UNIT 3 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Irrigation
3.3 Major Irrigation Projects in India
3.4 Irrigation Methods
3.5 Irrigation Scheduling
3.5.1 Irrigation scheduling criteria
3.5.2 Advantages of irrigation scheduling
3.5.3 Irrigation scheduling methods
3.6 Command Area Development and Water Management
3.7 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
3.7.1 Objectives of PIM
3.7.2 Provisions in PIM Acts
3.7.3 Constraints in implementation of PIM
3.8 Drainage
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Keywords
3.11 Suggested Further Readings
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you shall be able to:
●● explain the importance of irrigation in Indian agriculture;
●● describe the development of irrigation facilities in India;
●● discuss the irrigation scheduling and irrigation methods; and
●● define the drainage and comprehend the drainage requirements and
methods.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is crucial for agricultural production due to its complementarily
with other yield-enhancing inputs such as high-yielding variety seeds,
fertilizers, and chemicals. India is generously endowed with water resources
by the nature. But paradoxically, water scarcity and inefficiency in its use
co-exist in India’s water resource management system. Irrigation retains its
crucial role in productivity-led future agricultural production, alleviating
poverty and reducing inequality in income distribution in rural areas. In

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the past, agricultural development in general and irrigation development, Irrigation and Drainage
in particular, has evolved around productivity and food security concerns.

3.2 IRRIGATION
The history of irrigation development in India can be traced back to
prehistoric times. Vedas and ancient Indian scriptures made references to
wells, canals, tanks, and dams which were beneficial to the community
and their efficient operation and maintenance was the responsibility of the
state. Civilization flourished on the banks of the rivers and harnessed the
water for the sustenance of life. According to the ancient Indian writers,
the digging of a tank or well was amongst the greatest of the meritorious
acts of a man. Irrigation has played a major role in the production process
in a monsoon climate and an agrarian economy like India. There are pieces
of evidence of the practice of irrigation since the establishment of settled
agriculture during the Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC).
These irrigation technologies were in the form of small and minor works,
which could be operated by small households to irrigate small patches
of land and did not require cooperative effort. Nearly all these irrigation
technologies still exist in India with little technological change and continue
to be used by independent households for smallholdings. In southern India,
perennial irrigation may have begun with the construction of the Grand
Anicut by the Kings Raj Raja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola as early as
the second century to provide irrigation from the Cauvery River. In northern
India also there are many small canals in the upper valleys of rivers which
are very old.
Definition of Irrigation

“Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the cropped fields (to plants)

to ensure their survival and proper growth”. Irrigation is provided if there is
not enough moisture in absence of rain for producing usable commodities
for humanity at large hence; the supplemental application of water to crops
may be referred to as irrigation. There may be other definitions of irrigation
in literature, but the ultimate objective of providing water to the fields,
which do not have adequate moisture for supporting the proper plant growth
and survival of crops is to produce and fulfill the needs of human beings and
their livestock that in turn provide various other commodities.

3.3 MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN INDIA

Several irrigation projects have been developed on various rivers to enhance
the irrigated areas as well as to produce hydropower in India. A list of

