Block II

Physical and Biological Variation among

Indigenous Population

87
Physical and
Biological Variation
among Indigenous
Population

88
UNIT 5 MAJOR MORPHOLOGICAL AND Major Morphological
and Anthropometric
ANTHROPOMETRIC Characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS*
Contents
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Morphological Characters
5.1.1 Skin Colour

5.1.2 Hair

5.1.3 Eyes

5.1.4 Nose

5.1.5 Lips

5.1.6 Face

5.2 Anthropometric Characters

5.3 Distribution of Somatometric Characters
5.4 Summary
5.5 Reference
5.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
Learning Objectives
After reading this unit, you would be able to:
 Understand what are Morphological Characters;
 Explain what are Somatometric Characters; and
 Delineate the distribution of Somatometric characters among the Indigenous
people of India.

5.0 INTRODUCTION
In Block 1, you are enlightened with who are Indigenous people. In this unit
a brief introduction to the Anthropology is presented followed by a detailed
description on morphological and anthropometric characteristics.
Anthropology is the scientific study of humans using a holistic approach. It deals
with the cultural and biological variation and evolution of humans. Anthropology
could be described as the science of human cultural and biological variation and
evolution. Traditionally, anthropology could be broadly divided into four sub-
fields: social-cultural anthropology, physical/biological anthropology, linguistic
anthropology and archaeological anthropology or prehistoric archaeology.
Social-Cultural Anthropology: Social-Cultural anthropology deals primarily
with variations in the cultures of populations in the present or recent past. Its
89
*
Contributed by Dr. Palla Venkatramana, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
Physical and subjects include social, political, economic and ideological aspects of human
Biological Variation cultures.
among Indigenous
Population Physical/Biological Anthropology: Physical/Biological Anthropology is the
study of the human evolution, human variation, mechanism of biological
variation, genetic inheritance, human adaptability, human growth and
development and primatology.
Linguistic Anthropology: Linguistic Anthropology is the study of languages.
Spoken language is a behaviour that appears to be uniquely human. This
subfield of anthropology deals with the analysis of languages usually in non-
literate societies. Some of its concerns include how language is used to
understand culture and how languages are distributed across the world, and
their contemporary and historical relationships.
Archaeological Anthropology/Prehistoric Archaeology: This sub-field deals
with the study of cultural behaviour in the historic and pre-historic past.
The archeologist deals with such remains from the past human societies as
tools, shelters, remains of animals eaten as food, and other objects that have
survived. These remains are termed as artifacts and are used to reconstruct
past behaviour.
In this unit we discuss the variation among indigenous peoples of India with
respect to morphological (somatoscopic) and anthropometric (somatometric)
characters. Now let us talk about what are these morphological and somatometric
characters.

5.1 MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

In anthropology the study of morphological characters is called ‘Somatoscopy’.
Somatoscopy is the systematic visual observation of physical features of different
parts of human body for accurate description. These morphological characters
are quantitative in nature hence descriptive in approach. Most somatoscopic
characters show geographical variation. Hence these morphological characters
were used by Anthropologists to classify human populations. Characters such
as skin colour, hair colour, hair form, hair texture, hair whorl, nose form, face
form, which are considered in this unit are described as under:

5.1.1 Skin Colour

The colour of the skin is determined by the presence of melanin pigment, which
is brown in colour. Broadly three shades of skin colour are found in human
beings. They are: white skin, yellow skin and black skin. Most white skinned
people are found in Europe. Mongoloids have yellow skin and people from
African countries have generally black skin.

5.1.2 Hair
This somatoscopic character includes hair colour, hair from, hair texture and
hair whorl.
Hair colour: Different hair colours are seen across the globe. Fisher-Saller
have prepared a colour chart with hair samples of thirty different shades. All
90 the thirty shades fall in to three broad categories: Blond, Dark Brown and Red.
The range of the hair colour among the Indian population would be categorized Major Morphological
as light brown, medium brown, dark brown and black. and Anthropometric
Characteristics
Hair form: Form of hair may broadly be divided into three types viz., Straight
hair (Leiotrichy), wavy hair (Cymotrichy) and Woolly hair (Ulotrichy).
Leiotrichous hair (straight hairs) include subtypes such as, stretched (usually
straight), smooth (thinner and flatter), and flat wavy (hair has the tendency to
become wavy). Similarly, wavy hair also include three subtypes such as, broad
wave, narrow wave and curly. Of these three, both broad and narrow wavy
types lie in the same plane, but the curly type dose not because of large spirals.
Woolly hair (Ulotrichy) may be of different types such as, Frizzly-waves with
very strong curvature; Loose frizzles – circular and flat spirals (about 1.5 cm
dia.); Thick Frizzles- flat spiral hair (less than mm dia.); and Filfil – small knots
of thick rolled hair (Peppercorn). Various hair forms are depicted in Figure
5.1.

Fig. 5.1: Different Types of Hair Form

Hair texture: Hair texture may be fine, medium and coarse.

Hair whorl: Hair whorls are usually found on the occipital region (back of
head). Whorls are very rarely found in front portion of the head. Whorls are of
two types, clockwise and anti clockwise.

5.1.3 Eyes
Somatoscopic observation on eyes include colour of the iris, eye fold and
direction of the eye. Colour of the iris may be black brown, dark brown, brown,
light brown, greenish, grey, light grey, dark blue and light blue.
91
Physical and Eye fold: In this somatoscopic character presence or absence of eye fold is
Biological Variation considered. A common variety of eye fold is ‘epicanthic fold’ or Mongolian
among Indigenous
Population
fold. In Mongolian fold, the fold covers the free edge of the inner angle of the
eye and may extend on to the cheek (Figure 5.2).

Fig. 5.2: Eye fold pattern

Source: s1.zetaboards.com

5.1.4 Nose
Different features of nose such as depression of root, nasal profile, nasal septum,
nasal bridge, nasal tip, nasal wings are worth studying. The tip of the nose can
be upwards or downwards and the profile could be rounded at point or fully
rounded or flat. The root of the nose may be recorded as narrow, medium or
broad; from the side view many appear depressed which again may be shallow,
medium or deep or absent. The nasal bridge may be recorded as straight,
concave (slight, medium, markedly), convex- (slight, medium, markedly) or
wavy (slight, medium, markedly). The size of the nasal bridge may be narrow,
medium or broad. Various types of noses in profile are shown in Figure 5.3.
92
 Major Morphological
and Anthropometric
Characteristics

Fig. 5.3: Nose form

Source: s1.zetaboards.com

5.1.5 Lips
The thickness of the membranous lip is studied with the best observation in
profile view. It may be thin, medium, thick and puffy with convex profile,
above which the integument lips are deeply concave. The degree of eversion of
membranous lip may be absent, moderate, or marked (as in people of African
Ancestry).

