Water Resour Manage (2014) 28:2781–2791
DOI 10.1007/s11269-014-0636-9
What does Integrated Water Resources Management
from Local to Global Perspective Mean? Qatar as a Case
Study, the Very Rich Country with No Water
Basem Shomar & Mohamed Darwish & Candace Rowell
Received: 15 September 2013 / Accepted: 21 April 2014 /
Published online: 7 May 2014
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Management of water resources is a very challenging issue, particularly in regions of
the world where water is almost absent. In the Gulf Region, this issue is especially complex due
to harsh-arid environments and increasing anthropogenic input of pollutants from the energy
industry. The emergence of nations rich in oil and gas, such as Qatar, but poor in water resources
requires new and dynamic systems and plans for managing limited water resources in times of
extreme growth, such plans are discussed in this paper. The State of Qatar’s average annual
evaporation rate is 30 times more than precipitation and the country depends on desalinated
water to meet 99 % of its municipal water needs. Additionally, increasing population growth
coupled with tremendous urbanization and industrialization add more stress to the existing
renewable water resources, and newly produced water, namely desalted seawater and treated
wastewater. Absence of water tariff and a water pricing system along with a lack of conservation
awareness places Qatar as one of the highest water consuming countries in the world. Municipal
water consumption per capita per day reached 500 L/ca.d for the year 2013. Dumping of sea to
build new cities and construct towers makes the area very susceptible to salt water instruction, a
phenomenon that does not only affect the groundwater aquifer system but also the construction
materials and building deformations. Currently, Qatar uses the most advanced technologies for
treating wastewater; however, the pure treated wastewater is not considered a viable water
resource and is not used in areas of critical water demand such as agriculture and landscaping.
Social, religious, and local marketing views limit the current use of treated wastewater.
Integrated water and wastewater management strategies are absent and the national players of
the two sectors -water and wastewater-are different. Current plans for integrated water resources
management (IWRM) cannot answer the basic questions, what to manage and in which scale; is
it the brackish and unused groundwater or the desalinated water from the existing technologies,
the supply or the demand or all? This paper tries to highlight some facts related to Qatar’s water
situation as an arid Gulf State and introduces potential ideas for IWRM. The critical aspects of
IWRM discussed herein are relevant to a number of nations in the global community dealing
with issues of extreme water insecurity.
Keywords IWRM . Harsh environment . Brackish groundwater . Desalinated water
B. Shomar (*) : M. Darwish : C. Rowell
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Qatar Foundation, P.O. Box 5825, Doha, Qatar
e-mail: bshomar@qf.org.qa
2782 B. Shomar et al.
1 Introduction
Water security is an issue of critical importance to the State of Qatar. Like many other countries
in the Gulf Region, constraints of water resources, infrastructure and demands pose complex
challenges to water allocation and management. Rapid increases in industrial development and
population growth have resulted in the exploitation and overuse of Qatar’s limited natural
water supply and have prompted a complete dependence on desalination technologies to meet
Qatar’s staggering water supply demands (UNU 2012). Qatar’s primary natural freshwater
resource exists in the form of limited and brackish groundwater aquifers which have been
over-exploited and are in many cases depleted or highly vulnerable to salt-water intrusion. To
meet current water requirements, Qatar desalinated more than 400 Mm3 of water in year 2011,
compared 341 Mm3 in 2009; this figure is increasing annually (UN-Qatar 2009; UNU 2012).
Qatar’s current water issue is multi-dimensional and encompasses a number of social,
political, and technical aspects. While limited access to fresh water is a common theme in
many arid nations, Qatar’s situation is uniquely strained as a result of high national daily per
capita water consumption (433 L/ca.d in 2010) (Kahramaa 2014) which does not include more
than 35 % loss in the municipal water supply network (QNRS 2012), lack of water conservation
among domestic users, unrealistically low or no pricing of water and electricity for users, lack of
public awareness on the issue of water security and dependence on high energy intensive and
extremely vulnerable desalination techniques to offset the over-use of natural fresh water
resources. As industrial and economic growth continues in the Gulf Region and in other areas
of the world, Qatar’s experience in addressing these challenges may provide valuable insight.