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Indian Agriculture irrigation projects developed in India along with the area served by them is
given below:
1. Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): on the Krishna river near
Nandikona village (about 44 km from Hyderabad.)
2. Tungabhadra (Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): on
the Tungabhadra river.
3. Gandak (joint project of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives
irrigation and power benefits from this project.
4. Kosi (Bihar): A multipurpose project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.
5. Sone high-level canal (Bihar): An extension on the Sone barrage
project.
6. Kakrapara (Gujarat): on the Tapti River near Kakrapara, in Surat
district.
7. Ukal (Gujarat): A multipurpose project, across the Tapti River near
Ukai village.
8. Mahi (Gujarat): A two-phase project, one across the Mahi River near
Wanakbori village and the other across the Mahi River near Kadana.
9. Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam across the Sabarmati River near
Dhari village in Mehsana district and Wasna barrage near Ahmedabad.
10. Panam (Gujarat): A masonry dam across Panam River near Keldezar
village in Panchmahal district.
11. Karjan (Gujarat): A masonry dam across Karjan River near Jiotgarh
village in Nandoo Taluka of Bharuch district.
12. Bhadra (Karnataka): A multipurpose project across the river Bhadra.
13. Upper Krishna (Karnataka): A project consisting of a Narayanpur
dam across the Krishna River and a dam at Almatti.
14. Ghataprabha (Karnataka): A project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum
and Bijapur districts.
15. Malaprabha (Karnataka): A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum
district.
16. Tawa (Madhya Pradesh): A project on the Tawa River, a tributary of
the Narmada in Hoshangabad district.
17. Chambal (joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The
project comprises the Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Sagar dam, and
Jawahar Sagar dam.
18. Mahanadi Reservoir Project (Madhya Pradesh): It has three phases:
i. Ravishankar Sagar project and feeder canal system for the
supply of water to Bhilai steel plant and Sandur dam across
Sandur village,
ii. extension of Mahanadi feeder canal
iii. Pairi dam.
19. Hasdeo Bango Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is the third phase of the
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 Hasdeo Bango Project complex and envisages the construction of a Irrigation and Drainage
masonry dam across the Hasdeo River. The first and second phases
have been substantially completed.
20. Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is a multipurpose project
consisting of a masonry dam across the Bargi River in the Jabalpur
district and a left bank canal.
21. Bhima (Maharashtra): Comprises two dams, one on the Pawana River
near Phange in Pune district and the other across the Krishna River
near Ujjaini in Sholapur district.
22. Jayakwadi (Maharashtra): A masonry spillway across the river
Godavari.
23. Kukadi Project (Maharashtra): Five independent storage dams, i.e.,
Yodgaon, Manikdohi, Dimba, Wadaj, and Pimpalgaon jog. The canal
system comprises (1) Kukadi left bank canal, (2) Dhimba left bank
canal, (3) Dhimba right bank canal (4)Meena feeder, and (5) Meena
branch.
24. Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom dam near Dhom village on
Krishna and Kanhar Village of Varna River in Satna district.
25. Upper Penganga (Maharashtra): Two reservoirs on Penganga River
at Isapur in Yavatmal district and the other on Rayadhu River at Sapli
in Parbhani district.
26. Hirakud (Odisha): World’s longest dam is located on the Mahanadi
River.
27. Mahandi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The irrigation scheme will utilize
releases from the Hirakud reservoir.
28. Bhakra Nangal (Joint project of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan):
India’s biggest multipurpose river valley project comprises a straight
gravity dam across the Sutlej at Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal
hydel channel, two powerhouses at Bhakra dam, and two power
station at Ganguwal and Kotla.
29. Beas (Joint venture of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan): It consists of
the Beas-Sutlej link and Beas dam at Pong.
30. Thein Dam (Punjab): The project envisages the construction of a
dam across river Ravi and a power plant on its left bank.
31. Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan): The project will use water released
from the Pong dam and will provide irrigation facilities to the
northwestern region of Rajasthan, i.e. a part of the Thar Desert. It
consists of the Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first 167 km in Punjab
and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and 445 km
Rajasthan main canal entirely in Rajasthan.
32. Paramblkulam Allyar (Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala):
The project envisages the integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six in
the Annamalai hills and two in the plains.
33. Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): The project envisages the construction
of a barrage across the river Ghagra, a link channel, a barrage across
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Indian Agriculture river Sarda, and a feeder channel involving constructions of two
major aqueducts over Gomti and Sai.
34. Ramganga (Uttar Pradesh): A dam across Ramganga, a tributary of
the Ganga River located in Garhwal district. The project has, besides
reducing the intensity of floods in central and western Uttar Pradesh,
provided water for the Delhi water supply scheme.
35. Left Bank Ghagra Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A link channel taking off
from the left bank of Ghagra river of Girja barrage and joining with
Sarju River. Also a barrage across Sarju.
36. Tehri Dam (Uttar Pradesh): Earth and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi
River in Tehri district.
37. Madhya Ganga Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A barrage across Ganga in
Bijnor district.
38. Farakka (West Bengal): The project was taken up for the preservation
and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability
of the Hooghly. It comprises a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka, a
barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi, and a feeder channel taking
off from the Ganga at Farakka and tailing at the Bhagirathi below the
Jangipur barrage.
39. Mayurakshi (West Bengal): Irrigation and hydroelectric project
comprise the Canada dam.
40. Kangsabati (West Bengal): The project envisages the construction of
dams on the Kangsabati and Kumari rivers.
41. Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar): A multipurpose
project for the unified development of irrigation, flood control, and
power generation in West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises multipurpose
dams at Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon, and Panchet, hydel power stations
at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon, and Panchet barrage at Durgapur; and
thermal powerhouses at Bokaro, Chandrapura, and Durgapur. The
project is administered by the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).