5.1.6 Face
The face can be described in terms of height (long, medium or short), diameter of
the face (narrow, medium, broad and very broad), its shape, malar prominence
and prognathism. The shape may be oval, elliptical, round, square, quandrangular
or flat. Prominence of the cheek bone (malar) is an important feature; it is
described as absent, slight, moderate or marked. Alveolar protrusion of face is
called prognathism. Profile view is best to ascertain it to be slight, moderate or
marked.
Check Your Progress
1) What are the various Morphological Characters?
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5.2 ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERS

Anthropometry is a major technique of physical anthropology. Anthropometry
is a method to take measurements of human body. It is the means of quantifying
variation in body size and shape. It may be defined as the systematic recording
of measurements on human being both living and dead. Anthropometry can be
divided into Somatometry and Osteometry.
93
Physical and Somatometry is the recording of measurements on living body or cadaver,
Biological Variation including head and face. Osteometry is the measurements on skeleton, including
among Indigenous
Population
Craniometry, which deals with measurements on skull. The somatometric
measurements includes; height, sitting height, body weight, head circumference,
chest circumference, abdominal circumference, head length, head breadth,
skinfold thickness measurements such as triceps, biceps, subscapular, etc.
Osteometric measurements includes maximum length of radius, maximum
length of ulna etc. Craniometric measurements includes, maximum cranial
length, maximum cranial breadth, nasal height, nasal breadth etc.
But for the present unit, we shall study only somatometry. These somatometric
measurements besides their use in understanding population variation, they are
also useful in assessing the nutritional status of communities and in designing
equipment for use in industry, defense purposes, spaceships, garments etc.,
The measurements like height vertex, and two indices cephalic index (CI)
and nasal index which are used in understanding the population variation are
discussed as under:
Stature (height) can broadly be classified in to three categories; tall, medium
and short.
The height of the tall people ranges from 168-172cm; medium statured people
ranges from 158-168cm and short statured people ranges from 148-158cm.
By measuring maximum head length and maximum head breadth, we can
calculate Cephalic Index (CI) as:
Maximum head breadth
X 100
Maximum head length
Based on cephalic index people can be classified into:
Hyperdolicocephalic (very long and narrow) up to 69.9
Dolicocephalic (long and narrow) 70.0-75.9
Mesocephalic (medium) 76.0-80.9
Brachycephalic (short and broad) 81.0-85.5
Hyperbrachycephalic (very short and broad) 85.6 and over
Another important index that is being used in population variation is nasal
index. It can be obtained by measuring nasal length and nasal breadth and can
be calculated as below:
Nasal Breadth
Nasal Index : X 100
Nasal Length
By using this index, population can be categorised into the following five
types:
Hyperleptorrhine (very narrow nose) up to 54.3
Leptorrhine (Narrow nose) 55.0 --- 69.9
Mesorrhine (Medium nose) 70.0 ---84.9
Platyrrhine (broad nose) 85.0---99.9

94 Hyperplatyrrhine (Very broad nose) 100.0 and over

Check Your Progress Major Morphological
and Anthropometric
2) What is anthropometry? What are the anthropometric characters used to Characteristics
classify human populations?
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5.3 DISTRIBUTION OF SOMATOMETRIC

CHARACETRS
Distribution of the above somatometric characters (stature, cephalic index and
nasal index) among different Indigenous peoples of India is presented in table
5.1.
Table 5.1: Distribution of Stature, Cephalic Index and Nasal Index among
Indigenous people of India

Name of Sample Stature Cephalic Nasal Author

the Tribe Index Index
Balti 63 1619.10 74.58 68.38 Bowles 1970
Gujjars 14 1699.50 - -
±22.502
Balti 147 1622 75.70- 70.00 Eickstedt 1926
Balti 5 1614 71.82 72.90 Eickstedt 1926
Gaddi 50 1632.60 76.59+ 63.74 Bowles 1970
Lahaulis 131 1677.60±3.80 Chopra & Sidhu 1907
Bhotia 90 1604.70±4.20 73.90 Bowles 1943
Tharu 65 1614 79.80 Risley 1891
Tharu 191 1633.30±3.77 76.50 Mahalanobis et al 1941
Bhil 200 1629 74.70 84.10 Risley1903
Bhil 56 1588 73.40 Weinger 1952
Bharwad 117 65.04±2.772,3 77.31 Ghurye 1937
Koli 121 1608.00±5.80 75.70 75.20 Majumdar& Son 1950
Bhil 15 - - 78.70 Kurulkar 1941.1942
Naika 103 1591.20 - - Sngh &Bhale 1954
Rabari 100 1685.70±7.37 -
Siddis 37 1659.20±1.82 77.43±0.28 Haque 1984
Dafla 61 1577.10 77.31 71.90 Bhatacharya 1969
Galong 90 1592.40 73.23 70.86 Bowles 1970
Abor
Garo 100 1594.90±5.50 75.17±0.28 Bowles1970
Kachari 33 1608 78.58 89.97 Waddell 1900
Rabha 100 1624.50±5.00 76.31±0.31 75.85±0.73 Das 1954-50
Mech 10 1643 79.40 90.60 Waddell 1960
Kachari 100 1632.90±6.20 79.92±0.39 70.57±0.68 Phookan 1961
Tharua
95
Physical and Miri 100 1611.10 79.90 76.29 Sharma 1961
Biological Variation
among Indigenous Deuri 100 1637.30 79.20 75.74 Sharma 1961
Population Riang 41 1504.08±5.63 76.67±0.42 72.71±1.06 Mitra 1953-54,56
Kaipeng 31 1571.58 74.98±0.54 75.31±1.08 Mitra 1953-54,56
Garo 70 1601.10 75.81 75.80 Bowles 1970
Lepcha 80 1563.60 80.43 65.74 Bowles 1970
Sherpa 56 1608.30±5.14 77.12±4.67 70.19±7.90 Bhasin et al
Lepcha 70 1571.27±7.13 85.04±0.50 71.93±0.90 Kumar 1980
Sunri 1 1580 76.04 70.00 Majumdar&Rao1960
Santal 24 1585.42±12.83 75.56±0.74 79.18±1.43 Majumdar& Rao 1960
Oraon 100 1621 75.40 86.10 Risley 1886-88
Birhor 16 74.95 87.13 Risley 1886-88
Santal 100 1593.00±5.40 74.00±0.32 80.70±0.79 Biswas 1956
Sauria 69 61.51±0.23 - -- Mitra 1938-39
Paharia
Ho 122 1611.43 74.89 79.55 Majumdar 1925
Mal 54 1573.60±5.31 74.54±0.26 79.10±0.76 Sarkar 1935-36
Paharia
Oraons 64 1622.80±6.30 - -- Bhatacharjee& Bha-
tacharjee 1986
Bhuiya 81 1577.00±3.60 77.00±0.33 77.60±0.60 Basu, 1929
Gond 51 1607.18 75.30 81.27 Karve 1949-50,54
Munda 32 1623.69 73.45 88.98 Karve 1949-50,54
Jenu 63 1581.17 75.57 92.62 Karve 1949-50,54
Kuruba
Bedar 40 1654 78.10 77.50 Thurston1898, 1909
Chenchu 40 1625 74.30 81.90 Thurston 1898.1909
Chenchu 23 1649.52±9.30 72.89±0.53 81.38±0.59 Guha 1931,1933
Kurumba 25 1542 - - Shortt & Ouchterlony
1868, Jagor&Koerbin
1879
Kanikar 4 1573.00 70.55 82.69 Thurston 1849,1909
Paniyan 26 1574 74.00 95.10 Thurston 1849,1909
Paniyan 26 - 75.70 - Thurston 1849,1909
Kanikar 20 1423.00±5.83 72.60±0.40 81.90±1.06 Macfarlane 1939-40
Paniyan 100 1547 73.40 87.90 Das 1955
Kannikar 14 1546.80 - - Gates 1960
Kannikar 113 1531.73 74.26 80.11 Kumar 1971a

Based on the above table the following observations were made.