In October 2012, Qatar declared its national research strategy (QNRS) with water security
ranked as a top research area for the coming 20 years. The objectives of these national research
initiatives are to improve the current desalination processes and to promote responsible and
sustainable management tools for the available water resources through Integrated Water
Resource Management (IWRM) plans and scenarios. It has long since been recognized that
IWRM is crucial to the management of water resources and water demands in order to
maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the
sustainability of vital ecosystems (Rand 2011). With approximately one-fifth of the world’s
population living under conditions of water scarcity, IWRM is and will remain a globally
relevant concept (FAO 2013).
The QNRS has identified the following items as critical to integrated water resource
management in Qatar: desalination technologies, recycling and reuse of treated wastewater
(TWW), groundwater exploitation and recharge, water storage reservoirs, improved water
distribution networks, domestic water conservation measures and user costs (Rand 2011). This
article examines each of these items and discusses the practicality and future research
opportunities towards IWRM in Qatar. The topics highlighted may be considered relevant to
other nations in the region and across the globe. Qatar’s economic situation and unique
ministerial structure create a unique situation for research and cooperation to explore various
aspects of IWRM and address the major challenges of implementation faced in many
countries.
2 Geography and Population
Qatar is a small peninsula that projects northwards from the Arabian mainland into the Arabian
Gulf. Qatar’s total land area is approximately 11,590 km2 (km2) (CIA 2013). In recent decades,
development of Qatar’s fuel oil and natural gas industries has resulted in rapid population
What does Integrated Water Resources Management from Local to Global 2783
growth and urbanization. Qatar’s population has grown dramatically from 11,000 people in
1940 to 0.436 million in 1990 to more than 2 million in July 2013 (CIA 2013). Qatar -like all
water poor countries- associated with dry seasons and harsh environment, needs mitigation
measures on the socio-economic-environmental impacts (Daneshmand et al. 2014).
3 Natural Water Resources
Qatar’s rapid development within a fragile and harsh arid environment poses unique chal-
lenges for water resource development and management. More natural and anthropogenic
variables (climate change, drought, conflicts, overexploitation, socio-economy, etc.) affecting
water sector urge to have a robust roadmap and a very clear strategy addressing causes of water
scarcity and the actions to respond (Martin-Carrasco et al. 2013). Proper management of
irrigation is a key element not only for water security but also for food security (Singh 2014).
Urbanization and overgrowth of the communities should be associated with efficient water
distribution systems (Farmani and Butler 2014).
Qatar is an arid country with extremely limited renewable water resources. These resources
have been discussed in detail by Darwish et al. (2013) and Shomar (2013). In 2010, the annual
per capita natural water resource (33 m3/y.ca) was well below the water poverty line of
1,000 m3/y.ca (AFED 2012). The extreme impacts of climate change on water resources could
be seen easily in the arid environments and dry areas (Zargar et al. 2014).
3.1 Rainfall
Qatar’s annual average (from 1999 to 2008) rainfall is approximately 82 mm while the average
annual evaporation rate is 2,200 mm (UN-Qatar 2009). This disproportionate ratio between
rainfall and evaporation results in a negligible amount of surface water for the country and
limits Qatar’s local available water resources to groundwater, desalted water, and treated
wastewater QWEC (2013).
For irrigation purposes, rainfall is not considered a reliable water source due to its low
intensity and high variability. At this time, rainfall is the only source of groundwater recharge
and the aquifer is extremely depleted due to agricultural activities.
3.2 Groundwater
The shallow and renewable groundwater system in Qatar is composed mainly of two major
aquifers, the northern aquifer and the southern aquifer. The northern groundwater aquifer is the
most important to Qatar’s developing agricultural sector. It is shallow (10–40 m deep) and
covers approximately 19 % of Qatar’s land area (Darwish et al. 2013). The southern aquifer
and other secondary basins are smaller in size with diminished water quality and higher
salinity levels. The agricultural activities in Qatar are very limited and are concentrated in
the northern parts of the country (Fig. 1). The general parameters of the northern aquifer’s
groundwater show that salinity levels are relatively low (500–3,000 mgCl/L) compared to the
southern aquifer (>5,000 mgCl/L) and therefore it is still used for agricultural irrigation in
several private farms. The coastal areas of the northern aquifer have much higher salinity levels
(the average concentrations of chloride reach 10,000 mg/L) due to saltwater intrusion and are
therefore unsuitable for direct irrigation.
