perspective on
leadership.

82
Unit 5 Communication*
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Meaning and Relevance of Communication
5.2.1 Meaning of Communication

5.2.2 Relevance of Communication

5.2.3 Functions of Communication

5.2.3.1 Expression

5.2.3.2 Control

5.2.3.3 Motivation

5.2.3.4 Coordination

5.2.3.5 Problem Solving

5.2.3.6 Conflict Management

5.3 Elements of Communication process

5.3.1 Source/Sender

5.3.2 Transmitter

5.3.3 Channel

5.3.4 Receiver/ Destination

5.3.5 Feedback

5.3.6 Noise

5.3.7 Encoding and Decoding

5.4 Process of Communication

5.5 Types and Network of Communication
5.5.1 Types of Communication

5.5.2 Types of Communication

5.5.2.1 Grapevine Communication

5.5.2.2 Types o f Grapevine Communication

5. 6 Barriers to Communication:
5.6.1 Physical Barriers

5.6.2 Psychological Barriers

5.6.3 Other Barriers

5.7 Let Us Sum Up

5.8 Unit End Questions
83
*
Dr Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Inerpersonal 5.9 Glossary
Processes
5.10 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
5.11 Suggested Readings and References

5.0 Introduction
This is the first unit of the third block. This block deals with the interpersonal
processes that involve interaction between two and more than two persons. In
this unit you will come to know about the relevance of communication as one
of the interpersonal process. You will be introduced about the different types
of communication as well as elements of communication process. At the end of
this unit, the barriers of effective communication will be introduced to you.

5.1 Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the meaning, process and relevance of communication;
• Describe the elements of communication process;
• Elaborate upon the various types and networks of communication;
• Explain the barriers of communication.

5.2 Meaning and relevance of

communication
5.2.1 Meaning of Communication
According to the American Psychological Association, communication refers
to the “transmission of information, which may be by verbal (oral or written)
or nonverbal means (gestures, signs and symbols)”. It is a process that helps
in exchange of ideas, knowledge, feelings, and experiences and is required
for interpersonal and social purposes. Predominantly, language is asignificant
source which helps in exchange ofthoughtand opinion of the people. It helps
in sharing of information, decision making, problem solving and enhancing
performance in organizations. It is a process through which information is
passed from one person to another, a meaningful interaction that takes place
with the help of a medium (for example: microphones, emails, digital media
and so on).

5.2.2 Relevance of Communication

Let us discuss about few of the relevance of the communication:
• It helps in transmitting as well as receiving of information through talking,
writing, or making gestures.
• It is a source that helps in solving problems and decision- making processes
in organizations.
• It helps the employers to convey the job responsibilities to the employees
84 as well as receive feedback from them.
• It is a process with the help of which the doubts and grievances of the Communication
employees can be dealt with. Thus, indirectly it leads to motivation and
commitment among the employees.
• Communication is a process with the help of which the attitude and
behaviour of the employees can be modified. For example, an individual
who is well informed will definitely show better performance than the one
who has no information.
• It is a mechanism that enhances socialization, networking and better team
management among the employees of the organization.
• It acts as a controlling mechanism for the employers. It helps in controlling
the behaviour of the members of the Organization.
• It helps in resolving conflict among the members of the groups and teams
of the organizations.
• It helps in performing tasks and perform the job responsibilities by the
employees.
• It facilitates cooperation among team members of the organization.

5.2.3 Functions of Communication

By now, you might be aware of the relevance of the communication, let us
discuss about the functions of the process of the communication:
5.2.3.1 Expression
Communication is a relevant process in Organization. It is one of the means
by which employees express themselves, interact socially and share their
grievances. In many professions (like lawyer, telephone operator and so on)
their employment is a primary source of social interaction. It also leads to
formation of the culture of the organization.
5.2.3.2 Control
With the help of communication, the organizations convey their rules, regulations,
norms and culture. It also helps the Organization to maintain discipline and
laws among its employees. It helps the employees to share their feelings and
opinions as well.
5.2.3.3 Motivation
Motivation refers to a driving force which inspires individual to act or response.
Organization or the employers continuously try out ways to motivate their
employees to perform efficiently. In such situations, Organization needs to
communicate its goals, feedback and also reinforcesthe employees to improve
their performance.
5.2.3.4 Coordination
The organizations need to coordinate its activities, goals, processes, new
developments and technology, etc., in order to achieve its targets. Such
information may be imparted to the employees through regular meetings. In
85
Inerpersonal the meetings, the employers as well as the employees discuss issues such as
Processes production cycles, delivery times and other areas to achieve the desired outcome.
Thus, communication helps in coordination within organizations.
5.2.3.5 Problem Solving
Communication helps the employees of the Organization to discuss the task
related problems. It helps in brainstorming potential responses and finalizing
solutions. Thus, this ultimately benefits the Organization.
5.2.3.6 Conflict Management
Any kind of conflict among employees might lead to the loss of talented
employees or lawsuits. With the help of the process of communication,
employees can discuss their differences and therefore manage conflicts.

5.3 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
In the above sections, you were explained about the meaning, relevance
and functions of communication. Now, let us discuss about the process of
communication. Have you ever thought about how does the communication
take place? What are the basic components or elements involved in the process
of communication? This section will deal with the basic elements that are
involved in the process of communication.
Basically, there are five component/elements in an idealized communication
system:

5.3.1 Source/Sender
Source refers to the medium from where the communication starts or originates.
In speech as a means of communication the source is the person who is speaking,
while in a written message, the source is the writer.

5.3.2 Transmitter
It is used to transmit or broadcast information through a mechanism like- radio
or television signals.

5.3.3 Channel
In order to transmit or pass on the communication in between the source
and destination, there exist a channel through which the communication is
transmitted. For example, when a person is speaking, air is the channel of
communication, while in writing, the paper is the channel of communication.

5.3.4 Receiver/ DestinationReceiver refers to the end person who is

receiving the information that is being sent by the sender. For example, a
person who hears the speech or reads the message for whom it was meant are
the receiver or the destination of communication.

