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 Vocabulary
Instruction
that Strengthens
Comprehension

by

Shira Lubliner, Ed.D.

with
Linda Smetana, Ed.D.

Teacher Education Department

California State University, Hayward

• P A U L • H •
BRfiDKES
PUBLISHING COL
Baltimore • London • Sydney
• P A U L • H •
BRGDKES
PUBLISHING C9 372.61 Lub
Lubliner, Shira, 1951-
Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Getting into words :
Post Office Box 10624
vocabulary instruction
Baltimore, Maryland 21285-0624
that strengthens
www.brookespublishing.com comprehension

Copyright © 2005 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.

All rights reserved.

"Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co." is a registered trademark of

Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.

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Permission is gratefully acknowledged to use the graphics/images appearing in this

publication courtesy of Art Explosion © 1995-2001 Nova Development Corporation
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licensors. All rights reserved.

The extract on page 35 is from AMERICA WILL BE in HOUGHTON MIFFLIN

SOCIAL STUDIES by Armento, et al. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Com¬
pany. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The extract on page 139 is from THE DAY THE GOOSE GOT LOOSE by Reeve
Lindbergh, copyright © 1990 by Reeve Lindbergh. Used by permission of Dial Books
for Young Readers, A Division of Penguin Young Readers Group. A Member of Pen¬
guin Group (USA) Inc., 345 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10014. All rights reserved.

The vignettes in this book are composites based on the authors' experiences. In most
instances, names and identifying details have been changed to protect confidentiality.
In all other cases, individuals' names and stories are used by permission.

All photographs in this book and on the cover are used by permission of the individ¬
uals pictured or their parents or guardians.

Purchasers of Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

are granted permission to photocopy the student worksheets and transparency mas¬
ters at the ends of the chapters for educational purposes. None of the forms may be
reproduced to generate revenue for any program or individual. Photocopies may
only be made from an original book. You will see the copyright protection at the bot¬
tom of each photocopiable page. Unauthorized use beyond this privilege is prosecutable
under federal law.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lubliner, Shira, 1951-

Getting into words : vocabulary instruction that strengthens comprehension / by
Shira Lubliner; with Linda Smetana.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-55766-789-6 (layflat pbk.)
I. Vocabulary—Study and teaching (Elementary) I. Smetana, Linda Diane.
II. Title.

LB1574.5.L83 2005
372.61—dc22 2004015576

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data are available from the British Library.
Contents

About the Authors.vi

Acknowledgments.viii

Part I Getting Started

Introduction .3
Chapter 1 The Tools of Success.7

Part II Teaching Clarifying Strategies

Chapter 2 Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension.19
Chapter 3 Clarifying Strategies in Action.61

Part III Developing Metacognitive Skills

Chapter 4 Traffic Signs, Word Knowledge, and Self-Monitoring.71
Chapter 5 Word Learning and Self-Regulation.77
Chapter 6 Controlling Word-Learning Strategies .89

Part IV Building Word Knowledge

Chapter 7 Choosing Words to Teach and Learn .97
Chapter 8 Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts.113

Part V Teaching Vocabulary to Young Children and

English Language Learners
Chapter 9 Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children .133
Chapter 10 Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners.145

Part VI Managing a Comprehensive Vocabulary Development Program

Chapter 11 Teaching Vocabulary Across the
Curriculum and Throughout the School.165

References.175
Appendix A Glossary.179
Appendix B Answer Key.183
Index.195
About the Authors

Shira Lubliner, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Teacher Education Department, Cali¬

fornia State University, Hayward, 25800 Carlos Bee Boulevard, Hayward, CA 94542

Shira Lubliner has been an educator for more than 30 years, working as a class¬
room teacher, a private school principal, and a teacher educator. She taught a vari¬
ety of grade levels, working with children in elementary school, middle school, and
high school. After many years as an administrator, Dr. Lubliner returned to the
classroom to teach fifth grade in a diverse California public school.
Dr. Lubliner completed her doctorate in learning and instruction at the Univer¬
sity of San Lrancisco and is currently an assistant professor of teacher education at
California State University, Hayward. She teaches methods classes for preservice
teachers and graduate reading courses and conducts classroom-based research in
local elementary schools.
Shira Lubliner's research interests focus on methods of vocabulary instruction
that improve children's reading comprehension achievement. She designed a com¬
prehensive program of vocabulary development, on which this book is based, that
can be implemented by classroom teachers using regular instructional materials.
Results from a recent study she conducted in one of California's lowest perform¬
ing Title I schools documented large gains in vocabulary and reading comprehen¬
sion and a narrowing of the achievement gap between Title I students and those in
an above-average school following the implementation of this comprehensive
vocabulary development program (Lubliner & Smetana, 2004, manuscript submit¬
ted for publication).
Dr. Lubliner presents workshops for teachers on vocabulary instruction and
reading comprehension throughout the United States and is often a speaker at the
annual meetings of the American Educational Research Association, the Interna¬
tional Reading Association, the National Council for the Social Studies, and the Cal¬
ifornia Reading Association. Dr. Lubliner is the author of the article "Help for
Struggling Upper-Grade Elementary Readers" (The Reading Teacher, Lebruary 2004)
and the book A Practical Guide to Reciprocal Teaching (Wright Group/McGraw-Hill,
2001).
Shira Lubliner has been married to Efi Lubliner for 29 years and is the mother
of four delightful children, Dania, Leora, Dori, and Elan Lubliner.