Qatar is sharing the deep aquifer of Al Dammam with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)
where the later is the upstream and Qatar is the downstream. When talking about the very deep
2784 B. Shomar et al.
Fig. 1 Land use in Qatar showing the agricultural areas
aquifer (e.g. Al Dammam), water security for Qatar is linked to the risks of water conflicts in
the present and future (Gunasekara et al. 2014).
What does Integrated Water Resources Management from Local to Global 2785
Although the country depends on desalinated water, the groundwater aquifers are over
exploited. In 2012, the annual total water withdrawal from the groundwater aquifers reached
approximately 400 Mm3, while the annual natural water resources are 58 Mm3. So, the
withdrawal rate is nearly 7 times higher than the annual recharge (AFED 2012). The continued
over-exploitation of these groundwater resources is resulting in aquifer depletion and increased
saltwater intrusion. Different hydrogeological models, computation tools and simulation
procedures are needed to predict the trend of seawater intrusion and the measures needed to
minimize the risks and long term impacts. Additionally, agricultural irrigation with increas-
ingly saline groundwater is causing high levels of local soil salinization, infertility and
desertification. The impacts on soil salinity and fertility should be considered especially when
food security is a priority for Qatar.
3.3 Qatar Water Consumption
Despite the limited availability of natural water resources, the water and energy demands of
Qatar continue to grow. In 2012, Qatar’s total water withdrawal was approximately 800 Mm3
(400 from desalted water, and 400 from groundwater). The annual average water consumption
per sector for the year 2012 was 59 % for agriculture, 39 % for domestic uses and 2 % for
industry (AFED 2012; QNDS 2011; UN-Qatar 2009).
The country depends on desalinated water to meet more than 99 % of the water needs of the
three sectors. The unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and rapid population and
industrial growth have resulted in an increased dependence on seawater desalination technol-
ogies to provide fresh water. In 2012, the annual desalinated water production reached
400 Mm3, a 77 % increase from 2006 (Kahramaa 2014). The production of desalinated
seawater is a fossil fuel intensive process that is high pollutant and greenhouse gas emitting,
high cost and extremely vulnerable to comprised quality in influent water due to a variety of
factors including oil spills (Darwish 2007). Qatar’s growing dependence on this water resource
is highly unsustainable and efforts to use alternative water resources and implement IWRM
have top priority.
4 Seawater Desalination
As part of Qatar’s IWRM, intensive research in the areas of solar energy and desalination
chemistry and technologies are needed to optimize energy performance and to minimize the
environmental impacts (Darwish et al. 2013). Since 1953 when Qatar’s first desalination plant
was commissioned, the country’s use and reliance on desalted seawater has continued to
increase rapidly. From 2004 to 2012, the annual desalinated water production increased from
178 Mm3/y to 400 Mm3/y, an increase of more than 124 % in 8 years (Kahramaa 2014).
The energy consumption and environmental effects of desalination are key areas of research
needed to inform IWRM. Qatar’s current use of multi-stage flash (MSF) units for seawater
desalination is energy intensive and costly and is known to have a number of adverse
environmental impacts (Darwish et al. 2013). Table 1 shows Qatar’s installed desalting
capacity and daily fossil fuel and water consumption. Qatar’s large capacity desalting plants
are cogeneration power desalting plants (CPDP) which are combination power plant and
desalination plant units. This combination limits the range of desalinated water to power ratio.