5.3.5 Feedback
86 In order to keep a check whether the information has been properly communicated
to the receiver, the sender needs a continuous feedback. Feedback can be in
form of a verbal or non- verbal response. It helps the sender or the source to Communication
confirm whether he/she has sent the message accurately or inaccurately. It also
provides an opportunity for the receiver to ask for clarification. Feedback helps
in increasing the accuracy of communication.

5.3.6 Noise
Any voice/ signal or sound that creates an interference in the proper sending
or receiving of message is called noise. For example, the microphone starts
creating a loud noise while you or your boss is speaking. Such a noise will be
physical noise, but many a times our thoughts act as a psychological noise as it
may disrupt the focus of our listening to, or reading any information.

5.3.7 Encoding and Decoding

Encoding refers to a process in which the sender codes/converts the information
that he/she has to convey in his/her own words/ways, while decoding is a
process with the help of which the receiver decodes the information and tries
to understand it.

5.4 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The process of communication involves exchange of information (between
sender and receiver) an is a cyclical process (Fig: 5.1). As discussed earlier,
the one who is conveying an information is a sender or the source and the one
who is receiving it, is the destination or the receiver. The position of sender and
receiver is interchangeable. Let us try to understand this with the help of an
example, if a teacher is explaining a phenomenon in the class, then teacher is
the sender and the students are the receiver. In the mean time, if a student asks
a question to the teacher, then the student becomes the sender and the teacher
becomes the receiver. Further, the information is sent to the receiver by the
sender with the help of any channel. The communication gets effective with the
help of feedback, while gets ineffective in presence of any noise.

Fig. 5.1: Process of communication 87

Inerpersonal Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)
Processes
Fill in the following blanks:
1) ................................ refers to the medium from where the communication
starts or originates.
2) ................... is a process that helps in exchange of ideas, knowledge, feelings,
and experiences and is required for interpersonal and social purposes.
3) ................................. refers to a driving force which inspires individual to
act or response.
4) Any voice/ signal or sound that creates an interference in the proper sending
or receiving of message is called ...................................

5.5 TYPES AND NETWORK OF

COMMUNICATION
In this section, we will discuss about the different ways or types of communication
that we use for communication with others. Later on, we will also discuss about
the different networks of communication.

5.5.1 Types of Communication

Fig. 5.2: Types of Communication

In general, there are two different types of communication (Fig: 5.2). Let us
discuss about them one by one:
Verbal Communication
Any communication that involves the usage of words is said to be as verbal
communication. Words can be used while speaking or writing and that is why
messages sent through speaking or writing is said to be verbal communication.
It is the responsibility of the sender to take care of pitch, tone and clarity of
words while speaking whereas, while writing, the message or the information
88 should be self-explanatory. Oral communication can be in form of speech while
written communication in form of emails, digital messages, books, newspapers, Communication
letters, reports and so on.

Fig. 5.3: Example of Verbal communication

(Source:https://lumen.instructure.com/courses/218897/pages/linkedtext54118)

• Non-Verbal Communication
Any communication that is done without the usage of word is known as non-
verbal communication. In such a type of communication, an individual uses
body languages like facial expressions like smile, frown and so on, gestures,
eye movements and hand movements to communicate with others. Even the
traffic signals and sign boards that you might see showing symbols of directions,
arrows and sign boards are said to be as non-verbal communication.

Fig. 5.4: Example of Non-Verbal Communication

(Source: https://freesvg.org/1526437618)
89
Inerpersonal 5.5.2 Networks of Communication
Processes
Communication network refers to the pattern of contacts and the flow of
information among the members of the Organization. These pattern of networks
helps in smooth flow of information. The network depends upon the size of
the Organization, availability of communication channels and the number of
persons involved in the process. There can be many patterns of communication
network as follows:
• Downward/Top- Down Communication
The information or the communication that takes place from a higher level (as
per the hierarchy or position of employees) in an organization to a lower level
is termed as - downward communication. So, any information that flows from
superiors to subordinates through a chain of command is called a downward
communication. With the help of this pattern of communication, the supervisors/
managers transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels.
They also give feedback on the lower-level employees’ performance, description
of their job role and other related aspects.

Fig. 5.5 Downward/Top- Down Communication

Upward/ Down-Up Communication

Upward communication refers to flow of information from lower- level
employees to a higher level in an organization. It helps in providing feedback
on how well the required job is being done by the subordinates to the managers
or the supervisors. The subordinates also use upward communication to convey
their problems and performances to their superiors. This pattern is also used by
the subordinates in sharing their feelings and ideas. In order to encourage this
pattern of communication, organizations provide Grievance Redressal System,
Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys and so on.
90
 Communication

Fig. 5.6 Upward/ Down-Up Communication

Lateral / Horizontal Communication

The pattern of communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in
an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between
peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent
organizational member. This pattern of communication helps in coordination
of tasks, problem solving, team building, information sharing and resolving
conflicts among peers and colleagues.

Fig. 5.7: Lateral / Horizontal Communication

Diagonal Communication
In this pattern, communication takes place between a manager and employees
of other workgroups. Such an interaction might take place in training modules,
when a training manager interacts with all work groups to enquire about the
way they perform their task.

Fig. 5.8: Diagonal Communication

91
Inerpersonal • Wheel Chain
Processes
In this pattern, the top leaders have direct access to interact with all the
employees. Such a pattern of communication saves time and helps in getting
direct feedback. But, in such a pattern of communication, the employees can
not directly interact with each other.