3.4 IRRIGATION METHODS

Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil to enable crops to
have favorable growth particularly in areas where the amount of rainfall
is not adequate and it is not uniformly distributed. The three basic types
of irrigation methods generally used are surface irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, and micro or drip irrigation depending on the type of crop, soil,
and topographic and climatic conditions. An irrigation method should suit
the local conditions. All methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
The basic purpose of irrigation is to apply irrigation water uniformly so that
each plant gets the desired quantity of water, neither too much nor too little.
The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler, or
drip irrigation depends mainly on the following factors:

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●● soil type, Irrigation and Drainage

●● crop,
●● topography,
●● climatic conditions,
●● source of water and its quality,
●● power availability, and
●● cost and benefits.
Surface irrigation

In surface irrigation systems, water moves over and across the land by
simple gravity flow to wet it and to infiltrate it into the soil. Historically, this
has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land due to its
simplicity and less cost involved. On loam or clay soils, all three irrigation
methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay
soils with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation. All
soil types, except coarse sand with an infiltration rate of more than 30 mm/
hour, can be used for surface irrigation. If the infiltration rate is higher than
30 mm/hour, sprinkler or drip irrigation should be used.
Surface irrigation includes the following types:
a) Continuous flood or paddy irrigation, in which small basins are
flooded during essentially the growing season.
b) Basin irrigation confines water to a given area by ponding over the
area but remains ponded in orchards. A separate basin is formed for
each tree and water is supplied through a supply ditch.
c) As shown in Fig.3.1, border-strip irrigation applies water to one end of
a rectangular strip of sloping land so that water advances downslope
and either runs off the end or ponds behind a dike. The border strip
method wherein the farm is divided into a series of strips 5 to 10 m
wide are commonly used for all close-growing crops including cereal
crops like wheat.
d) As shown in Fig.3.2, Furrow irrigation uses furrows made between
crops planted in rows to control and guide water for either steep land
or very level land. This method of irrigation is very commonly used
for row crops like maize, jowar, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, and
groundnut.
Where, water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are
controlled by dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced
rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the
level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or
lifted by human or animal power to the level of the land.

49
Indian Agriculture

Border
Strip
Cross-ridge

Side ridges

Uniform slope

Level
Siphon tube

Water front Border Strip

advance

Infiltration Wetting front Soil

Fig. 3.1: Border irrigation

Plan
t

Wat
er

Infiltration
Infiltration

Fig. 3.2: Furrow irrigation

Advantages
●● Simple, cheap, and easy to operate;
●● Suited to most of the close-growing (border) and row crops (furrow);
and
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●● Adopted for most of the soils. Irrigation and Drainage

Limitations
●● Irrigation efficiency (ratio of water gainfully used by the crop and
water applied from the source) is very low (30-40%) as a result of
which scarce and precious water resource is wasted;
●● A considerable area used by the water channels;
●● Periodic maintenance required; and
●● Leaching of fertilizer and nutrients.
Sprinkler irrigation
Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate.
They, therefore, need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular
when the sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler
irrigation is more suitable than surface irrigation as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
sprinklers operate at a considerably higher pressure of 2-3 kg/cm2 (1 kg/cm2
= 10 m head of water). The sprinklers apply water in the form of rainwater,
which helps in creating a better micro-climate and also protects plants from
frost.
The system is suited under the following soil, crop, and topographic and
climatic conditions”
●● Sandy soils with a high infiltration rate
●● Undulating topography
●● Close growing crops
●● Moderate wind speed

Sprinkler head

Riser
pipe End plug

Lateral pipes

Tea
Main line coupling Diesel engine
Pressure gauge
Mounted on
Gate value trolley

Bend
Centrifugal pump
Suction pipe

Debris
Water source screen

Fig. 3.3: Sprinkler irrigation system

Sprinkler irrigation systems are divided based on whether the structure
moves in the field during the irrigation event. There are four basic categories: 51
Indian Agriculture a) Permanent, solid-set sprinklers are fixed on risers from buried lines or
lines suspended above a crop or over trees
b) Hand-move sprinklers are fixed sprinklers that are dissembled, moved,
and reassembled between irrigations
c) Continuous-move sprinkler systems move continuously during
irrigation and
d) Center-pivot irrigation systems supply water at a central point and a
lateral line rotates around this center and covers very areas at a time.
Advantages
●● Uniform water application as per the requirement in the field;
●● Improves microclimate;
●● High irrigation efficiency (70-80%); and
●● High fertilizer efficiency.
Limitations
●● High initial investment and operating costs;
●● Needs high energy; and
●● High wind velocity affects the uniformity of water application.
Drip irrigation
In drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, water is delivered at or
near the root zone of plants, drop by drop under low pressure. As you can
see in Fig. 3.4, the system comprises plastic components such as pipes and
drippers in addition to filter and fertilizer applicator. This method can be
the most water-efficient method of irrigation if managed properly since
evaporation and runoff are minimized. In this method, fertilizer is applied
with drip irrigation known as fertigation. If a drip system is operated for too
long of a duration or if the delivery rate is too high, it may result in deep
percolation. As water is applied in the vicinity of the plants, only a part
of the area is wetted. As a result of this, there is a considerable saving of
water. The fertilizer application is also highly efficient due to its use with
irrigation water. Due to optimum use of water and nutrients, not only crop
productivity is high, but its quality is also superior as compared with surface
irrigated crops. The drip method is suited under the following conditions:
●● Widely spaced crops such as orchard crops;
●● Undulating lands with high infiltration rates;
●● Widely spaced crops; and
●● Saline irrigation water