The energy demands of desalination are concerning due to a number of factors including
competing energy demands from various sectors as well as the desire to increase exportation of
energy resources. Additionally, the potentially adverse environmental and public health
2786 B. Shomar et al.
Table 1 Qatar’s installed desalting capacity and daily consumption in MIGD (Darwish et al. 2013)
Year Installed capacity, Daily average Daily per capita fresh water
MIGD consumption, MIGD consumption in l/d (imp. g/d)
1963 6 5.5 82.8(18.2)
1973 52 25.5 137.4(30.2)
1983 136 86.2 245(53.8)
1993 216 136.3 403(88.6)
2003 313.5 279.1 497.3(109.3)
2006 369.1 313.2 (98.4)
2012 401.2
*
MIGD million imperial gallons per day (one MIGD is 4,546 m3 /d)
concerns of desalting must be considered. Efforts are required to replace the current thermal
desalting systems with more energy efficient systems such as seawater reverse osmosis, low
temperature multi-effect boiling or mechanical vapor compression systems. Seawater reverse
osmosis has been shown to reduce both fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by 75 % when
compared to multi-stage flash (Darwish et al. 2013).
As part of IWRM in Qatar, research work regarding the processes of seawater desalination
and the local uses of desalinated water are needed. These works include, but are not limited to:
(1) cost, energy requirements and water quality, (2) alternative energy resources for desalina-
tion, (3) membrane fouling (organic, inorganic and biological), (4) feasibility of offshore
desalination plants, (5) co-sitting of desalination and municipal or industrial facilities, and
(6) environmental issues of coastal desalination. Additionally, adoption of a dual piping system
should be considered as an effective way to limit the use of expensive high quality desalinated
water to potable uses and incorporate grey water systems for non-potable uses.
Efforts to incorporate renewable energy resources, such as solar energy, in desalination are
also critical. Concentrated solar power (CSP) is emerging as an efficient and abundant energy
source for the Arab region but the economic, financial, technical and environmental feasibility
of its application in Qatar is yet to be determined (QNDS 2011; UN-Qatar 2009).
Important issues related to desalinated water quality include pretreatment technologies of
the feed water (mechanical, physical and chemical), the chemistry of desalination processes
(fouling, scaling, and aggressivity) and the finished water treatment (disinfection and mixing).
Effective management of Qatar’s limited groundwater resources is critical for IWRM. To
accomplish this, more research is needed in the areas of: (1) groundwater quantity and quality
assessments, (2) strategic characterization of aquifers to quantify sustainable yields, (3)
legislative and management frameworks to limit resource exploitation and (4) effective
management of risks to groundwater quality.
Dewatering activities are commonly found in Qatar. Several mega-national projects started
several years ago and others are still in process. Two well-known examples are the Qatar Rail
and Lusail City (Lusail City 2013; Qatar Rail 2013); where millions of cubic meter water are
withdrawn daily. This groundwater should be considered now and in the future as a main
source of feed water for desalination. It is saline with limited suspended matters and low
concentrations of Ca, SO4, B and volatile organics making it extremely useful for desalination
feed water as these are real challenges of any desalination technology. Based on discussions
with key individuals of the two projects, using this groundwater instead of seawater will
reduce the total costs by more than 40 %. This reduction could be explained by the
pretreatment technologies used for seawater that include several complicated mechanical and
What does Integrated Water Resources Management from Local to Global 2787
chemical processes including sedimentation, disinfection and anti-foaming. These processes
are time consuming, very expensive and have major environmental impacts (Darwish et al.
2013). Management protocol should be established between all stakeholders of the projects
and the desalination sector.
An important element related to water management is the abstracted groundwater associ-
ated with oil and gas production (OAPEC 2012). This water needs research studies in terms of
quality, quantity and potential treatment usage. Currently, each barrel of oil is associated with 4
barrels of groundwater (Darwish et al. 2013). This represents large amounts of water with
potential alternative uses. No scientific studies are available on this issue in Qatar.
5 Treated Wastewater is a Viable Water Resource
Wastewater treatment is necessary for the use or disposal of reclaimed water to minimize
short and long term human and environmental impacts. Before wastewater can be used in
any applications, both potable and non-potable, some level of treatment must occur. The
required quality of treated effluent depends on the intended water use. Treated wastewater
is an abundant resource that must be considered towards sustainable water policy in Qatar.
In many parts of the world, treated wastewater is already being integrated into planning
and development strategies especially in landscaping and irrigation (Global Water Intel-
ligence 2012). Table 2 shows the volume of treated wastewater reused in the GCC
countries in 2011. In Qatar, approximately one third (354,000 m3/day or 130 Mm3/y) of
all municipal wastewater is treated using conventional methods (primary and secondary
treatment) as well as the tertiary treatment, microfiltration and ultra-filtration. In 2012, the
amount of 43 Mm3/y was used primarily in landscaping and irrigation (Global Water
Intelligence 2011).