Fig. 5.9: Wheel Chain Communication

5.5.2.1 Grapevine Communication

Grapevine communication is a communication which takes place in a random
manner, that is does not follow a recommended structure in an organization.
It is a kind of informal communication. So, grapevine communication can
be described as a casual and unofficial communication system within the
organization.
Such interaction with reference to organizational related issues may take place
unofficially in the lunch hour or tea time breaks. It helps in enhancing team
building and interpersonal relationships in an informal way. With the help
of exchange of information, the employees are able to get on the same page/
platform with their co-workers. So, grapevine communication can be said to
be an unofficial and quick conversation that takes place usually among the
members of the same rank or position. Now, let us discuss about the various
types or ways in which grapevine communication takes place.
5.5.2.2 Types of Grapevine Communication
• Single Strand Chain
As mentioned to you earlier also that the grapevine communication usually
takes place between the employees at the same level, in the single strand chain
the message is passed from one person to another until the information reaches
almost to all of the concerned people. It’s a simple and uncomplicated way
of communication among colleagues. It is an ideal way of communication for
92 sharing information quickly and efficiently.
 Communication

Fig. 5.10: Illustration of Single Strand Chain Communication among employees (A-E)

• Gossip Chain
As it can be clearly understood from the figure (Figure 5.11) that in the gossip
chain, one person is at the epicenter of the communication wheel who seeks and
shares information to others.

Fig. 5.11: Illustration of Gossip Chain Communication among employees (A-E)

• Probability Chain
In this form of communication, the information is shared randomly. Infact, the
recipients (those who receive the information), too, follow a similar random
way of sharing the same information.
This is a process of sharing information randomly. The recipients, too, follow a
similar random way of sharing the same information.

Fig. 5.12: Illustration of Probability Chain Communication among employees (A-E)

• Cluster Chain
In this kind of the grapevine communication, a sender or the person or the
employee relays information to a few people, who in turn pass it on to selected
people.
93
Inerpersonal
Processes

Fig. 5.13: Illustration of Cluster Chain Communication among employees (A-I)

You might be wondering whether what is the relevance of grapevine

communication in organization? It is an informal way of listening to others,
including their grievances. It also helps in identifying the needs and problems
of the team members. It is a communication which skips the complicated formal
channel. Though at times, an employee might just end up sharing sensitive
information when they are not supposed to do so.

5. 6 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Even if the process and pattern of communication is well defined and well
organized in any Organization, yet there are chances of misunderstanding and
breaks down in the communication network due to certain gaps, obstacles and
barriers. These barriers can be of various types including physical barriers and
psychological barriers. Let us discuss about the different types of barriers to
communication:

5.6.1 Physical Barriers

The physical barriers are the external or environment related obstacles that create
hinderance in effective communication. Few of such barriers are as follows:
• Distance
Any communication which is taking place within a hall or at a specific place,
where individuals are physically present, might not be effective if the distance
between the sender and receiver is large. Though now a days several online
meetings take place due to the advancement of digital technology, irrespective
of the distance between the sender and the receiver.
• Noise
As discussed earlier, if the background noise, which may be the sound of horns,
vehicles, microphone might disrupt the interaction between the sender and the
receiver.
• Technology
Absence of loud speakers, microphones or the public address system may
become a physical barrier when one has to communicate to large number of
members in a face-to-face meeting. While lack of internet facility or other
94 technologies disrupts the smooth flow of communication.
• Organizational Climate Dimension Communication

Interpersonal relationship among group members is a significant organizational

climate dimension which might influence the process of effective communication.
Unfavorable relationship might lead to misperception and wrong decisions in
organizations.
• Different Time Zones
The differences in the time zones od sender and the receiver also creates a barrier
to effective communication. Time separation leads to lack of coordination in
the process of communication.

5.6.2 Psychological Barriers

Many a times the emotions and mental capacities of individuals also act as a
barrier to communication. Psychological barriers result in fear of expression,
anxiety, absent mindedness, lack of interest, excitement or many other related
attributes.
• Assumptions or Preconceived notions
Effective communication will not take place if the sender already assumes that
the receiver has understood the information and seeks no feedback from them.
Further, the personal experiences or the preconceived notions makes the sender or
the receiver judgmental and cause a breakdown in effective communication.
• Emotional state
The emotional state of the individuals can act as a barrier to communication. If
the sender is angry or is aggressive when he or she sends the message, it will
affect the way in which the receiver interprets the message and vice versa.
• Attitudes and values
Attitude refers to a pre-learned disposition and is a result of self-experiences,
beliefs and values developed within individuals over time. A strong belief on a
particular topic might lead to a positive attitude and the sender or the receiver
might react sensitively towards the information and the individuals might not
be ready to listen or speak anything against it or vice versa.
• Fear of negative self-image
Many a times with a fear of creation of negative image among individuals, he/
she might not express the information with clarity or transparency. This would
lead to transmission of misinformation or incomplete information.
• Poor listening skills
If the receivers are impatient and tend to listen selectively, then also the complete
information may not be received by them.

5.6.3 Other Barriers

Apart from the physical and the psychological barriers there are several other
barriers that might also hinder the process of effective communication. They
are: 95
Inerpersonal • Linguistic Barriers
Processes
The incapacity to communicate through proper language leads to inability to
express experiences and views orally or in writing. Further, if the language of
transmitting of information is not known by the sender, then also the information
will not at all be clear to the receivers.
• Cultural Barriers
Globalization and acquisition of companies has lead employees of different
nation to work together. Each nation has its unique culture and indifferences in
culture also leads to hinderance in effective communication.
• Social Factors
The indifferences in social status of the individuals also prevent effective
communication. Hierarchy, position and designation of employees also obstructs
smooth flow of information.
Discussed above are few of the barriers that create a hinderance to the smooth
flow of communication. Though, there may be several strategies that can help
in overcoming such barriers. For example, with the help of language training,
linguistic barrier can be minimised. Awareness and training programs can also
help in overcoming the barriers to effective communication.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) In probability chain of grapevine communication, a sender or the person or
the employee relays information to a few people, who in turn pass it on to
selected people.
2) Grapevine communication is a communication which takes place in a
random manner, that is does not follow a recommended structure in an
organization.
3) The information or the communication that takes place from a higher level
(as per the hierarchy or position of employees) in an organization to a lower
level is termed as –upward communication.
4) Any communication that is done without the usage of word is known as
non-verbal communication.