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 Irrigation and Drainage

Fig. 3.4: Layout of drip irrigation

(Source: Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd.)

Advantages
●● Considerable saving of water as only part of area wetted;
●● Less amount of fertilizer used;
●● Relatively saline water usable;
●● High irrigation efficiency (>90%)
●● High fertilizer efficiency;
●● High yields and better quality of produce; and
●● Less weed infestation.
Limitations
●● High initial investment.

3.5 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water to apply
to a field. The objective of irrigation scheduling is to maximize irrigation
efficiencies by applying the exact amount of water needed to replenish the
soil moisture to the desired level. It saves water and energy. The irrigation
scheduling procedures consist of monitoring indicators that determine the
need for irrigation. The amount of water applied is determined by using a
criterion to determine irrigation needs and a strategy to prescribe how much
water to apply in any situation.
3.5.1 Irrigation Scheduling Criteria
Irrigation criteria are the indicators used to determine the need for
irrigation. The most common irrigation criteria are soil moisture content
and soil moisture tension. Less common types are irrigation scheduling to
maximize yield and irrigation scheduling to maximize net return. The final
decision depends on the irrigation criterion, strategy, and goal. Irrigators
need to define a goal and establish an irrigation criterion and strategy. To
illustrate irrigation scheduling, consider a farmer whose goal is to maximize
yield. Soil moisture content is the irrigation criterion. Different levels of
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Indian Agriculture soil moisture trigger irrigation. For example, when soil water content drops
below 70 percent of the total available soil moisture, irrigation should start.
Soil moisture content to trigger irrigation depends on the irrigator’s goal
and strategy. The importance of irrigation scheduling is that it enables
the irrigator to apply the exact amount of water to achieve the goal. This
increases irrigation efficiency. A critical element is accurate measurement
of the volume of water applied or the depth of application. A farmer cannot
manage water to the maximum efficiency without knowing how much was
applied. Also, uniform water distribution across the field is important to
derive the maximum benefits from irrigation scheduling and management.
Accurate water application prevents over-or under irrigation. Over irrigation
wastes water, energy, and labor; leaches expensive nutrients below the root
zone, out of reach of plants; and reduces soil aeration, and thus crop yields.
Under irrigation stresses the plant and causes yield reduction.
3.5.2 Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling
Irrigation scheduling offers several advantages:
1. It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various
fields to minimize crop water stress and maximize yields.
2. It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through less irrigation,
thereby making the maximum use of soil moisture storage.
3. It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation
(leaching) to a minimum.
4. It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
5. It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage
requirements.
6. It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled
leaching.
7. It results in additional returns by using the “saved” water to irrigate
non-cash crops that otherwise would not be irrigated during water-
short periods.
3.5.3 Irrigation Scheduling Methods
All irrigation scheduling methods consist of an irrigation criterion that
triggers irrigation and an irrigation strategy that determines how much water
to apply. Irrigation scheduling methods differ by the irrigation criterion or
by the method used to estimate or measure this criterion. A common and
widely used irrigation criterion is soil moisture status. Table 3.1 compares
different methods of irrigation scheduling by monitoring soil moisture
content or tension. The methods described in the table measure or estimate
the irrigation criterion.

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 Table 3.1: Methods of irrigation scheduling Irrigation and Drainage