Stature : The stature among the tribal populations ranges from 150.00-162.00
cm.
Cephalic Index: The value of cephalic index varies from Dolicocephalic
(70.0- 75.9) to Mesocephalic (76.0-80.9) among the tribal groups, except a few
population groups in which brachycephaly has been observed. The mean value
of cephalic index is (77.31) which is Mesocephalic.

96
Nasal Index : It is found to be Mesorrhine (70.0- 84.9) among the tribal Major Morphological
populations followed by Platyrrhine (85.0- 99.9). and Anthropometric
Characteristics
5.4 SUMMARY
India is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country inhabited by large number
of ethnic groups, castes, religious and linguistic groups. Both Physical
anthropologists and population geneticists are continuously showing their
interest in understanding the biological variation among different populations
inhabiting different geographical regions with varying social, behavioural,
economic and ethnic backgrounds using different kinds of methods and data.
Various morphological and somatometric characters have been used to describe
and classify humans into different populations groups. The present unit throws
light on the morphological and somatometric characters.

5.5 REFERENCES
Bhasin, M.K., Walter, H. & Danker-Hopfe, H. (1992). The Distribution of
Genetical, Morphological and Behavioural Traits among the People of Indian
Region (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka).
Delhi: Kamla-Raj Enterprises.
Bhasin, M.K. (2009). Morphology to Molecular anthropology: Castes and
Tribes of India. International Journal of Human Genetics. Vol:9: 145-230.
Das, BM. (1999). Outlines of Physical Anthropology. Delhi: Kitab Mahal.
Mukherji, D. Mukherjee, D.P&Bharati, P. (2009). Laboratory Manual for
Biological Anthropology. Delhi: Asian Books Private Limited.

5.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Morphological characters such as skin colour, hair colour, hair form,
hair texture, hair whorl, nose form, face form are used to classify human
populations. For details, please refer section 5.1.
2) Anthropometry may be defined as the systematic recording of measurements
on human being both living and dead. The measurements like height
vertex, and two indices cephalic index (CI) and nasal index are used in
understanding the population variation.

97
Physical and
Biological Variation
UNIT 6 SEROLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
among Indigenous VARIATION*
Population
Contents
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Serological Markers
6.2 Distribution of Serological Markers
6.2.1 Distribution of ABO System

6.2.2 Distribution of Rh (D) System

6.3 Biochemical Markers

6.3.1 Serum Proteins and Their Distribution

6.3.2 Cell Red Enzymes and Their Distribution

6.4 Summary
6.5 References
6.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 Examine various Serological Markers;
 Delineate the distribution of Serological Markers;
 Examine various Biochemical Markers; and
 Discuss the distribution of various Biochemical markers.

6.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have learned about what is Anthropology and
different branches of Anthropology. You are also familiar with somatoscopic
and somatometric characters and their distribution among Indigenous people.
Besides these characters, an understanding of different markers of blood
among various populations of the world plays an important role in Physical
anthropology. Hence in this unit, you will be enlightened on Serological and
Biochemical Markers of blood and their distribution among Indigenous people
of India.

6.1 SEROLOGICAL MARKERS

The Blood group systems are a classical example for serological markers, which
form a component of serology. The blood group systems have been studied by
Anthropologists to understand population variation and in racial classification.
A number of blood group systems were discovered. The following table depicts
the list of Blood group systems.

98 *
Contributed by Dr. Palla Venkatramana, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
 Table 6.1: Major Blood Group systems Serological and
Biochemical Variation
System Year of Discovery Discoverer
ABO 1900 Landsteiner
Rh (D) 1940 Landsteiner & Weiner
MNS 1927 Landsteiner & Levine

Besides the above three blood group systems, there are other blood group
systems like P, ABH, Lutheran, Deigo, Duffy, Kidd and Kell. But ABO
and Rh (D) systems were extensively investigated by Anthropologists and
population biologists to understand the population variation within and between
populations. The ABO and Rh (D) blood group systems are routinely being
used in transfusion medicine. Before going further let us understand about
ABO and Rh (D) blood group systems.
Check Your Progress
1) What are different serological markers?
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The ABO blood group system was discovered by Landsteiner in 1900. Antigens
and antibodies are present in the blood (the former present on the red cells
and the latter in blood plasma). Human beings are classified into four groups
namely A, B, AB and O depending on the presence or absence of antigens and
antibodies. The antigens are designated as A and B and the antibodies as anti-A
and anti-B.
Group A person carries antigen A and antibody anti-B. Group B person carries
antigen B and antibody anti-A. Group O individuals possess both the antibodies
and lack any antigen while group AB individuals carry both the antigens but
lack any antibody. Three genes namely A, B, and O controls the system.
The RH (rhesus) blood group system was discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner
and Wiener. The two phenotypes of the system are RH D + and RH D – based
on, respectively, the presence or absence of the RH D antigen. In Rh system a
pair of alleles, one dominant Rh-D and one Rh-d determines the antigens of the
blood group.

6.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SEROLOGICAL

MARKERS
The distribution of ABO and Rh (D) blood group systems among the Indigenous
peoples in different parts of India is presented in the following section.