5.7 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above unit, that communication plays a significant
role not only in organizations but also in daily life transactions. We discussed
about themeaning, relevance and functions of communication. It was followed
by the various elements of communication process. There are different types
and patterns with which communication takes place in organization. We also
discussed how grapevine is a way of spreading information. At the end we
discussed about the various barriers that obstructs the process of effective
communication.
96
 Communication
5.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Explain the meaning, relevance and functions of communication.
2) Discuss the various types and network of communication.
3) Describe the types of grapevine communication.
4) Elucidate upon the various barriers to communication.

5.9 GLOSSARY
Communication : It refers to the “transmission of information,
which may be by verbal (oral or written)
or nonverbal means (gestures, signs and
symbols)”
Verbal Communication : Any communication that involves the usage of
words is said to be as verbal communication.
Non-verbal : Any communication that is done without
Communication the usage of word is known as non-verbal
communication.
Source/Sender : It refers to the medium from where the
communication starts or originates.
Transmitter : It is used to transmit or broadcast information
through a mechanism like- radio or television
signals.
Channel : In order to transmit or pass on the
communication in between the source and
destination, there exist a channel through
which the communication is transmitted.
Receiver/ Destination : Receiver refers to the end person who is
receiving the information that is being sent by
the sender. For example, a person who hears
the speech or reads the message for whom it
was meant are the receiver or the destination
of communication.
Feedback : In order to keep a check whether the
information has been properly communicated
to the receiver, the sender needs a continuous
feedback. It can be in form of a verbal or non-
verbal response.
Noise : Any voice/ signal or sound that creates an
interference in the proper sending or receiving
of message is called noise.
Encoding and Decoding : Encoding refers to a process in which the
sender codes/converts the information that he/
97
Inerpersonal she has to convey in his/her own words/ways,
Processes while decoding is a process with the help of
which the receiver decodes the information
and tries to understand it.
Grapevine communication : A communication which takes place in a
random manner, that is does not follow a
recommended structure in an organization.

5.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ I
1) Source
2) Communication
3) Motivation
4) Noise
SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Balzer, W. K. & Gillespie, J. Z. (2007). Job satisfaction. In Rogelberg, S. G.
(Ed.). Encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology Vol. 1 (pp.
406-413). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D.
Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd ed., pp47-57). New Brunswick,
New Jersey: Transaction.
Gatti, Maria (2011). “The Language of Competence In Corporate Histories For
Company Websites”. Journal of Business Communication: 482–502.
Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes,
and Contexts (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Ross, C.S (2021). Organizational Behaviour Today, New York: Routledge
Websites: https://dictionary.apa.org/communication accessed on 4/8/2021
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehaviour/chapter/
functions-of-organizational-communication/ accessed on 29/8/2021

98
 Communication
UNIT 6 LEADERSHIP*
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Concept of Leader and Leadership
6.2.1 Concept and Relevance of Leaders

6.2.2 Concept and Relevance of Leadership

6.3 Theories of Leadership

6.3.1 Behavioral Theories of Leadership

6.3.2 Contingency/Situational Theories of Leadership

6.3.3 Transactional Theory of Leadership

6.3.4 Transformational Theory of Leadership

6.4 Challenges to Leadership

6.5 Indian Perspective on Leadership
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Unit End Questions
6.8 Glossary
6.9 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
6.10 Suggested Readings and References

6.0 INTRODUCTION
The present unit discusses the concept of leader and leadership skills in context
of organizational environment. The unit will further discuss the different
leadership styles based on the proposed leadership theories. It explains the
challenges that are faced by the leaders of the organization. At the end, the
Indian perspective on leadership will be explained.

6.1 OBJECTIVES
With the help of the present unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept and relevance of leaders;
• Elucidate the concept and relevance of leadership;
• Describe the theories of leadership;
• Discuss the challenges of leadership; and
• Enlighten the Indian perspective on leadership.

99
*
Dr Arisudan Tiwari, DIPR, New Delhi
Inerpersonal
Processes 6.2 CONCEPT OF LEADER AND LEADERSHIP
Let us first try to understand the concept and relevance of leaders in organization,
followed by the concept and relevance of leadership.

6.2.1 Concept and relevance of Leaders

Efficiency of any organization depends on how a leader utilizes the available
resources like raw materials, machines, buildings, policies, capital, etc.
Leadership skills are very important for making organizations successful. A
successful leader will always try to balance both organizational growth and
subordinate’s growth. Good guidance can help the follower to select right path
to accomplish the goal. Leaders can help to develop good values among their
subordinates which can help in their personal growth apart from organizational
progress. Following are the characteristics of successful leaders in the
organization through which they can influence others-
1) Having clear future vision
2) Communicating and expression skills
3) Good decision-making skills
4) High level of passion and dedication
5) Holding good morale and values
Leaders arise in many situations. Even informal social groups have leaders.
When groups endure and become formal, the persons are elected leaders.
Normally, the persons elected to offices are the ones who are the natural leaders
of the groups. Their views get attention from the members even without formal
election; but with elections, those natural leaders are consciously acknowledged.
When a person, either such informal leader or someone else, is appointed in a
superior capacity, the natural leadership relations change. Such change occurs
in two respects. First, when a person is appointed in superior capacity, he
gets authority from the organization. Secondly, this authority enables him to
increase or decrease the satisfaction to his subordinates. However, an appointed
(formal) leader cannot solely rely upon the use of authority for getting desired
results from his subordinates because as discussed earlier, subordinates seldom
put maximum effort under the pressure of authority. Thus, a chief executive
having more authority, but lacking leadership qualities, may be less effective
as compared to a foreman with less authority but high degree of leadership
qualities. Regardless of these differences between formal and informal leaders,
however, a leader is able to direct the actions of his followers because they
believe he can provide rewards (or prevent penalties) that satisfy their needs.
The leader affects direction of activities in the organization. Motivation is
necessary for work performance. A good leader through his leadership motivates
his employees for high performance. A good leader may create confidence in
his followers by directing them, giving them advice and getting through them
good results in the organization. This helps them in enhancing their efficiency.
Sometimes, individuals fail to recognize their qualities and capabilities to
work in the absence of good direction. Morale is expressed as attitudes of
100
employees towards organization, management and voluntary cooperation to Leadership
offer their ability to the organization. High morale leads to high productivity
and organizational stability. By providing good leadership in the organization,
employees’ morale can be raised ensuring high productivity and stability in the
organization. Thus, good leadership is essential in all aspects of managerial
functions, whether it be motivation, communication or direction.