Method Measured Equipment Irrigation Advantages Disadvantag-

parameter needed criterion es

Hand feel Soil mois- Hand probe Soil Easy to use; Low accura-
and appear- ture content moisture simple; can cies; fieldwork
ance of soil by feel content improve ac- involved tak-
curacy with ing samples
experience
Gravimetric Soil mois- Auger, caps, Soil High accu- Labor inten-
soil moisture ture content oven moisture racy sive including
sample by taking content fieldwork;
samples time gap
between
sampling and
results
Tensiome- Soil mois- Tensiometers Soil Good Labor to read;
ters ture tension including moisture accuracy; in- needs mainte-
vacuum tension stantaneous nance; breaks
gauge reading of at tensions
soil moisture above 0.7 atm
tension
Electrical Electric Resistance Soil Instan- Affected by
resistance resistance blocks AC moisture taneous soil salinity;
blocks of soil bridge (me- tension reading; not sensitive at
moisture ter) works over a low tensions;
larger range needs some
of tensions; maintenance
can be used and field
for remote reading
reading
Water bud- Climatic Weather sta- Estima- No field Needs
get approach parameters: tion or avail- tion of work calibration
tempera- able weather moisture required; and periodic
ture, radia- information content flexible; can adjustments,
tion, wind, forecast irri- since it is only
humidity, gation needs an estimate;
and expect- in the future; calculations
ed rainfall, with same cumbersome
depending equipment without a com-
on the mod- can schedule puter
el used to many fields
predict ET.
Modified Reference Atmometer Esti- Easy to Needs calibra-
atmometer ET gauge mate of use, direct tion; it is only
moisture reading of an estimation
content reference ET

Check Your Progress 3.1

Note:a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define irrigation.
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Indian Agriculture 2. List different methods of irrigation water application.
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3. Which is the most used irrigation method?
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4. List the factors governing the choice of irrigation methods.
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5. Under what condition is the sprinkler method of irrigation adopted?
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6. What do you understand by irrigation scheduling? List any two
advantages of irrigation scheduling.
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3.6 COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND

WATER MANAGEMENT
The Centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme
was launched in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization
of created irrigation potential and optimizing agriculture production and
productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-disciplinary team
under an Area Development Authority.
Initially, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were taken up under the
CAD Programme, covering a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about
15.00 million hectares. From 1974-75 till now 314 projects with a CCA
of 28.95 million ha have been included under the programme. After the
inclusion of new projects, deletion of completed projects, and clubbing
of some projects, there are now 136 projects under implementation. The
programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development
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& Water Management (CADWM) Programme w.e.f. 1-4-2004. The Irrigation and Drainage
following components are covered under the CADWM Programme:
(i) Soil & Topographic Survey, planning and designing of On-Farm
Development (OFD) works;
(ii) Correction of system deficiencies above the outlet up to distributaries
of 4.25 cumec (150 cusec capacity);
(iii) Construction of field channels, with a minimum of 10% beneficiary
contribution of total cost in cash or labor;
(iv) Full package OFD works including construction of field channels,
realignment of field boundaries, land leveling and shaping also with
a minimum of 10% beneficiary contribution of total cost in cash or
labor;
(v) Warabandi (with hardware assistance covered under item (ii) and
software assistance covered under item (ix);
(vi) Construction of field drains, intermediate and link drains for letting
out surplus water;
(vii) Reclamation of waterlogged areas of irrigated commands using
conventional techniques and including bio-drainage, wherever
applicable, with a minimum of 10% beneficiary contribution of total
cost in cash or labor;
(viii) Renovation and desilting of existing irrigation tanks including
the irrigation system and control structures within the designated
irrigation commands (a minimum of 10% contribution by beneficiary
farmers of total cost in cash or labor is necessary for this activity. This
money is to be deposited in the accounts of WUAs as a maintenance
fund, the interest on which will be used for maintenance of tanks and
the system by tank WUA).
(ix) State-sponsored software components such as training of farmers
and field functionaries & officials, adaptive trials & demonstrations,
action research for Participatory Irrigation Management, seminars/
conferences/ workshops, monitoring & evaluation of the programme,
etc. through Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMI) and
other states/central institutions.
(x) Institutional support to Water Users’ Associations;
(xi) Establishment cost - 20% of OFD works on items (iii) or (iv), ( vi),
and (vii) and;
(xii) R&D activities, including training of senior-level officers, conferences,
workshops, seminars, etc. arranged directly by the Ministry.
The scheme is now being implemented as a state sector scheme during the
XI Five Year Plan (2008-09 to 2011-12). The evaluation made in the past
has revealed that the CAD Programme made a positive impact on various
important indicators, like increase in the irrigated area, productivity, and
production, irrigation efficiency, etc. Despite efforts for efficient irrigation
water management, the problem of waterlogging has surfaced in many
irrigated commands.