6.2.1 Distribution of ABO System

The distribution of ABO system in various Indigenous populations of India is
presented in table 6.2 99
Physical and Table 6.2: Distribution of ABO Blood Group system
Biological Variation
among Indigenous North India
Population Tribe O (%) A (%) B (%) AB Author
Tharu 50 20 33 - Majumdar 1943
West India
Bhils 60% 20% 35% - Majumdar 1943
Koli 55% 20% 30% - Majumdar&Kishan 1948-49
Rabari 55% 20% 23% - Majumdar&Kishan 1948-49
Eastern India
Naga 72% 255 15% - Bhatacharjee 1957, Mitra 1935
Khasi 70% 27% 20% - Das 1969, Basu 1938
Rabha 50% 30% 25% - Das & Deka 1985, Das et al
1980
Kachari 54% 20% 25% - Das and Deka 1985
Deuri 52% 31% 15% - Das &Deka 1985
Garo 50% 24% 25% - Das et al 1980
Kaipong 60% 20% 20% - Gupta 1958
Riang 47% 23% 30% - Gupta 1958
Tippua 47% 31% 20% - Gupta 1958
Noatia 41% 25% 33% - Kumar 1958
Riang 45% 21% 33% - Kumar & Sastry 1961
Lepcha 60% 25% 20% - Miki et al 1960
Oraons 68% 20% 30% - Sarkar 1942-44, Ray 1962,
Sarkar 1949, Kirk et al 1962
Santal 55% 22% 30% - Chandri et al 1967, Sarkar &
sons 1952, Roy Choudhri & son
1971
Kaoru 49% 23% 26% - Das et al 1974
Mechs 72% 11% 16% - Mukherjee et al 1987
Mundas 55% 24% 20% - Mukherjee et al 1987,Tyagi 1969
Lodhas 42% 29% 28% - Macfarlane 1941
Asuras 50% 37% 2% - Sarkar 1942
Birhors 55% 25% 40% - Majumdar 1951-52
Birjias 36% 15% 48% - Sarkar 1949
Cheros 58% 25% 18% - Sarkar 1949
Hos 60% 20% 18% - Majumdar 1951-52
Kharwas 38% 23% 37% - Sarkar 1949
Kisans 60% 10% 29% - Sarkar 1949
Korwars 40% 27% 31% - Sarkar 1949
Malpaharia 53% 20% 25% - Sarkar 1949
Khond 58% 21% 25% - Hargrave 1963
Poroja 62% 19% 18% - Sarkar et al 1960
Central India
Bhils 42 23 35 Macfarlane 1941
Kanwar 45% 21% 35% - Negi 1963
Muria 55% 17.8% 31.10% - Negi & Ahmed 1962
Bharia 25% 28% 33% - Chaudhary & Sarma 2006
100
 South India Serological and
Biochemical Variation
Chenchu 60.30% 25.77% 14% - Macfarlane 1940
Valmiki 68.9% 25% 20% - Rao 1977, Naidu et al 1980
Yerukala 73.3% 155 12% - Reddi et al 1980
Kondadora 73.3% 17% 12,30% - Rao 1977
Kondakapu 75% 10.14% 15% - Sarkar 1977
Adiyan 56% 11% 32% - Sarkar 1954
Paniyan 50% 45% 10% - Sarkar 1954, Das & Ghosh 1954
Kota 76.4% 1% 32% - Ghosh 1973
Todas 35% 18% 48.4% - Techmann & Cutbush 1952
Kanikkar 80% 20% 16% - Karunakaran 1939, Bose 1952
Mannan 55% 26.4% 18.5% - Roy 1955
Ulladan 55% 26% 24% - Bucchi 1957-58
Urali 67.93% 15.76% 16.31% - Bose 1952
Mala Vedan 42% 35% 23% - Buchi 1961

North India
In north India Tharu tribal population was studied for ABO blood system. The
frequency of ‘O’ group is highest (50%) followed by ‘B’ group (33%) and then
‘A’ which is 20%.
Western India
In western India Bhils, Koli and Rabari tribal populations were studied. the
frequency of ‘O’ group is found to be highest (60%) followed by ‘B’ group
(30%). The frequency of ‘A’ group is 20%.
East India
In East India the tribes like Garo, Khasi, Naga, Deuri, Kachari, Rabha, Santal,
Kaora, Mundas, Lodhas, Asuras, Poroja, Khond were studied. Among them the
frequency of “O” group is found to be highest (70% approximately) followed by
“A” group (40% approximately) then “B” group with (35%) approximately.
Central India
In central India Bhils, Kanwar, Muria tribal population were studied and among
them the frequency of “O” group is found to be highest (60% approximately)
followed by “B” group (40% approx) and it is followed by “A” group (30%
approximately).
South India
In South India the Bhils, Chenchu, Valmiki, Konda Dora, Konda Kapu,
Yerukula, Adiyan, Paniyan, Kota, Todas, Kannikars, Mannan, Ulladan, Urali,
Tribal populations were studied and the frequency of “O” group is found to be
highest (70% approximately) followed by “A” group (50% approximately).
The frequency of “B” group was (40% approximately).

6.2.2 Distribution of Rh (D) System

The distribution of Rh (D) blood group system among different Indigenous
people is presented in table 6.3. 101
Physical and Table 6.3: Distribution of Rh (D) Blood Group System
Biological Variation
among Indigenous Tribe D d Author
Population East India
Garo 100.0 0.00 Das et al 1980
Rabha 91.09 8.91 Das et al 1980
Kachari 100.0 0.00 Das et al 1980
Bodo 95.0 5.00 Das et al 1980
Mech 100.0 0.00 Das et al 1980
South India
Kondadora 87.98 12.02 Naidu et al1990
Yerukala 72.53 27.47 Reddy et al 190
Valmiki 84.30 15.7 Naidu &Veerraju 1977
Chenchu 75.74 33.00 Sirajjudin1977
Kota 86.27 13.73 Raj et al 1986
Pulayan 80.06 20.00 Banarjee et al 1988
Urali 79.15 29.85 Banarjee et al 1988
Central India
Bharia 92 0 Dr. Ruchira Chaudhary & Gunjan Sarma, 2006

East India
In East India, Garo, Khasi, Rabha, Kachari, Bodo, Mech tribal populations
were studied and the frequency of “D” gene is found to be 100% followed by
“d” gene (0-10%).
South India
In south India Konda Dora, Yerukula, Valmiki, Chenchus, Kotas, Pulayan and
Urali, Tribal population were studied and the frequency of “D” gene is found to
be highest (100%) followed by “d” gene (0-30%).
Among the various tribal population groups, the highest frequencies is observed
for Rh-D gene (100%) followed by the Rh-d gene.

6.3 BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS

Study of Biochemical variation refers to the understanding of population
variation of Serum Proteins and Red Cell Enzymes. Anthropologists had
studied these genetic markers with the primary aim of documenting genetic
differences among various populations inhabiting different parts of the world
and also for human racial classification. In this unit, our aim is to study these
markers among Indigenous populations of India.

6.3.1 Serum Proteins and Their Distribution

Serum proteins are the proteins present in blood plasma. Serum proteins
offer many functions which comprise transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins
and metals in the circulatory system. Some of the serum protein markers
such as Haptoglobins (Hp) and Transferrin (Tf) were widely investigated by
anthropologists/human biologists. Three allelic genes Tfc, Tfb, Tfd controls
the Tf system. The Hp system is controlled by two allelic genes Hp1 and Hp2.
102
The details, such as discoverer and year of year discovery, of these two markers Serological and
are presented in table 6.4. Biochemical Variation

Check Your Progress

2) Write a brief note on Biochemical markers.
.......................................................................................................................
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Table 6.4: Serum Proteins

System Year of Discovery Discoverer

Transferrin (Tf) 1958 Smithies
Haptoglobin (Hp) 1955 Smithies

Distribution of Serum Proteins: The distribution of serum proteins such as

Transferrins and Haptoglobins among the Indigenous people of India is
presented in Tables 6.5 and 6.6, respectively.
Table 6.5: Distribution of Transferrin (Tf) System

Tribe Tfc TfB TfD Author

North India
Bodhs 100.0 0.0 0.0 Bhasin et al 1983
West India
Bhils 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al 1979, Papiha et al
1978
East India
Khasi 98.7 1.3 0.0 Goedde et al 1972
Lepcha 99.3 1.3 0.0 Goedde et al 1972
Mech 99.4 6.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al 1987
Santal 93.7 0.0 6.3 Giri et al 1981
Bhumij 95.5 0.0 4.5 Giri et al 1981
Munda 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al 1987
Lodha 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al 1987
Rabha 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al 1987
Garo 100.0 0.0 0.0 Mukjherjee et al 1987
Oraon 96.8 0.0 3.2 Kirk et al 1962
Khond 89.6 0.0 10.4 Sahal et al 1981
South India
Yerukula 100.0 0.0 0.0 Gond & Rao 1977
Chenchu 99.6 0.0 0.4 Gopalam & Rao 1987
Toda 100.0 0.0 0.0 Kirk et al 1962
Kota 100.0 0.0 0.0 Ghosh et al 1977
Pardhan 100.0 0.0 0.0 Gond & Rao1980
103
Physical and In Tf system the gene frequency of TfC is found to be highest (100%) in almost
Biological Variation all the tribal groups, followed by TfD gene (90%) and then TfB gene which
among Indigenous
Population
has the least gene frequency (0%) among all the indigenous populations.
Table 6.6: Distribution of Haptoglobin (HP)