vi
Linda Smetana, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Teacher Education Department, Cali¬
fornia State University, Hayward, 25800 Carlos Bee Boulevard, Hayward, CA 94542

Linda Smetana has worked as an educator for more than 30 years. She taught in
the public school system from kindergarten through continuation high school.
Since the 1980s, her work has centered on strategies for students with reading dif¬
ficulties and learning disabilities. She teaches courses in reading, language arts,
and special education at California State University, Hayward. Her current
research and teaching interests are fluency and vocabulary development and appli¬
cation of such strategies in classroom settings.
Linda Smetana has been married for 33 years to Ron Smetana and is the
mother of Daniel and Joel Smetana.

VII
Acknowledgments

Many people contributed to the publication of this book. I would like to acknowl¬
edge my colleague Linda Smetana, who shared my conviction that vocabulary
instruction is an essential factor in children's academic achievement. Linda pro¬
vided a great deal of help with the research that underlies this book, wrote the glos¬
sary, and was a constant source of support.
I would also like to acknowledge the public school teachers who helped bring
this book to life. Many thanks to Rhona Wanetick, Lynne Cheney, Martha Thomas,
Rachel Sterrett, and Amy Johnson for their wonderful work. They graciously invited
me into their classrooms, shared their students with me, skillfully implemented my
recommendations, and provided thoughtful feedback regarding the methods and
materials that are included in this book. I offer special thanks to Vicki Eversole and
Jana Perkins, graduates of the Reading Specialist Program at California State Uni¬
versity, Hayward. Vicki and Jana worked with me on their master's theses, exam¬
ining the effects of vocabulary instruction on students' reading comprehension.
Their work provided me with rich research opportunities and a chance to document
the effectiveness of Getting Into Words in the real world of diverse public school
classrooms. I learned much from my teachers and a great deal from my colleagues,
but I learned most of all from my students!
Special thanks to Jessica Allan, Mika Sam Smith, and Amy Kopperude, my edi¬
tors at Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., for their thoughtful guidance throughout the
process of preparing the manuscript for publication. They were a delight to work
with and helped transform my manuscript into a book to be proud of.
Finally, I'd like to thank my husband, Efi Lubliner, for his patience with my
absorption in this undertaking and his pride in my accomplishments. I couldn't
have done it without him!

viii
 To our children:
Dania, Leora, Dori, and Elan Lubliner

and

Daniel and Joel Smetana

Getting Started
Introduction

It was a bright fall morning—the first day of school. The bell rang and the teacher
opened the classroom door and smiled at 34 expectant faces. She welcomed the
children with a familiar sense of excitement, imagining miraculous growth in every
young mind. All things seem possible on the first day of school!
The teacher loved “getting into words,” probing for nuances of meaning in texts
and finding just the right words to express herself in writing. She understood the impor¬
tance of vocabulary and prepared carefully for the moment that she would initiate
the children into the world of words. She was determined to ignite their imaginations
with and inspire them to “get into words,” too. The teacher opened the poetry book
and spoke softly to children before beginning to read: “I want you to close your eyes
and listen carefully as I read this poem. Let the author paint a picture in your mind.
The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.
The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas,
The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor,
\ And the highwayman came riding—
Riding—riding—
The highwayman came riding up to the old inn-door.
(From “The Highwayman,” Alfred Noyes, 1907, p. 35)

“Now, open your eyes and read the first verse of the poem again yourself. Picture
the scene the author is describing. Then take your pastels and draw the picture that
you see in your mind.”
The children concentrated, completely absorbed by the task. The teacher
walked around quietly as the pictures emerged. Many of the children drew ships, hav¬
ing inferred the meaning of the word galleon from context. Although none of the chil¬
dren could define highwayman, most had understood enough to draw a horseman.
The words came to life in pastel colors; yes, the students understood the poem!
A few days later the children were working on their own writing. Alex had written
a poem about a falcon, but the words were dull and lifeless. He was frustrated with
the teacher's comments: “Alex, you’ve come up with a good sketch in this poem, but
I can't see your falcon in my imagination. You need powerful words to paint a picture
I can read and see in my mind.”
“I don’t know words like that,” Alex countered. “How am I supposed to use words
I don’t even know?"
“Hmm....Let’s figure this out. How could you find stronger words for your poem?”