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Indian Agriculture
3.7 PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION
MANAGEMENT (PIM)
The National Water Policy 1987 advocated the involvement of farmers in
the management of irrigation. The irrigation potential increased nearly four
times since the beginning of the planned era but brought in several problems
of management of irrigation in its wake. These included the unreliable and
inequitable supply of water, especially at the tail-end, improper organization
and monitoring (O&M) of the systems, poor recovery of water rates,
indiscipline in the distribution of water, and the problem of waterlogging
due to seepage from canal network on the one hand and over-irrigation
on the other. To address these problems it has been recognized that the
participation of beneficiaries would help greatly for the optimum upkeep of
the irrigation system and utilization of irrigation water. Keeping this aspect
in view, PIM was the thrust area under the programme during the Ninth
Five Year Plan period.
Despite efforts by the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), the pace of
PIM has been slow as several states are yet to enact legislation on PIM.
Because of the problems associated with the O&M of the deteriorated
irrigation systems, PIM is considered to be a necessity. The ministry,
therefore, circulated a model act on PIM in the year 1998 with the view
to facilitate action by the state governments. Subsequently, conferences
on PIM were also organized by the ministry. The ministry has also been
organizing National level training programmes on PIM in various parts of
the country for CAD functionaries. In addition, a grant is also provided to
states for organizing state and project-level training programmes for farmers
and field functionaries.
3.7.1 Objectives of PIM
The main objectives of PIM are:
(i) To create a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation
system among the users, to promote economy in water use and
preservation of the system.
(ii) To improve service deliveries through better operation and
maintenance
(iii) To achieve optimum utilization of available resources through
sophisticated deliveries, precisely as per crop needs
(iv) To achieve equity in water distribution
(v) To increase production per unit of water, where water is scarce and to
increase production per unit of land where water is adequate
(vi) To make the best use of natural precipitation and groundwater in
conjunction with flow irrigation for increasing irrigation and cropping
intensity
(vii) To facilitate the users to have a choice of crops, cropping sequence,
the timing of water supply, period of supply and also the frequency of
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 supply, depending on soils, climate and other infrastructure facilities Irrigation and Drainage
available in the commands such as roads, markets cold storages, etc.,
to maximize the incomes and returns
(viii) To encourage collective and community responsibility on the farmers
to collect water charges and payment to irrigation agency
(ix) To create a healthy atmosphere between the Irrigation Agency
personnel and the users.
3.7.2 Provisions in PIM Acts
Recognizing the need for a sound legal framework for PIM in the country,
the ministry brought out a model act to be adopted by the state legislatures
for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts for
facilitating PIM. The legal framework provides for the creation of farmers
organizations at different levels of the irrigation system as under:
(i) Water Users’ Association (WUA): will have a delineated command
area on a hydraulic basis, which shall be administratively viable.
Generally, a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor.
(ii) Distributary committee: will comprise 5 or more WUAs. All the
presidents of WUAs will comprise the general body of the distributary
committee.
(iii) Project committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system
and presidents of the Distributary committees in the project area shall
constitute the general body of this committee.
The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in (i)
maintenance of irrigation system in their area of operation; (ii) distribution
of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi schedule;
(iii) assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water demand
and collection of water charges; (iv) resolve disputes among the members
and WUA and (v) monitoring flow of water in the irrigation system, etc.
3.7.3 Constraints in Implementation of PIM
There are several constraints in making the PIM sustainable in the long run.
Some of these are:
(i) Lack of legal backup and policy changes: In many states, there
is no or very little legal backup and lack of policy decision at the
government level to take up PIM, which is a big impediment in the
implementation of PIM.
(ii) System deficiency: In older projects, there are many problems like
deterioration of old control and measuring structures, leakages, and
seepage at various places, erosion of banks and beds, siltation, and
weed infestation. These are serious problems, hindering farmers
to take over the system management on technical and financial
considerations.
(iii) Uncertainty of water availability: This is another important aspect,
as farmers will understandably be reluctant to take on the responsibility
for managing the system unless deliveries of water are made reliable,
flexible, practical, and responsive to need. The engineers on their
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Indian Agriculture part may not be confident about ensuring the supply of the requisite
quantity of water to the WUAs, as would be obligatory in terms of the
MOU signed between the irrigation agency and WUA.
Further, the farmers who have their holdings at the head of the canal tend
to appropriate more water than required, whereas the farmers at
the tail end often fail to get their apportioned share of water. Head-
enders, therefore, have a vested interest in continuing the existing
arrangements. The tail-enders may not be keen to form WUAs as
water supply in such areas remains inadequate and erratic and they
remain apprehensive that the situation will not be materially altered
if an association is formed. These differences in perceptions and
conflicts of interests inhibit the coming together of the head end and
tail-end farmers.
(iv) Fear of financial viability: Maintenance and operation of the system
demand huge finances. Farmers have got the apprehension that in
absence of surety of finance, it would be difficult for them to fulfill
the requirement of funds for operation and maintenance. They feel
that when the government is not able to handle the system with huge
money available to them, how farmers would be able to do justice?
(v) Lack of technical knowledge: Apart from the financial uncertainty,
lack of technical input is one of the inhibiting factors to take over the
system.