Eastern India
Tribe Sample Gene Frequency Author
Hp1 Hp2
Khasi 79 20.9 79.1 Goedde et al, 1972
Kachari 110 21.4 78.6 Walter et al, 1986
Lepcha 97 10.8 89.2 Bhasin et al, 1986
Gurungs 36 27.8 72.2 Bhasin et al ,1986
Mech 38 15.8 84.2 Mukherjee et al, 1987
Oraons 178 10.2 89.8 Saha et al, 1988
Munda 97 12.4 87.6 Mukherjee et al , 1987
Oraon 125 14.5 85.5 Kirk et al, 1962
Central India
Bhil 136 10.3 89.7 Papiha et al, 1978
South India
Chenchu 142 19.2 80.8 Ramesh et al, 1980
Toda 93 28.0 72.0 Saha et al, 1976
Kota 540 14.7 85.3 Ghosh et al, 1977

The frequency of allele HP1 is found to be low among the tribal population
of South India. From the Western and North-eastern peninsular plateau, the
frequency of the allele HP1 is also low. Among the Eastern Hmalayan region
the frequency of HP1 is found to be high (0.189).

6.3.2 Red Cell Enzymes and Their Distribution

Red Cell Enzyme markers like Glucose 6 phosphate Dehydrogenase (G-6-PD),
Acid Phosphatase1(ACP1) and 6-phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase (PGD)
were commonly examined by anthropologists/human biologists. Two different
alleles Gd+ and Gd – control the G-6- Pd system. Three autosomal allelic
genes Pa , Pb , Pc controls the ACP1 system and two alleles PGDA , PGDB
controls the 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase system. The table 6.7 presents
the details of the Red Cell Enzymes.
Table 6.7: Red Cell Enzymes

System Year of Discovery Discoverer

G6PD 1956 Carson et al
ACP1 1963 Hopkinson et al.
PGD 1963 Fildes & Parr

In addition to the above red cell enzymes, there are other red cell enzymes
like CA I = Carbon anhydrase I, LDH B = Lactat dehydrogenase B, LDH
A = Lactate dehydrogenase A, PGM 1 = Phosphoglucomutase 1, PGM 2 =
104 Phospho-glucomutase2, AK1 = Adenylate kinase 1, SOD A = Superoxide
dismutase, PGM 3 = Phosphoglucomutase – Isomerase, GPT = Glutamat- Serological and
Pyruvat-Transamisnase, anhydrase II, ESD = Esterase D, UMPK = Uridin-5 Biochemical Variation
- Phosphoglycolat Phosphatase, ALADH = d-aminolevulinate dehydratase.
The distribution of Glucose 6 phosphate Dehydrogenase, Acid Phosphatase and
6-Phospho Gluconate Dehydrogenase systems among the Indigenous people is
presented in tables 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10, respectively.
Table 6.8: Distribution of Glucose 6 phosphate Dehydrogenase system

Tribe Gd+ Gd- Author

Bhil 95.0 5.0 Jain et al 1981, Papiha et al 1978, Sathe et al 1987
Khasi 93.0 7.0 Flatz et al 1972
Rabha - - -
Garo - - Das et al 1982
Kachari 90.0 10.0 Balgir 1991
Oraons - - Sathe et al 1987
Todas 100.0 0.0 Saha et al 1976

For G6PD, the frequency of Gd + among the tribal population is found to be

approx (100%) among most of the tribes followed by Gd – genes. It has been
observed that the gene frequency increases from Himalayan region to non-
Himalayan region.
Table 6.9: Distribution of Acid Phosphatase system

Eastern India Author

Gene Frequency
P a
P b
Pc
Tribe Sample
Khasi 43 30.2 65.1 4.7 Goedde et al, 1972
Kacharis 58 25.2 74.8 0.0 Mukherjee et al, 1989
Lepcha 86 18.0 80.2 1.7 Bhasin et al, 1986
Munda 100 20.0 80.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al, 1987
Lodha 117 16.2 83.8 0.0 Mukherjee et al, 1987
Rabha 112 31.7 68.3 0.0 Mukherjee et al, 1987
Garo 70 25.0 75.0 0.0 Mukherjee et al, 1987
Oraons 127 22.8 77.2 0.0 Saha et al ,1988
Central India
Bhil 143 19.9 80.1 0.0 Papiha et al, 1978
South India
Chenchu 139 38.4 61.9 0.0 Ramesh et al, 1980
Yerukula 40 22.5 77.5 0.0 Blake et al, 1981
Toda 97 18.0 82.0 0.0 Saha et al, 1976
Kota 549 46.7 53.3 0.0 Ghosh et al, 1977

It has been found that the frequency of ACP1 is highest among the tribal
populations from western (0.240) and South Peninsular Plateau (0.235) as
105
Physical and compared to North Eastern Peninsular Plateau (0.200) and among the tribes
Biological Variation with Mongoloid affinities from Eastern Himalayan region (0.214).
among Indigenous
Population Table 6.10: Distribution of 6-Phospho Gluconate Dehydrogenase system

Eastern India Authors

Gene Frequency
PGD A
PGDB PGDRare
Tribe Sample
Khasi 43 95.3 4.7 - Goedde et al ,1972
Lepcha 81 86.4 13.6 - Bhasin et al ,1986
Gurung 66 81.8 18.2 - Morpurgo et al ,1983
Oraons 132 94.3 5.7 - Saha et al, 1988
kond 113 99.1 0.9 - Cahal ,1981
Central India
Bhil 145 96.6 3.4 - Papiha et al, 1978
South India
Chenchu 139 97.8 2.2 - Ramesh et al,1980
Chenchu 64 99.2 0.8 - Ramesh et al,1980
Yerukula 40 98.7 1.3 - Blake et al, 1981
Toda 98 99.5 0.5 - Saha et al ,1976
Kota 549 99.3 0.7 - Ghosh et al, 1977

Among the Indian tribal population the average frequency of allele PGDA is
0.959 (which varies from 0.754-1.00). It has been found that the frequency
of PGDA is highest (about 0.970) among the tribes of North- east India and
Southern India as compared to the tribes of Western India (0.925).

6.4 SUMMARY
This unit talks about the serological and biochemical markers and their
distribution among the Indigenous peoples among different geographical zones
of India. The gene frequencies of serological and biochemical markers showed
variation among Indigenous populations inhabiting different geographical
zones of India.; north, west, east, central and south.