6.2.2 Concept and Relevance of Leadership

Leadership is an important factor for making organizations successful.
Throughout the history, it has been recognized that the difference between
success and failure, whether in a war, a political movement, a business, or a
team game, can be attributed largely to leadership. Since the organization is
basically a deliberate creation of human beings for certain specified objectives,
the activities of its members need to be directed in a certain way. Any departure
from this way will lead to inefficiency in the organization.
Leadership involves the process of influencing an individual or a group
to accomplish a particular goal. The term influencing means the process of
transforming, empowering, motivating and inspiring the subordinate or
followers to accomplish goals.
“Leadership may be considered as the process (act) of influencing the activities
of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement”
(Stogdill 1950).
Hence, from above can understand that leadership is a process of influencing
the behaviours of others to work willingly and enthusiastically for achieving
predetermined goals. Three important components of this definition.
An interpersonal process between one person or a group.
Can’t have leaders without followers.
Criterion for effective leadership goal achievement; however it does not
empathise the enthusiasm with which the receiver of the communication will
act.
Therefore, to have a detailed understanding of the concept of leadership this
chapter includes different types of theories developed and researches done in
various fields, challenges of leadership and Indian perspective of leadership.

6.3 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Leaders across the world use different kinds of leadership styles and skills which
impacts organizational progress. Some of the early conventional and recent
contemporary theories of leadership are explained below.
• Trait Approach to Leadership
A lot of scientific research has been done to explore and understand the concept
of leadership. If we examine the past- history we can find many leaders who
have been appreciated for their effective leadership qualities such as Mahatma
Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, and Margaret Thatcher etc. The first leadership theory
101
Inerpersonal was coined in the early 20th century by Thomas Carlyle called as “Great Man
Processes Theory” which assumes leaders are born and not made. This theory is also called
a trait-based perspective of leadership, explaining that certain dispositional
characteristics of a leader(s) are differentiated from non- leaders. This theory
focuses on individual differences in personality which are considered to
determine effective leadership skills (Mann, 1959; Stogdill, 1948).
Big Five Personality Framework was developed in the early 1960’s to identify
major personality traits required to become an effective leader. For example,
leaders are meant to have highly extrovert, so that they express their thoughts
well and be assertive. Apart from these traits there are a set of skills and traits
(mentioned below) that were identified by Stogdill in 1974.

Traits Skills
• Adaptable to situations • Clever (intelligent)

• Alert to social environment • Conceptually skilled

• Ambitious and achievement- • Creative

orientated
• Diplomatic and tactful
• Cooperative
• Fluent in speaking
• Decisive
• Knowledgeable about group task
• Persistent
• Organised (administrative ability)
• Self-confident
• Persuasive - Socially skilled
• Tolerant of stress

• Willing to assume responsibility

Fig. 6.1: Set of skills and Traits (Stogdill, 1974)

Recent research on trait theory of leadership has reflected emotional intelligence

as one of the important traits which can help a leader have outstanding training,
a highly analytical mind, and a compelling vision which can enable an
empathetic leader to read the reactions of others. Even though there have been
many researches done in order to identify different traits required to possess by
an effective leader, there are no set of traits identified that are consistent over
the time. Some leaders might have possessed certain traits but the absence of
them did not necessarily mean that the person was not a leader.

6.3.1 Behavioral Theories of Leadership

The foremost study in the field of leadership was done by Kurt Lewin and his
associates in 1939. Behavioral theory assumes that leaders are not born rather
there are specific behavioral patterns of leaders that can be acquired through
learning and experience. Different studies have been done to understand
how behavioral aspects affect leadership of an individual. Some of them are
explained as follows-

102
• Ohio State Studies Leadership

A study by E.A. Fleishman, E.F. Harris and H.E. Burtt in 1945 identified
two factor conceptualizations in leadership behaviors i.e., Initiating Structure
which refers to leadership qualities such as directive, task-oriented, organized
etc. whereas, consideration refers to leadership qualities such as empathetic,
understanding colleagues than focusing on only deadlines, supportive, person-
oriented leadership.
• University of Michigan Studies
Research by Rensis Likert and his associates in 1946 also identified two factor
components related to leadership behavior and organization behavior. The first
one is an Employee-oriented leader who is concerned about their employees
and accepts individual differences in the organization and the second one is a
production-oriented leader who focuses on tasks assigned to the employees,
rather than on employees.
• Managerial grid
1) Managerial grid explains how the leadership style can affect organizational
progress. The Managerial Grid (1964) developed by Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton (1964) postulated that there were five leadership types which show
whether the leaders focus on tasks or “concern for production/results,” or
the focus is on the relationship with the subordinate or “concern for people.
Following are the types of leadership styles-
2) Impoverished Management: The leader pays less attention to both outcome
and concern about the people. The apathetic nature of the leader results in
behavior that is withdrawn from subordinates and indifferent to success.
3) Country Club Management- Leaders who practice such type of leadership
have low concern for results and high concern for employees resulting in
pleasing behavior from the leader. They create very welcoming and friendly
behavior for employees.
4) Authority-Compliance Management: leaders who practice such leadership
have high concern for results and low concern for people. This creates
a strong boundary and distinction between the leader and other people
resulting in lack of compassion.
5) Middle of the Road Management: leaders practicing such style maintain
balance with both concerns for results and with the people working with
them. This type of leadership leads to greater success.
6) Team Management: Leaders practicing such leadership style place a
great on production and on people. This optimal balance of developing
human relationships and effective results attainment provides for the most
satisfying work environment.