(vi) Lack of leadership: On account of the limited exposure of the farmers
to the rest of the world and PIM in particular, potent leadership is
lacking, rather on account of limited knowledge. At times so-called
local leaders give the negative or unclear version before other farmers
which further creates misunderstanding among the farmers bringing
them sometimes into a fix.
(vii) Lack of publicity and training: Seeing is believing; and knowledge
brings confidence in people. This aspect is lacking and there is a
constraint to the adoption of PIM.
(viii) Demographic diversity: Due to variation in economic, ethnic,
education levels, etc. diversity of farmers, PIM is taking much time
in this country. To handle this aspect deep study, analysis and solution
need to be found out.
(ix) Mega irrigation projects: The world scenario indicates that there
are smaller projects in the countries of the world, where irrigation
project transfer has taken care of PIM. In India, huge projects are
having a very large distribution system and culturable command
area sometimes more than 20 lakh hectares. Larger the project, the
complex would be its maintenance, operation, and management
aspects and so the formation and functioning of farmers associations
for different necessary activities.
(x) WUAs v/s Panchayats: In many of the areas, where WUAs have
been formed, there is a clash of interest among Panchayats and WUAs
on who is to own the system, particularly when watershed schemes
are being handed over to the Panchayats.
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 Irrigation and Drainage
3.8 DRAINAGE
Drainage is the removal and disposal of excess water from the field. Excess
water in the root zone restricts soil aeration, affects soil temperatures,
hinders tillage operations, etc which should be removed by adopting proper
drainage method. When the water table comes near the surface and affects
the crop growth such a condition is called waterlogging. It affects the root
development of the crops and can bring up harmful substances to the root
zone. Drainage problems are widespread in irrigated areas. Drainage is
necessary not only for the removal of excess water but also for removing
the salts from the root zone.
Reasons for waterlogging
Both natural and man-made (artificial) conditions may cause waterlogging.
Important natural causes for waterlogging may be:
(i) The poor natural drainage of the subsoil due to the existence of
hardpan or rock near the soil surface;
(ii) submergence under floods; and
(iii) deep percolation from rainfall.
The important artificial causes of waterlogging are:
i) High intensity of irrigation irrespective of the soil and subsoil;
ii) Heavy seepage from unlined canals, and farm watercourses;
iii) Enclosing irrigated fields with embankments and choking up natural
drainage; and
iv) Non-maintenance of natural drainages or blocking of natural drainage
channels by roads and railways.
Benefits of drainage
The important benefits of drainage in the agriculture field are given below:
1. Provides a better environment for plant growth
2. Improves the soil structure and infiltration characteristics of soil
3. Provides optimum condition for tillage for a longer range of time
4. Maintain desirable soil temperature
5. Promotes increased leaching of salts and prevents their accumulation
in soil
6. Larger crop growing season
7. Weed problem is minimized
8. Reduced diseases which thrive on wetland
9. Opportunity for desirable soil micro-organisms to develop through
aeration and higher soil temperatures.
Methods of Drainage
Drainage problems may be caused by one or a combination of several factors
mentioned above. Control of the sources of excess water and provision for
removal of the excess is required to solve the drainage problem. Based on
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Indian Agriculture the severity and causes of the drainage problem, we may need to apply
one or a combination of measures to solve the problems. Period and the
amount of water standing, number of days for which soil is workable for
agricultural operations, the salinity of topsoil, depth of water table, etc
should be considered in deploying the drainage method.
The surface method and subsurface method are two broad types of drainage
methods.
1. Surface drainage methods: Surface drainage is the safe removal
of excess water through land shaping and improved or constructed
channels from the land surface. Surface drainage in agricultural lands
is needed to remove the excess rainfall as well as collect and dispose
of excess surface runoff. This problem mainly arises in soils with low
infiltration rates and heavy soils. In deep heavy soils, wherein vertical
movement of water is restricted and also the inadequate hydraulic
conductivity of the substrata, subsurface drainage systems may not be
feasible. Surface drainage is the only possible method in such an area.
The systems are also known as shallow drainage systems.
Surface drainage systems: In surface drainage water moves due to
land elevation to provide a hydraulic gradient and the system can
be considered in three functional parts, viz. (1) collection system,
(2) conveyance or disposal system, and (3) outlet. Water from the
individual fields is collected through the collection system and moves
through the disposal system to the outlet.
There are four types of drainage systems used in flat areas (less than
2 percent slope). These are (1) Random drain system (2) Parallel filed
drain system, (3) Parallel open ditch system, and (4) Bedding system.
2. Sub-surface drainage methods: A subsurface drainage system is
required for water table control and for maintaining a favorable salt
balance in the crop root zone to create a favorable environment for
crop production. In sub-surface drainage, water moves under the
influence of gravity to suitable outlets. This can be accomplished by
tile drains including perforated pipes, mole drains, drainage wells,
deep open drains, and a combination of tile and open drains. Deep
open drains serve the purpose of removal of excess surface water
and lowering the groundwater table. However, their main functions
are the removal of excess surface water and to serve as an outlet for
underground pipe drains, called tile drains. Sub-surface drainage
may be obtained mainly by a sub-surface drainage system called tile
drainage and vertical subsurface drainage comprising a system of
drainage wells.
Check Your Progress 3.2
Note: a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. When Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was
launched? Give its objectives.
………………………………………………………………………
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 ……………………………………………………………………… Irrigation and Drainage
………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………
2. What do you understand by Participatory Irrigation Management?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………
3. What do you understand by drainage problem?
………………………………………………………………………
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3.9 LET US SUM UP