6.5 REFERENCES
Mukherji, D., Mukherjee, D.P. & Bharathi, P. (2009). Laboratory Manual for
Biological Anthropology. New Delhi: Asian Books Pvt. Ltd.
Singh, I.P. & Bhasin, M.K. (2004). A Manual of Biological Anthropology.
New Delhi: Kamla-Raj Enterprises.
Bhasin,M.K., Walter, H. & Danker-Hopfe, H. (1992). The Distribution of
Genetical, Morphological and Behavioural Traits among the People of Indian
Region (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka).
Delhi: Kamla-Raj Enterprises.
Bhasin, M.K. (2009). Morphology to Molecular anthropology: Cates and Tribes
106 of India. International Journal of Human Genetics, 9:145-230.
6.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Serological and
Biochemical Variation
1) The Blood group systems are a classical example for serological markers.
For details, please refer section 6.1.
2) For details, please refer section 6.3.

107
Physical and
Biological Variation
UNIT 7 DERMATOGLYPHICS AND OTHER
among Indigenous BIOLOGICAL TRAITS*
Population
Contents
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Dermatoglyphics
7.1.1 Palmar Dermatoglyphics

7.1.2 Finger Dermatoglyphics

7.1.3 Distribution of Dermatoglyphics

7.2 Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)

7.2.1 Distribution of PTC

7.3 Colour Blindness

7.3.1 Technique to Detect Colour Blindness

7.3.2 Distribution of Colour Blindness

7.4 Summary
7.5 References
7.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 Understand about Dermatoglyphics;
 Examine the biological traits like PTC and Colour Blindness; and
 Delineate the distribution of the above markers among the Indigenous
people of India.

7.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have been enlightened about the serological and
biochemical markers and their distribution among the Indigenous peoples of
India. In the present unit you will be introduced to the other important biological
markers such as Dermatoglyphics, Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and Colour
Blindness. Dermatoglyphics is concerned with the ridge configuration of skin of
fingers, palms, soles and toes. PTC is used to understand tasters and non-tasters
by using Phenylthiocarbamide solution and Colour blindness is the failure to
distinguish red, green and blue colours. The distribution of Dermatoglyphics,
PTC and Colour Blindness among the Indigenous populations is presented.

7.1 DERMATOGLYPHICS
Dermatoglyphics is the study of the epidermal ridge patterns of the skin of
the fingers, palms, toes and soles. Dermatoglyphics is derived from two
108 *
Contributed by Dr. Palla Venkatramana, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
Greek words (‘Derma’ means skin and ‘Glyphe’ means carve). The term Dermatoglyphics
Dermatoglyphics was first coined by Cummins and Midlo in the year 1926. and Other Biological
Traits
The human body, except in palmar and planter regions, is covered with hair
and sebaceous glands with an abundance of sweat glands. The skin of our
palms, soles, fingers and toes is covered with epidermal ridges, which may also
form patterns. Every individual possesses distinct features of ridges and their
pattern in fingers, palms and soles. The ridge patterns are stable throughout
life and are not modified by environmental factors. The patterns are unique to
each individual. Because of these qualities these play a very important role in
the personal identification, crime detection, twin diagnosis, racial variation and
have applied values in various diseases and syndromes.
A brief description about the Ridge configuration: The ridge configuration
present on the palm is called Palmar Dermatoglyphics and the ridge configuration
present on the fingers is called Finger Dermatoglyphics. The epidermal ridges
form definite local design on the terminal segment (phalanges) of digits
and also on the palm and toes. Let us briefly talk about Palmar and Finger
Dermatoglyphics.
Check Your Progress
1) Write a brief note on Dermatoglyphics.
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7.1.1 Palmar Dermatoglyphics

In palm, there are six elevated areas of varying prominence. These are thenar,
hypothenar and four interdigital areas namely I, II, III and IV (Fig 7.1). The thenar
eminence occupies a large area of the base
of the thumb and the hypothenar eminence
lies opposite to thenar area and is present
in the ulnar portion of the palm. Generally
speaking, there are four triradii normally
located at the base of digits II, III, IV and
V and called a,b,c, and d. A triradius is a
meeting point of three opposing systems.
Ideally, it subtends three angles of 120˚. In
practice, the angles may range from 90˚ to
180˚ as limiting values.
The palm is divided into 13 regions. The
four main lines, originating from the four
digital triradii points are designated in
capital letters such as, A, B, C and D (Fig.
7.2).
Fig. 7.1: Palmar Dermatoglyphics (source: medind.nic.in)
109
Physical and
Biological Variation
among Indigenous
Population

Fig. 7.2: Formulation of the Main Lines (source: www.infolank.com)

7.1.2 Finger Dermatoglyphics

It refers to the configurations present on the distal phalanges of fingers and
toes. Based on the construction, Galton (1891), classified them as Arches,
Loops and Whorls. Later on, Henry (1900) divided whorls into true whorls and
composites.
Different types of Finger Dermatoglyphics are presented in Fig. 7.3.
Arches (A): No triradii is present in this type of configuration. Arch is of two
types, plain Arch and Tented Arch.
Plain Arch: It is composed of ridges which cross the finger tip from one side
to other without returning.
Tented Arch: The configuration looks like a tent. The ridges meet at a point
to form a tent.
Loops (L): One or more ridges enter from one side, recurve and terminate or
tend to terminate on the same side from which the ridges entered. Only one
triradius is present in loops. Loops are of two types. Ulnar Loop (UL) and
Radial Loop (RL).
Ulnar Loop: Loop opens to the ulnar side (side of little finger) with the triradius
on the radial side.
Radial Loop: Loop opens to the radial side (side of thumb) and its triradius is
on the ulnar side.
110
True Whorls (W): In this type of patterns two triradii are present. One Dermatoglyphics
triradius on the radial side and the other on the ulnar side. In this type of pattern and Other Biological
Traits
there is single core and at times double core too. The ridges go round 180
degrees.
Composites: Composites may be classified into :
a) Central Pocket Loop (CPL): It is a pattern containing a loop with a small
whorl (or a pocket) in the centre.
b) Double Loop (DL): This is comprised of two interlocking loops. Double
Loop can be classified into (1) Twin Loop (TL) and (2) Lateral Pocket Loop
(LPL). In twin loop, two loops open in opposite direction. But in the case
of lateral pocket loop two interlocked loops open on the same margin.
c ) Accidentals: In this type of pattern more than two triradii are present.
Accidentals represent a combination of two or more basic configurations
such as loop and whorl.

Fig. 7.3: Different types of Finger Dermatoglyphics (source: www.viewzone.com)

The Pattern Intensity Index on fingers or toes is an estimation of triradii per

finger or toe. It is to be noted that a whorl consist of two triradii, a loop has
one, and arch has none. “The value of pattern intensity may be stated either
as the number triradii per individual or as the average number of triradii per
finger”…….. “The number of triradii is approximated by adding the frequency
of loops to twice the frequency of whorls, the total being divided by the
number of individuals when the frequencies are in absolute numbers, or by ten
for percent frequencies.” (Cummins and Midlo, 1976 (1943)).