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Inerpersonal
Processes

Fig. 6.2: Managerial Grid

• X and Y Managers Theory

Douglas McGregor (1960) gave X and Y managers theory which explicitly
explains about characteristics of X and Y managers. McGregor believed
that management can use either of the needs to motivate his employees,
as grouped under theory X and theory Y. Theory X advanced the view
that human beings have an inherent dislike for work and can only be
made to get results at work by the application of coercive methods and
by direction. Theory X emphasizes authoritarian style of leadership where results
are the focus of leadership and it is more work-centered than people-centered.
Theory Y approach to management, on the other hand, is more people-centered where
the individual is valued and appreciated. Theory Y submits that when workers are
given the right environment, they can reach their highest potential and can be of
great value to their organizations.
McGregor (1960) postulated, that leaders who hold Theory X assumptions believe
that people are lazy, abhor responsibility and not motivated and therefore need to be
coerced before they will work and show commitment. Such leadership assumptions
lead to close supervision and control of workers and siphon the ingenuity of workers
and results in lack of motivation in workers. Leaders, who practice Theory
Y assumptions on the other hand, involve workers engage in joint-problem
solving, understand the needs of team members and integrate personal needs of
achievement with organizational objectives. Although with such an approach the
leader facilitates and initiates the control process, it is done with the involvement
of the workers in mind and can be encouraging and motivating for them.
104
Following are the characteristics of each group: Leadership

Theory X manager’s Theory Y manager’s

characteristics characteristics
• Managers practice an authoritarian • Managers practice the
style of management. participative style of
management.
• Managers give instructions
and keep a close check on each • Employees are self-directed and
employee self-controlled
• Employers are lazy and • Employees’ commitment and
disinterested in work. dedication determine their
rewards
Fig. 6.3: Characteristics of Managers in X and Y Manager’s Theory
(Douglas McGregor, 1960)

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) Recent research on trait theory of leadership has reflected ..............................
as one of the important traits which can help a leader have outstanding
training, a highly analytical mind, and a compelling vision.
2) Efficiency of any organization depends on how a ........................................
utilizes the available resources.
3) The first leadership theory was coined in the early 20th century by Thomas
Carlyle called as .................................................................. .
4) According to the theory ‘....................................’, the managers practice an
authoritarian style of management.

6.3.2 Contingency/Situational Theories of Leadership

Contingency or situational theories explain that no one leadership style is
best for managers in the organization. Every situation is different from one
another and hence the leadership style will depend upon the people, the task, the
organisation, and other environmental variables. According to the contingency
theories of leadership, successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an
environment and adapt their leader behavior to meet the needs of their followers
and of the particular situation. Even with good diagnostic skills, leaders may
not be effective unless they can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands
of their environment. These theories emerged as a result of the criticism of
the trait and behavioral approaches to leadership, which do not recognize the
determining role of situations or contexts in leadership.
• Fiedler’s contingency theory
The Contingency Theory of leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler in 1958
during his research of leader effectiveness in group situations. Fiedler believed
that one’s effectiveness to lead depended on one’s control of the situation and
the style of leadership. Unlike the Situational Theory of leadership, leader
effectiveness is contingent on the leader’s style matching the situation, not 105
Inerpersonal adapting to it. This theory assumes that styles are fixed, and that they cannot be
Processes adapted or modified. A leader is most effective when his or her attributes and
style of leadership is matched with the situation and environment around them
(Gupta, 2009).
The Contingency theory is not concerned with having the leader adapt to a
situation, rather the goal is to match the leader’s style with a compatible
situation. To make best use of this theory, it is important to find what style a
leader has. This is done through the Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).
The LPC is a list of questions designed to find out what kind of employee
a leader would most like to work with, and in turn shows the leader’s style.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model attempts to match the leader’s style using LPC to
the situation in which they would thrive.
• High LPC Score– leader with good personal skills and relies on relationships
with others to accomplish tasks (people-oriented leadership style).
• Low LPC Score– leader that accomplishes goals through focus on the task
and positional power (task-oriented leadership style).
It has been observed that, several situational factors influence the effectiveness
of the leadership styles. Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that
define the key situational factors:
a) Leader member relations: It refers to personal relationship between
subordinate and their leader. Leader-member relations refer to degree of
trust, respect and confidence that exists between the leader and the worker.
The quality of leader member relations is the most important influence on
managers’ power and effectiveness. If the manager gets along well with
rest of the group, if the group members respect the manager for reasons
of personality, character or ability, then the manager might have to rely
on formal authority. On the other hand, if the manager who is disliked
may be less able to lead informally and could have to rely on directives to
accomplish task.
b) Task structure: Task structure is the second most important
situational variable in the leadership situation. It indicates situational
favorableness indicating the degree to which job assignment are well
structured. A structured task is simple, routine, easily understood and
unambiguous. Group members therefore have a very clear idea about what
they are expected to do. Task structure refers to the degree to which tasks
are clearly explained to the workers. Such tasks are presumed to be more
favorable. When the tasks are unstructured, group members’ roles are
ambiguous.
c) Leader’s position-power: It refers to power inherent in leadership role.
Degree of influence leader has over the subordinates. Leader’s position
power is the final situational variable identified by Fiedler. Some positions
like president of the company carry a great deal of power and authority.
The chairperson of the company, on the other hand, has less power and
authority over workers. Thus, high position-power simplifies the leaders’
task of influencing others while low position power makes leader’s task
106 more difficult.
If first dimension (Leader-member relations) is high leaders are accepted by Leadership
the followers and situation is favorable. If second dimension (Task structure) is
high, task is very structured and everything is spelled out properly; so situation
is favorable. If third dimension (Leader’s position- power) is high situation
is favorable for a leader. Thus, situations are favorable to the leader if all the
three dimensions are high. If all the three dimensions are low, situation will be
unfavorable. According to Fiedler, a leadership is said to have more control
and favorable for organizational situations when the leader-member relations
are good, task assignments are highly structured along with a stronger power
position. Similarly, the situations in an organization would be unfavorable
when the respect that members have for leaders is poor, with unstructured task
assignments and weak position power.
After knowing leadership style and the defining the situation one needs to
choose the leader who fits the situation. There are two ways to improve effective
leadership:
(1) By changing the leader to fit the situation; or
(2) By changing the situation to fit the leader.