Water is the most essential and crucial input for production. If the appropriate
quantities are not available at right time; nothing can be produced. Due to the
uneven distribution of rainfall and monsoon climatic conditions, the country
needed to develop its irrigation potential and spread the canal networks far
and wide. Consequently, there has been a continuous increase in the irrigation
potential through the canal and water distribution system created under
major & medium irrigation projects and minor irrigation schemes utilizing
surface water. Water being a state subject, planning and implementation of
water resources projects are undertaken by respective state governments.
Several schemes have been planned for implementation by the respective
state governments. The government of India provides central grants to the
state government under Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme for early
completion of the schemes. Ministry of Water Resources has also prepared
National Perspective Plan for optimal utilization of the water resources
particularly through the diversion of surplus flood water to water-deficient
areas. National Perspective Plan envisages various links to divert surplus
flood water to water-deficient areas. Ministry of Water Resources has also
launched schemes for repair, renovation, and restoration for water bodies
under which assistance is provided to States.

3.10 KEYWORDS
Canal : A water-carrying channel or conduit.
Created potential : Provisions for making water available for successful
growing of the crop.
Drainage : Removal of water from the root zone.
Irrigation: Artificial water application for crop production.
Ultimate potential: Area that can be supplied with water for producing
crops.
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Indian Agriculture Water balance: A sum total of all the water inflows ad outflows.
Water demand: Requirement of water during the crop growing season.
Water logging: Saturation of the crop root zones due to water stagnation
that hampers production and productivity.

3.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

●● Michael, A.M. (2008). Irrigation-Theory and Practices. Vikash
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 801.
●● Michael, A.M. and Ojha, T.P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural
Engineering, Vol.II. Jain Brothers, New Delhi, pp. 888.
●● Punmia, B.C. and Pandey, B.B.L. (1995). Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 985.
●● Raghunath, H.M. (1990). Hydrology-Principles Analysis and Design.
Willy Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 482.
●● Reddy, P.J. (1990). A Text Book of Hydrology. Laxmi Publication
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 985.
●● Sharma, R.K. (1993). A Text Book of Hydrology and Water Resources.
Dhanpat Rai & Sons Publisher, New Delhi.
●● Singh, V.P., and Yadav, R.N. (Eds.) (2003). Watershed Hydrology.
Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 447.
●● http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File413.pdf retrieved
on 20.11.2012

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 3.1
1) Irrigation is provided if there is not enough moisture in absence of
rain for producing usable commodities for humanity at large; hence
the supplemental application of water to crops may be referred to as
irrigation.
2) Continuous flood, basin irrigation, border-strip irrigation, furrow
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation methods, drip irrigation methods, etc.
3) Border-strip irrigation
4) Soil type, crop, topography, climatic conditions, source of water and
its quality, power availability, cost, benefits, etc.
5) Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration
rate. They, therefore, need frequent but small irrigation applications,
in particular when the sandy soil is also shallow.
6) Irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water
to apply to a field. It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation
among the various fields to minimize crop water stress and maximize
yields. It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through less
irrigation, thereby making the maximum use of soil moisture storage.

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Check Your Progress 3.2 Irrigation and Drainage

1) The Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched

in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization of
created irrigation potential and optimizing agriculture production and
productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-disciplinary
team under an Area Development Authority.
2) To address various problems in the canal network area, it has been
recognized that the participation of beneficiaries would help greatly
for the optimum upkeep of the irrigation system and utilization of
irrigation water.
3) Excess water in the root zone restricts soil aeration, affects soil
temperature, hinders tillage operations, etc., which should be removed
by adopting the proper drainage method.

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