3
4 Getting Started

“You could tell me!" Alex suggested hopefully.

“But that won't work very often, Alex. You’ll need words when I’m not around or
when I’m helping other kids. We need to find a way for you to be an independent
word learner. Where could you find words about falcons?”
“In a book?”
“Great idea!” The teacher replied. “We have some reference books on the shelf.
I think there's a book about birds of prey."
Alex found the book and located a section about falcons. He read a description
of the falcon’s talons. He quickly replaced the word claws in his poem with talons, a
word that he had not known. The teacher praised his efforts and urged him to con¬
tinue reading about falcons. The poem improved dramatically as Alex read and
learned vivid words that brought his ideas to life. His enthusiasm soared as the poem
took shape. Alex proudly read his poem, titled "Five Ways to Look at a Falcon,” aloud
to his classmates, who assured him that they could picture the falcon in their minds:

The falcon ready to trap its prey with mighty talons

The falcon with its graceful dive, aiming for its enemy....

While I was writing Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens
Comprehension, I was inspired by many of the children I taught and the experiences
I had as a fifth-grade teacher. Linda Smetana assisted me with the book, adding her
experiences and insights to this endeavor. Now a professor of teacher education, I
work closely with educators and know that they have the daunting responsibility
of transmitting an everincreasing body of knowledge and skills to children of the
21st century. Raised on sound bites and video games, many of these youngsters
enter our classrooms with little interest in reading and a very limited vocabulary.
Teaching lists of words is not going to provide children with the keys to literacy.
Children who see only dreary gray in books must be initiated into the world of
words, a world filled with light and color. Motivating children to "get into” words
Introduction 5

entails much more than conventional vocabulary instruction. It involves creating a

purpose for word learning. When children are touched by beautifully written
poetry and prose, they are willing to wrestle with these texts to extract meaning.
When they are inspired to write beautifully, they search for just the right word to
express their own thoughts. Just as they need inspiration to become engaged in
word-learning activities, children must be taught the tools of success. They need to
learn effective strategies and metacognitive skills so that they can take charge of
their own learning. Teaching children to get into words launches them on their way
to academic success. I hope that this book will be your guide as you seek to initi¬
ate children into the world of words.
* v. . ^N*VS
 Chapter 1

The Tools of Success

I often think of children such as Ashley, Todd, Hernando, and Stacey, the students
who did not succeed in my classroom. Ashley was a lively girl who seemed to
enjoy school. She read fluently but did not understand anything that she read.
Todd was quiet and withdrawn. He resisted reading and read so little that he made
minimal progress from year to year. Hernando started school speaking only Span¬
ish. Though he worked on his assignments with fierce determination, lack of Eng¬
lish proficiency limited his achievement. Stacey had a chaotic childhood prior to
her placement in foster care and did not start school until she was in first grade.
Although she tried hard to do well in school, Stacey was so far behind that she
never caught up with her peers. Ashley, Todd, Hernando, and Stacey were strug¬
gling readers. They passed through my classroom and needed more help than I
was able to give them at the time.
I began my work in vocabulary development in response to the needs of chil¬
dren such as these four. I was concerned about my students' poor reading skills but
did not realize at the time that vocabulary was the source of the problem. My
inquiry began with the reading comprehension literature, as I searched for ideas
that might help struggling readers. I learned that cognitive strategies and self¬
regulation had been shown to improve reading comprehension proficiency (Gam-
brell, Morrow, Neuman, & Pressley, 1999; Palincsar, 1983, 1985; Pearson & Dole,
1987; Pressley et al., 1995; Rosenshine, 1997). I taught my students to use strategies
and to monitor their own comprehension while reading. These methods worked
well, and I was pleased with the progress of most of the children. I noticed, how¬
ever, that some children, particularly those from disadvantaged families, did not
seem to benefit from this instruction. When I examined their reading performance
more closely, I realized that struggling readers could not use comprehension strate¬
gies effectively because they did not know enough words to make sense of the texts.
Surprisingly, many of the average students also showed signs of vocabulary-related
reading problems. They did not transfer word knowledge from vocabulary instruc¬
tion to books and were unable to manage word-learning tasks. These problems lim¬
ited the students' ability to construct meaning when confronted by challenging texts.
I tried to envision an instructional program that would provide the children
with the vocabulary they needed. But the problem was immense. Vocabulary
experts estimate that children need to learn 3,000 words per year (Baumann,
Kame'enui, & Ash, 2003; Nagy & Herman, 1984). Instructional time is limited,
and, realistically, teachers can only explicitly teach 300-400 words during a school