7.1.3 Distribution of Dermatoglyphics

The distribution of pattern frequency among different Indigenous people of
India is presented in Table 7.1.
111
Physical and Table 7.1: Distribution of Dermatoglyphics
Biological Variation
among Indigenous Tribe Sample Pattern Frequency Author
Population Whorls Loops Arches
Ulnar Radial Total
Central India
Bhils M-100 41.40 54.60 1.80 56.40 2.20 Krishan 1987
F-100
Bhils M-29 36.21 53.79 4.13 57.93 5.86 Srivastava 1963
F-45 36.67 55.33 1.33 56.67 6.66
West India
Kolis M-180 39.61 54.56 2.39 56.95 3.44 Kshatriya 1979
Korku M-100 51.23 45.17 1.84 47.01 1.74 Basu 1969
East India
Kachari M=109 54.66 42.86 0.55 43.41 1.84 Das 1960
Mech M-72 40.28 55.28 1.94 57.22 2.50 Chakravarti 1961
Lalung M-106 51.04 45.75 1.70 47.45 1.51 Chakravarti &
F-132 38.94 55.76 2.12 57.88 3.18 Mukherjee 1961
Angami M-124 52.34 45.65 1.77 47.42 0.24 Das et al 1985
Naga F-122 45.57 50.41 1.89 52.30 2.13
Lotha M-106 53.77 41.44 1.42 42.86 3.40 Das et al 1985
Naga F-108 49.26 48.43 1.11 49.54 1.20
Lepcha M-112 52.86 - - 46.42 0.72 Miki et al 1960
F-42 54.42 44.63 0.95
Oraon M-27 50.38 43.94 3.03 46.97 2.65 Ghosh 1960
F-26 57.68 40.50 0.44 40.94 1.32
Munda M-102 55.64 41.02 2.85 43.87 0.49 Sarkar 1969
Birhor M-15 57.33 39.33 3.33 42.66 0.00 Gupta et al 1970
F-23 44.78 51.74 1.74 53.48 1.74
Asura M-89 38.96 55.41 3.83 59.24 1.80 Gupta et al 1970
F-43 28.67 64.10 3.50 67.60 3.73
Oraon M-114 58.66 38.86 0.54 39.40 1.98 Chakravarti 1964
F- 106 52.64 43.21 1.51 44.72 2.64
Gond M-9 22.47 71.91 3.37 75.28 2.25 Sarkar & Banarjee
1957
Munda M-6 66.67 33.33 0.00 33.33 0.00 Sarkar & Banarjee
1957
South India
Chenchu M-92 48.15 49.02 1.42 50.44 1.09 Nawabjam et al 1983
F-100 40.90 54.70 2.00 56.70 2.40
Paniya M-138 60.66 36.16 1.59 37.75 1.59 Chakravarti &
F-112 53.57 43.84 1.61 45.47 0.98 Mukherjee 1961
Yanadis M-115 44.2 48.6 2.7 50.3 4.5 Jadhav S. Jaya
F-115 37.7 52.6 4.0 56.6 5.7 Sankar Rao &A.B.
Subhashini

From Table 7.1, it has been observed that the frequency of whorls among the
tribal population is found to be highest (60%) followed by the loops and the
frequency of arches is approximately 8%. The frequency of whorls among
different zones is found to be highest among East India followed by Central
and North India followed by West and South India.
112
7.2 PHENYLTHIOCARBAMIDE (PTC) TASTE Dermatoglyphics
and Other Biological
TEST Traits

The Phenylthiocarbamide taste test is popularly known as PTC. This is another

significant genetic marker which has been studied by anthropologists to study
differences among populations. A dimor¬phism with regard to ability to taste
a chemical substance known as phenylthiourea is observed in the human
populations. Some people are unable to find any taste of it while others find it
very bitter. Those who are sensitive to the taste of PTC are called ‘tasters’ while
the others who are not are called ‘non tasters’. PTC tasting ability is a genetic
trait controlled by a pair of alleles T and t. The T is dominant over the t.
To distinguish tasters from non-tasters a quantitative threshold method given by
Harris and Kalmus (1949) is the most widely used procedure. In this protocol,
a stock solution is prepared by dissolving 1.3 g of phenylthiocarbamide in 1
liter of boiled tap water and is designated as solution No. 1. From this stock
solution serial dilutions are made. From stock solution (solution No.1) take 50
ml and add 50 ml of boiled tap water and mix thoroughly and label it as solution
No. 2. From this solution take 50 ml and add 50 ml of boiled tap water to make
solution No. 3. Likewise, a series of serially diluted solutions from solution
No.1 to 14 are prepared. To segregate the subjects from taster and non-taster,
the above prepared solution from solution 1 to 14 are given to taste. Based on
taste, the subjects would be categorized as tasters (T) and non-tasters (t).

7.2.1 Distribution of PTC

The distribution of PTC among the Indigenous peoples of India is presented in
Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Distribution of Tasters/ Non-tasters (PTC)

Tribe Sample Sex T t Author

West India
Bhil 188 - 32.8 67.2 Vyas et al 1962
Dhodia 78 - 31.1 67.8 Vyas et al 1962
Dubla 207 - 32.6 67.4 Vyas et al 1962
Gamit 200 - 26.9 73.1 Vyas et al 1962
Koli 128 - 38.1 61.9 Vyas et al1962
Bhils 234 - 43.8 56.2 Mukherjee et al 1977
East India
Khasi 209 M 59.6 40.4 Dev 1985
Adi 45 M 63.5 36.5 Srivastava 1971
Khasi 317 - 53.3 46.7 Miki et al 1960
Deuri 201 - 47.7 52.3 Das et al 1985
Mishing 200 - 60.6 39.4 Das et al 1985
Liang 401 - 59.7 40.3 Kumar & Sastry 1961
Lepchas 107 M 63.8 36.2 Bhatacharjee et al 1974
Sherpa 38 - 71.9 28.1 Bhatacharjee et al 1974

113
Physical and Lepcha 200 - 62.6 37.4 Bhatacharjee et al 1974
Biological Variation
among Indigenous Lepcha 154 - 73.3 26.7 Miki et al 1960
Population Oraon 118 - 24.7 75.3 Shukla & Tyagi 1975
Munda 132 - 10.8 89.2 Shukla & Tyagi 1975
Munda 109 M 34.4 65.6 Dash Sharma 1976
90 F Dash Sharma 1976
Oraons 181 M 49.6 50.4 Dash Sharma 1976
South India
Pardhans 202 M 28.2 71.8 Ramesh et al 1981
Paniyan 237 - 63.8 36.2 Das & Ghosh, 1954
Ulladan 339 - 47.6 52.4 Cuchhi,1957-58
Koraga 118 - 87.29 12.71 A.Chandrashekar,D. Xaviour &
S.M Sirajuddin.1998

It has been observed from the table that in some indigeneous population,
the frequency of tasting (T) ability is higher (Lepcha tribe), whereas some
indigeneous population are having relatively higher frequency of non – tasting
(t), for example (Munda tribe).