Fig. 6.4: Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

Given that personality or style of the leader (task orientation and relationship
orientation) is reasonably stable, the Fiedler’s contingency model suggests
that the situation should be adapted to such an extent that it suits the leader.
Fiedler suggested that when the situation is highly favorable (good leader-
member relationship, high task-structure and strong position-power) or highly
unfavorable (poor leader-member relationship, low task-structure and weak
position-power); task-oriented leadership style is more effective. On the other
hand, oriented leadership style is more effective when the situation is moderately
favorable.
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Inerpersonal • Path-goal theory of leadership
Processes
House (1971) developed the motivation-rich path–goal theory which assumes
that leaders will choose and change the path of attaining their goal based on the
motivational level of their subordinates. Four types of leadership behavior were
identified namely-
1. Directive Leader: leader tries to give direction and guidance required for
attainting organization goals.
2. Supportive Leader: leader focuses on interpersonal relationships with
followers rather than accomplishing organizational goals.
3. Participative Leader: Leader tries to consult his subordinates to understand
their viewpoint before making any decisions.
4. Achievement-Oriented Leader: Leader expects his followers to perform at
their highest level by overcoming any type of challenges.
• Leader-Participation Model
Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton in 1973 develop this model which assumes
that there are set of rules that needs to be followed before making any kinds of
decision making. This model is also called as Decision-Participation Model and
Normative Model. Three set of qualities in the leader determines the capacity of
the decision maker which are-
i) Quality of the decision
ii) Degree of acceptance of the decision by subordinates and
iii) Time required in making the decision.
Vroom and Yetton defined 5 different kinds of decision- making procedures
mentioned below:

Autocratic (A) Consultative (C) Collaborative (G)

A1- Leaders make C1- Leaders try to ask G2- Leaders work as
decisions based on the opinions individually a facilitator to reach a
information available by not bringing up the final consensus among
without consulting the whole team together team members. Here
team members. and finally take the the decision depends
final decision by upon the Conesus of the
themselves. group member and not
the leader themselves.
A2- Leaders ask for C2- Leaders try to
specific information interact with the whole
to make their final team to understand
decision. their opinion but finally
take the decision by
themselves.
Fig. 6.5 Decision-making procedures (Vroom and Yetton, 1973)
108
In general, a consultative or collaborative style is most appropriate when: Leadership

• You need information from others to solve a problem.

• The problem can’t be easily defined.
• Team members’ buy-in to the decision is important.
• You have enough time available to manage a group decision.
Whereas, an autocratic style is most appropriate when:
• You have greater expertise on the subject than others.
• You are confident about acting alone.
• The team will accept your decision.
• There is little time available.

6.3.3 Transactional Theory of Leadership

Max Weber in 1947 discovered transactional theory initially and later was
developed by Bernard M Bass in 1981. There were various assumptions made
by the theorist which are as follows-
1) People who are clear about their goals perform better when given clear
command by the leader.
2) Rewards and punishment motivate workers to work more efficiently.
3) Workers consider their primary goal to follow the commands of their
leader.
4) Leader has to monitor the subordinate while they are doing their assigned
work.
Some of the characteristics of a transactional leader are:
1) Contingent Reward: the leader focuses on organizational goals and sets
SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely) goals for
the subordinates;
2) Management by Exception (Active): The leader focuses on monitoring
performance, take corrective actions to prevent mistakes;
3) Management by Exception (Passive): The practicing passive management
style of leadership intervenes only if standards are not met and even use
punishments for poor performances; and
4) Laissez-Faire: Sometimes leaders give freedom to the subordinates to take
decisions and from responsibilities and avoid making decisions, due to
which the followers lack direction.
This kind of leadership is not applicable and feasible in various situations
because gender plays a very important role in determining the outcome of such
leadership behaviours.
109
Inerpersonal 6.3.4 Transformational Theory of Leadership
Processes
Transformational leadership is also called a charismatic leadership style where
the leader inspires her/his followers to transcend their own self-interests for the
betterment of the organization. The leader tries to motivate the subordinate or
follower to view the existing problem from different viewpoints and encourage
them to be creative to come up with new ideas and thoughts for the development
of organization and self. There are four dimensions of transformational theory
of leadership given by Bass and Riggio (2005), viz. Idealized Influence (II),
Inspirational Motivation (IM), Intellectual Stimulation (IS) and Individualized
Consideration (IC), which are as follows:
1) Idealized Influence (II): leader acts as a role model by exhibiting high
morals and ethical standards. They help followers to have a clear mission
and future vision about the organization’s progress;
2) Inspirational Motivation (IM): Leaders show and give high enthusiasm to
deal with different types of challenges to their subordinates/followers.
3) Intellectual Stimulation (IS): leader tries to enhance creativity of the
subordinates and encourage them to develop new ideas, thoughts, problem
solving skills etc.
4) Individualized Consideration (IC): Leaders try to understand and fulfill
subordinates’ needs to achieve success.
Apart from above mentioned theories there are many new concepts evolving
in the field of leadership. The organizational structures characterized by
more fluid, temporal arrangements, rapidly changing technologies, increased
globalization and changing workplace demography can affect the staples of
leadership. Thus, it is important to incorporate these ideas to make a solid base
for leadership construct for its better understanding.