Wastewater production is directly proportional to demand and conveniently located where
the water demand exists; thus as a renewable and reliable resource, wastewater is a crucial
component of IWRM (Abdel-Dayem et al. 2011). Expansion of treated wastewater uses is
critical to Qatar’s national water security. In 2012, the municipal water supply to Qatari homes
reached as high as 365 Mm3/year and is expected to increase each year (Kahramaa 2014).
Under the current capacities, approximately two thirds of the municipal water could be
collected for treatment; however in 2009 only 43 Mm3/y were treated. Of the wastewater
collected, 100 % was treated to a secondary level and 40 % to a tertiary level or better. While
Qatar’s wastewater treatment plants have the combined capacity of 354,000 m3/day, Qatar’s
Table 2 Total wastewater produced, treated and reused in the different GCC countries in 109 m3/year (World
Bank 2011)
Country Total wastewater Volume of treated Volume of Treated wastewater
produced (109 m3/year) wastewater (109 m3/year) reused (109 m3/year)
Saudi Arabia 0.73 0.652 0.166
Bahrain 0.045 0.076 0.0163
United Arab Emirates 0.5 0.454 0.248
Kuwait 0.25 0.239 0.078
Oman 0.098 0.037 0.0023
Qatar 0.444 0.066 0.043
2788 B. Shomar et al.
wastewater collections could reach as high as 600,000 m3/day with improved sewage connec-
tion throughout the country (Kahramaa 2014).
To include wastewater in the national IWRM, four requirements must be met: (1) reliable
treatment of wastewater to meet strict water quality requirements for the intended reuse
applications, (2) protection of public health (3) achievement of public acceptance and (4) long
term research programs on the impacts of wastewater reuse on soil, groundwater and agricul-
ture (Kamizoulis et al. 2010). Although treated wastewater in agriculture of Qatar is a
promising solution, the existing policies and regulations do not allow using it for agricultural
uses.
It is currently feasible to treat wastewater to a water quality level high enough for water
reuse without the compromise of public health and wellbeing. Extending wastewater treatment
to tertiary or quaternary levels allows wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to be directly
incorporated into the municipal water supply and be used as a viable water source for
groundwater recharge as an element of national water security.
Improved treatment of wastewater and the development of wastewater distribution systems
in Qatar will enhance the usability of treated wastewater beyond the conventional usages, such
as irrigation, to include domestic uses such as toilet flushing, home gardening, and laundry and
other domestic washing usages. Increasing the use of treated wastewater for these non-potable
domestic needs will decrease dependence on desalinated water to meet local water demands
and will lessen the national costs of water production.
The costs of wastewater treatment and using for desalination are significantly lower
(approximately one fourth) than the cost of desalting high salinity brackish or
seawater (World Bank 2012). Fig. 2 shows the cost range for various water reuse
scenarios.
More importantly, treated wastewater may offer a low impact, affordable, and viable
method for improving the quantity and quality of Qatar’s existing groundwater aquifers
through aquifer recharge. Groundwater recharge has been successfully used in several
countries of the GCC such as Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (Abdel-Jawad et al.
1999; Lazarova et al. 2013). Quaternary treatment of wastewater combined with natural
purification and filtration processes of recharge provides high quality water suitable for
recharge (Lazarova et al. 2013). During the recharge process, the soil acts as a natural filter
Fig. 2 Cost range for water reuse (World Bank 2012)
What does Integrated Water Resources Management from Local to Global 2789
removing many suspended solids, biodegradable materials and microorganisms (Shomar
et al. 2013a). Research studies have also shown that natural filtration can decrease the
concentrations of certain chemical components such as nitrogen, phosphorous and heavy
metals (Shomar et al. 2013b). Using treated wastewater for recharge prevents the deteri-
oration and depletion of limited groundwater resources and provides a stored water supply.