7.3 COLOUR BLINDNESS

Colour blindness is the failure to distinguish certain colours. Colour blindness
can also called as colour vision deficiency because majority of the colour
blind people can see colours, excepting red, green or blue. Individuals with
normal colour vision can differentiate colours by the addition of the three
primary colours viz., red, green and blue. Sometimes, an individual’s power of
perceiving one of these colours is either below normal or totally lost.
It has been established that colour vision defect is inherited as X-linked trait
with the normal colour vision dominating over colour vision defect. The most
popular example of sex linked inheritance is red-green (R-G) colour blindness
which may be of two main types as follows.
Protan (red blind) type with subtypes
(a) Absolute/strong (Protanopia)
(b) Partial/ mild (Protanomalia)
Deutan (green blind) type with subtypes
(a) Absolute/ strong (Deuteranopia)
(b) Partial/ mild (Deuteranomalia)
In Protanopia the visible range of the spectrum is shorter at the red end
compared with that of the normal, and that part of the spectrum which appears
to the normal person as blue-green, appears to those with Protanopia as grey. In
Deuteranopia, that part of the spectrum which appears to the normal person as
green appears as grey, and the visible range of the spectrum is divided by this
zone into two areas, each of which appears to be of one system of colour. The
visible range of spectrum is not contracted, in contrast to protanopia. Purple-red
114 which is the complementary colour of green appears also as grey.
A very rare congenital colour vision deficiency is Total Colour Weakness, Dermatoglyphics
in which colour sensitivity to red and green as well as to yellow and blue is and Other Biological
Traits
very low and only the clear colours can be perceived but, except for the colour
sensitivity, there is no abnormality in the visual functions. Another very rare
group of individuals who suffer from Total Colour Weakness show a complete
failure to discriminate any colour variation, usually with an associated
impairment of central vision with photophobia and nystagmus. There may be
extremely rare cases, who fail in the appreciation of blue and yellow who may
be termed Tritanomalia (if partial) and Tritanopia (if absolute). Ishihara plates
are not designed for the diagnosis of such cases.
The inheritance pattern of red-green colour blindness in man is diagrammatically
presented in Fig. 7.4.

Fig. 7.4: Red-Green Colour Blindness Inheritance Pattern (Source:colblindor.com).

When a normal woman marries a colour blind man all her sons and daughters
have normal colour vision. But when her daughters are married to a man with
normal colour vision some colour blind sons are found. It means that a woman
with normal colour vision whose father is colour blind gives birth to children
of which about half of the sons are expected to be colour blind and other half to
have normal colour vision.

7.3.1 Technique to Detect Colour Blindness

The test that is extensively used to distinguish colour vision deficiency is the
Ishihara test. In this test the Ishihara charts are arranged as a book (Fig.7.5)
which consists of a set of cards on which figures are printed in coloured dots of
varying sizes against a background of dots of a different colour. The colours
are so chosen that individuals with defective colour vision either misread, or are
unable to read the figures. The test has a series of 38 plates (Fig. 7.6 shows some
of the plates) to assess quickly and exactly colour vision deficiency. Of these
plates, Nos. 1-25 are having numerals meant for literates and the remaining
plates from Nos. 26-38 are having winding lines meant for illiterates.
115
Physical and
Biological Variation
among Indigenous
Population

Fig. 7.5: Ishihara-Test Book (Source: www.trishir.com)

Fig.7.6: Ishihara colour blindness test plates (Source: filebuzz.com).

The first 21 plates (Nos. 1-21) in the 38 plate version of Ishihara test, charts are
designed to distinguish normal colour vision individuals from red-green blind
individuals. The next four plates (Nos. 22-25) are intended to separate colour
vision individuals so detected into Protanopes (strong red blind) and protanomals
(mild red blind) and deuteranopes (strong green blind) and deuteranomals (mild
green blind).
Check Your Progress
2) Describe the technique to detect colour blindness
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7.3.2 Distribution of Colour Blindness

The distribution of colour vision deficiency among the Indigenous populations
is presented in Table 7.3
116
 Table 7.3: Distribution of Colour Blindness Dermatoglyphics
and Other Biological
Tibe Sample Deutan Protan Percentage(%) Author Traits
North India
Gujjar 89 - - 2.3 Bhasin et al 1990
Bodhs 124 - - 3.2 Bhasin et al 1990
West India
Bhil 142 - - 0.7 Vyas et al 1962
Dhodia 45 - - 0.0 Vyas et al 1962
Dubla 109 - - 2.7 Vyas et al 1962
Gamit 147 - - 2.7 Vyas et al 1962
Kolis 180 - - 5.0 Kapoor et al 1983
Gond 86 - - 5.8 Das gupta 1975
East India
Apatani 125 13 - 10.4 Jaswal 1975
Gallong 91 - - 1.1 Das & Choudhary 1975
Khasi 495 - - 3.8 Mukherjee 1963
Mikir 125 - - 0.0 Mukherjee 1963
Naga 100 - - 0.0 Mukherjee 1963
Miri 37 - - 0.0 Srivastava 1969
Angami 85(M) - - 0.0 Seth & Seth1973
Naga 65(F) 0.0 Seth & Seth 1973
Tangkhul 134(M) - - 6.7 Singh 1982
83(F) 0.0 Singh 1982
Lushai 224 - - 1.8 Mukherjee 1963
Riang 195 -- - 1.5 Kumar & Sastry 1961
Khasis 340 - - 3.8 Mukherjee 1963
Lepcha 162 4 0 2.5 Bhatacharjee et al 1974
Sherpas 310 - - 1.3 Bhasin et al 1987
Santal 114 5 - 7.9 Mukherjee et al 1977
Mundas 71 - - 7.0 Mukherjee 1965
Oraons 126 - - 2.4 Dash Sharma & Pal 1975
Khond 75 - - 1.3 Deka et al 1977
Gond 100 - - 2.0 Singh 1987
Santal 55 - - 5.5 Singh 1987
Central India
Bhils 86 - - 2.3 Banarjee & Dhar 1984
South India
Chenchu 406 2 2 1.0 Sirajuddin 1977
Pardhan 70 1 1 1.4 Goud & Rao 1979
Valmiki 130 - - 3.8 Rao & Reddy 1973

• In this table, it has been found that the frequency of colour blindness is higher
(100%) in North Indians compared to other Indigenous populations.

7.4 SUMMARY
In the beginning, anthropologists used Dermatoglyphics to study population
variation. Dermatoglyphics plays an important role in personal identification 117
Physical and and is also associated with some diseases. PTC is a genetic character to
Biological Variation determine the tasting ability of the population by using the threshold value.
among Indigenous
Population
The colour blindness test is so used to determine the colour vision deficiency of
the populations with the help of Ishihara charts.

7.5 REFERENCES
Cumins, H & Midlo, C (1962). Finger Prints, Palms and Soles. An Introduction
to Dermatoglyphics. New York: Dover Publications Incorp.
Mukherji, D., Mukherjee, D.P. & Bharathi, P. (2009). Laboratory Manual for
Biological Anthropology. New Delhi: Asian Books Pvt. Ltd.
Singh, I.P. & Bhasin, MK. (2004). A Manual of Biological Anthropology. New
Delhi: Kamla- Raj Enterprises.
Bhasin, M.K., Walter, H., Danker-Hopfe, H., (1992). The Distribution of
Genetical, Morphological and Behavioural Traits among the People of Indian
Region (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka).
Delhi: Kamla-Raj Enterprises.
Bhasin, M.K. (2009). Morphology to Molecular Anthropology: Catses and
Tribes of India. International Journal of Human Genetics. 9:145-230.
Henry, E.R., 1900. Classification and Uses of Finger Prints. London: HM
Stationery Office.

7.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRES

1) Dermatoglyphics is the study of the epidermal ridge patterns of the skin
of the fingers, palms, toes and soles. For more details, please refer section
7.1.
2) For details, please refer sub section 7.3.1

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