6.4 CHALLENGES TO LEADERSHIP

Due to changing nature of workforce and organizations in today’s scenario
leaders around the world are facing many issues and challenges some of these
are mentioned below:
1) To build trust with the subordinates/followers— Development of trust is
a very slow process but is necessary while working with a person or a
team. Leaders have to create secure environment for their followers so that
they feel comfortable sharing their viewpoint with the team. If the trust is
not developed with the followers/subordinates then it would become very
difficult to get work done from them as they might feel de motivated or
disinterested.
2) Conflicts among team members— People working in teams generally go
through many conflicting situations before accomplishing their final goal. A
successful leader should try to avoid personal bias at the time of conflicting
situation so that equality is maintained among all the team members. Leader
should try to focus on possible solutions to resolve the conflict and maintain
healthy discussions among the team members.
110
3) Lack of cohesiveness— Sometimes when a team is formed newly, different Leadership
factors affect its cohesiveness. Leaders have to deal with different ideas,
viewpoints. Thoughts about different issues. Such disparity can lead to
lack of cohesiveness among the team members and can act as a barrier in
achieving a goal.
4) Lack of common goal— While achieving a common goal it is important for
a leader to take his/her followers/subordinates along with them in the same
direction. Every individual can have different perspective about a goal and
may work accordingly but the leader has to take them along by giving them
clarification and appropriate guidance at every step.
5) Lack of transparency and respect— Rapport between the team members
and leader plays an important role in developing transparency and respect
for each other. A leader should always be transparent about rewards so that
it creates trust among the team members. Every stage of goal attainment
involves such problems which need to be handled sensitively.

6.5 INDIAN PERSPECTIVE ON LEADERSHIP

Ancient history stands as testimony that successful leaders not only lead an
organization but also inspire their subordinates/followers by providing a path
to achieve the larger goals. Hence, we can say that leadership is a continuous
journey of both self and organizational growth. The successful journey
involves an individual’s constant emotional stability, humility to work on self
-development leading to personal growth and robustness to use appropriate
leadership style according to the situation.
Leadership skills are impacted by the culture where it is being practiced. In
the Indian context, organizations prefer authoritative leaders rather than
authoritarian. The leader is considered to be strict in getting the task accomplished
by giving suitable guidance to the subordinates but at the same time focus on the
well-being of their subordinates which enhance their interpersonal relations.
According to Sinha (1980) such leaders are called “nurturant-task leaders” as
they value both organization progress and interpersonal relationships. Therefore,
human relations are always valued in India in every organization by leaders,
wherein a leader is said to have charismatic qualities when they boost the morale
of team members, take personal interest in their well-being, show empathy and
understanding, inspire and excite to do their best work and respect and invite
their opinions. When we talk about styles of leadership, Sinha (1995) identified
three characteristics of NT leadership which are mentioned below-
• Depending too much on the leader even when guidance or support is not
required.
• Following hierarchical stratified system in the organization in which the
hierarchy.
• Demonstrates a visible status consciousness where respect for, and
obedience of elders and superiors is insurmountable.
• Preference for good interpersonal relationships which includes favoritism
and nepotism. 111
Inerpersonal Power plays a very important role in Indian organization and leaders have
Processes the tendency to centralize power and obtain high status in the organization.
Subordinates on the other hand, idolize their leader by valuing and respecting
them and they work according to the guidance given by their leader. This
relationship of a leader and a follower is term as “Guru- shishya” in ancient
history as “shishya” would follow in his/her guru’s footsteps happily because
they are mindful of the following needs/aspects of their team members.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Laissez-Faire leaders give freedom to the subordinates to take decisions
and from responsibilities. ( )
2) An individual considerate leader tries to enhance creativity of the
subordinates and encourage them to develop new ideas, thoughts, problem
solving skills etc. ( )
3) Power plays a very important role in Indian organization and leaders
have the tendency to centralize power and obtain high status in the
organization. ( )
4) Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton in 1973 developed the Path-Goal theory
of leadership. ( )

6.6 LET US SUM UP

The present unit discussed about the concept of leader and leadership skills
in context of organizational environment. The unit also discussed about the
relevance of different leadership styles on the basis of leadership theories. With
the help of this unit, you came to know about the various challenges that are
faced by the leaders of the organization. At the end, the Indian perspective on
leadership was explained.

6.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the concept and relevance of leader and leadership.
2) Elaborate upon the behavioral and contingency theories of leadership.
3) Describe the transformational and transactional theories of leadership.
4) Explain the challenges of leadership.
5) Write a shot note on the Indian perspective towards leadership.

6.8 GLOSSARY
Leader : An individual who can influence people as
well as situations and has several followers.
S/he always try to balance both organizational
growth and subordinate’s growth.
Leadership : “Leadership may be considered as the
112 process (act) of influencing the activities of
 an organized group in its efforts toward goal Leadership
setting and goal achievement”. (Stogdill
1950).

6.9 ANSWERS TO SELF -ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ I
1 emotional intelligence
2 leader
3 Great Man Theory
4 Theory ‘X’
SAQ II
1 True
2 False
3 True
4 False

6.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Barker, R. A. (2001). The nature of leadership. Human Relations, 54(4), 469-
494.
Bass, B. M. (1981). Stodgill’s Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory &
research (revised and expanded). New York: The Free Press.
Bass, Bernard & Riggio, Ronald. (2005). Transformational leadership: Second
edition. 10.4324/9781410617095.
Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid: The key to leadership
excellence. Houston, TX: Gulf.
Fiedler, F. E. (1958). Leader Attitudes and Group Effectiveness. University of
Illinois Press.
House, R. J. (1971). A path goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 16(3), 321–339.
Kakar, S., Kakar, S., KetsdeVries, M. F., & Vrignaud, P. (2002). Leadership in
Indian organizations from a comparative perspective. International Journal of
Cross Cultural Management, 2(2), 239-250.
Lewin, K., Lippit, R., White, R.K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in
experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-
301.
Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationships between personality and
performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 241–270.
113
Inerpersonal McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill
Processes Sinha, J. B. P. (1995). The Cultural Context of Leadership and Power, New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Ross, C.S. (2021). Organizational Behaviour Today, New York: Routledge.
Sinha, J.B.P. ( 1980). The nurturant task leader. New Delhi : Concept.
Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of
the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25, 35–71.
Stogdill, R. M. (1950). Leadership, membership and organization. Psychological
bulletin, 47(1), 1-14.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of Leadership (1st Ed.). New York: Free
Press.
Tripathi, S., Prabhakar, G. P., & Liddle, J. (2015). Leadership insights from the
top: Exploring leadership through the narratives of CEOs in India. International
Journal of Public Leadership.
Vroom, V.H., and P.W. Yetton. (1973). Leadership and Decision Making.
Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

114