Recently, Qatar’s General Electricity and Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA) declared
Qatar’s strategy in water resource development for long-term sustainability in which
development of groundwater recharge projects are a key element (Kahramaa 2014). The
feasibility study is currently underway with plans to recharge and store up to 136,000 m3
of water.
Beyond this feasibility study, the research potential of wastewater treatment and reuse in
Qatar is vast. A number of projects must be undertaken to analyze and optimize any urban
water systems and to determine methods for sustainable implementation and maintenance of
these systems in this harsh environment. Additionally, information regarding the modeling and
control of wastewater treatment processes, with emphasis on activated sludge and sedimenta-
tion modeling, are critically needed.
Treated wastewater is a crucial resource to be considered towards IWRM and will require
the development of guidelines and regulations for different reuses. These are critical compo-
nents that work to ensure the safety of people and environment. Furthermore, a considerable
amount of work will be required to ensure public consensus regarding the use of treated
wastewater.
6 Conclusions
Water security is an important issue that affects millions of people worldwide and will
continue to for many years to come. In the wake of development and progress many
nations will continue to experience issues of increasing water demand which will only
exasperate current insecurities. The combination of extreme monetary wealth and extreme
water poverty is a combination currently unique to the rapidly growing Gulf Region, but
may in the future affect other regions of the world as industrialization increases and water
resources continue to shrink. This work captured this unique context and presented novel
IWRM plans and potentials suitable for Qatar and other nations that may experience these
issues.
The State of Qatar is currently working to address these and other issues through IWRM.
The development and progress of Qatar cannot be considered without the importance and
implications of these on Qatar’s very limited water supply. Like many countries in the Gulf
Region, Qatar must adopt the most efficient desalination technologies to be used in conjunc-
tion with water education and public awareness campaigns as well as fair pricing of water
resources in order to meet the continued needs of this growing region. Additionally, as rapid
growth and development continue across the globe demand management measures including
water meters and the needed technologies to reduce consumption for domestic, agricultural
and industrial sectors should be implemented. Appropriate measures must reflect the individ-
ual contexts of each nation and the specific needs of the society. Qatar’s experiences may serve
as guidelines to other nations with amendments and additions according to each country’s
unique requirements.
In Qatar, demand management and supply augmentation of precious water supplies
is critical to ensure water security. IWRM in Qatar should include all stakeholders,
public, governmental and nongovernmental sectors. Research institutes should focus
2790 B. Shomar et al.
on water research for all levels and aspects towards improvement of Qatar’s water
management.
References
Abdel-Dayem S, Taha F, Choukr-Allah R, Kfouri CA, Chung CC, Al Saiid D (2011) Water reuse in the Arab
world: from principle to practice - voices from the field, The Worldbank, Washington D.C. http://documents.
worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/01/16588132/water-reuse-arab-world-principle-practice-voices-field.
Accessed 30 April 2014
Abdel-Jawad M, Ebrahim S, Al-Tabtabaei M, Al-Shammari S (1999) Advanced technologies for municipal
wastewater purification: technical and economic assessment. Desalination 124:251–261
AFED (2012) Report of the Arab Forum for Environment and Development. Arab Environment 5, Survival
Option: Ecological Footprint of Arab Countries. Chapter 1 Food Security and Agricultural Sustainability.
www.footprintnetwork.org/images/article_uploads/Survival_Options_Eng.pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
CIA (2013) The World Fact Book. Middle East: Qatar. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
geos/qa.html. Accessed 30 April 2014
Daneshmand F, Karimi A, Nikoo M, Bazargan-Lari M, Adamowski J (2014) Mitigating socio-economic-
environmental impacts during drought periods by optimizing the conjunctive management of water
resources. Water Resour Manag 28:1517–1529
Darwish M (2007) Desalting fuel energy cost in Kuwait in view of $75/barrel oil price. Desalination 1–3:306–
320
Darwish M, Hassabou A, Shomar B (2013) Using Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) desalting system for less
environmental impacts in Qatar. Desalination 86:600–605
FAO (2013) UN Water Day 2013. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/watercooperation2013/doc/
YWC2013_Brochure_web.pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
Global Water Intelligence (2011) Global Water Market 2011. Qatar: Chapter 38. www.globalwaterintel.com/
client_media/uploaded/GWM_2011_sample_chapter.pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
Global Water Intelligence (2012) Industrial desalination and water reuse: ultrapure water, challenging waste
streams and improved efficiency. www.globalwaterintel.com/industrial-desal. Accessed 30 April 2014
Gunasekara NK, Kazama S, Yamazaki D, Oki T (2014) Water conflict risk due to water resource availability and
unequal distribution. Water Resour Manag 28:169–184
Farmani R, Butler D (2014) Implications of urban form on water distribution systems performance. Water Resour
Manag 28:83–97
Kahramaa (2014) Statistical Year Book2012, KAHRAMAA Publications, Qatar. http://www.km.com.qa/Pages/
default.aspx. Accessed 30 April 2014
Kamizoulis G, Bahri A, Brissaud F, Angelakis AN (2010) Wastewater Recycling and Reuse Practice in
Mediterranean Region: Recommended Guidelines. http://www.a-angelakis.gr/files/pubrep/recycling_med.
pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
Lazarova V, Asano T, Bahri A, Anderson J (2013) Milestones in water reuse. IWA Publishing, Alliance House
Lusail City (2013) Lusail: Qatar’s Future City. www.lusail.com. Accessed 30 April 2014
Martin-Carrasco F, Garrote L, Iglesias A, Mediero L (2013) Diagnosing causes of water scarcity in
complex water resources systems and identifying risk management actions. Water Resour Manag
27:1693–1705
OAPEC (2012) Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries. Annual Statistical Report. www.oapecorg.
org/ARPubl/ASR/ASR2012.pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
Qatar Rail (2013) Qatar Rail Development Program. Projects. www.qr.com.qa. Accessed 30 April 2014
QNDS (2011) Qatar National Development Strategy, 2011–2016, Towards Qatar National Vision 2030, Qatar
General Secretariat for Development Planning, Doha, Qatar. www.gsdp.gov.qa. Accessed 30 April 2014
QNRS (2012) Qatar National Research Strategy, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar. http://www.qf-research-
division.org/QNRS_2012.pdf. Accessed 30 April 2014
QWEC (2013) Annual Report 2013. https://www.qewc.com/qewc/en/index.php/reports/category/13-2013.
Accessed 30 April 2014
Rand (2011) Recommended research priorities for the qatar foundation’s environment and energy research
institute. Rand-Qatar Policy Institute, Rand
Shomar B, Amr M, Al-Saad K, Mohieldeen Y (2013a) Natural and depleted uranium in the topsoil of Qatar: is it
something to worry about? Appl Geochem 37:203–211
Shomar B (2013) Water resources, water quality and human health in regions of extreme stress: Middle East. J
Earth Sci Clim Chang 4:153–164
What does Integrated Water Resources Management from Local to Global 2791
Shomar B, Kalavrouziotis I, Koukoulakis P, Yahya A (2013b) Soil pollution indices relationships to maize
growth characteristics, and to soil and plant heavy metals, under the effect of sludge. Water Air Soil Pollut
224:1436–1446
Singh A (2014) Irrigation planning and management through optimization modelling. Water Resour Manag 28:
1–14
UN-Qatar (2009) National Vision 2030. Advancing sustainable development, Qatar Second Human Report,
Qatar’s second human development report, Doha, Qatar
UNU (2012) Managing water for peace in the Middle East, The United Nations University web site publications.
www.unu.edu/unpress/unubooks/80858e/8058E01.htm. Accessed 30 April 2014
World Bank (2011) Water reuse in the Arab world from principle to practice. http://water.worldbank.org/sites/
water.worldbank.org/files/publication/Water-Reuse-Arab-World-From-Principle%20-Practice.pdf. Accessed
30 April 2014
World Bank (2012) Water. Renewable Energy Desalination: An Emerging Solution to Close MENA's Water Gap.
MENA Development Report, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank,
Washington DC. http://water.worldbank.org/node/84110. Accessed 30 April 2014
Zargar A, Sadiq R, Khan F (2014) Uncertainty-driven characterization of climate change effects on drought
frequency using enhanced SPI. Water Resour Manag 28:15–40