7
8 Getting Started

year. Children acquire most new vocabulary through reading, but many low-per¬
forming students are resistant to reading and read very little outside of class.
Despite my best efforts, the vocabulary gap was growing wider. It became clear
that my students needed better vocabulary instruction and greater reading volume.
Unless their vocabulary development could be accelerated, my low-performing
students were likely to fall further and further behind.
I reviewed the report of the National Reading Panel (NRP; National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; see also Kamil, 2004) and found
comprehension strategies that could be adapted to increase word-learning profi¬
ciency. For example, the NRP identified mental imagery as a strategy that improves
reading comprehension proficiency. I used this method to boost children's imagi¬
nations and to help them construct the meaning of words, as illustrated in the first
vignette in the Introduction. When I asked the children to create a mental image
of the line "the moon was a ghostly galleon, tossed upon cloudy seas" (Noyes, 1907,
p. 35), they spontaneously implemented word-learning strategies to make sense of
the word galleon. In addition to using mental imagery, I adapted several other
methods of increasing comprehension of texts, such as self-generated questioning,
predicting, and comprehension monitoring, to build word-learning skills. Compre¬
hension monitoring, a method with an extensive research base (NRP, 2000), was
particularly effective. When children were taught to monitor their comprehension
of words and to self-regulate word learning, they developed independent word¬
learning skills and their reading comprehension improved. The Tools of Success
(described later in this chapter) were beginning to take shape!
When I became a professor of teacher education, I identified key research
findings that shaped my thinking about vocabulary acquisition and instruction.
The instructional methods contained in this book are based on the following foun¬
dational beliefs:

• Vocabulary knowledge is closely related to reading comprehension and aca¬

demic achievement (Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990; Graves, 2000).

• Vocabulary limitations (particularly those of disadvantaged children) are a

major factor in the achievement gap (Biemiller, 1999, 2004; Chall et al., 1990;
Hart & Risley, 1995, 1999).

• Rich, in-depth vocabulary instruction fosters vocabulary growth that has a pos¬
itive impact on reading comprehension (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002; Nagy,
Anderson, & Herman, 1987; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986).

• Repeated exposures to new words is an important source of vocabulary growth

(Baumann et al., 2003; Nagy, 1985, 1988; Nagy & Herman 1984).

• Most vocabulary is acquired incidentally during reading, so increasing reading

volume is an important factor in accelerating vocabulary development (Nagy et
al., 1987; Nagy & Herman, 1984; Stanovich 1986; Swanborn & de Glopper,
1999).
The Tools of Success 9

• Incidental word learning during reading is inefficient, but children can be

taught intentional word-learning skills that increase the efficiency of vocabulary
acquisition (Baumann et ah, 2003; Nagy 1985, 1988).

• Effective vocabulary instruction is based on a combination of procedural knowl¬

edge (strategies), conditional knowledge (self-monitoring and self-regulation),
and declarative word knowledge (explicit instruction of words that children
need to know) (Ruddell, 1994).

• Use of word-learning strategies such as derivation of word meaning from con¬

text and structural analysis helps children become independent word learners
(Baumann et ah, 2003; Nagy, 1985, 1988).

• Teaching children self-regulating skills encourages them to monitor compre¬

hension and to take charge of their own word learning and comprehension
(Graves, 1997, 2000; Palincsar, 1983, 1985).

• Effective vocabulary instruction that begins in the primary grades can help nar¬
row the achievement gap between children of differing socioeconomic groups
(Biemiller, 1999, 2004).

CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Once I identified the foundational beliefs about vocabulary acquisition and instruc¬
tion, I turned to the question of reading comprehension. I knew from my experi¬
ence as a teacher that vocabulary is closely related to reading comprehension. But
it was important to gain an understanding of the factors that contribute to vocab¬
ulary acquisition and how vocabulary knowledge influences and is influenced by
reading comprehension. A review of the research literature indicated that a num¬
ber of factors influence vocabulary and reading comprehension proficiency; how¬
ever, the causal relationships are not fully understood (Baumann et ah, 2003). The
conceptual model in Figure 1.1 clarifies the relationship between the factors link¬
ing vocabulary and reading comprehension.

Figure 1.1. Conceptual model of the factors that mediate the influence of vocabulary on reading comprehension.
10 Getting Started

The conceptual model demonstrates that socioeconomic factors, background

knowledge, and English language proficiency affect vocabulary knowledge, which
influences and is influenced by reading volume and reading comprehension profi¬
ciency. Word-learning instruction, however, mediates the influence of factors lim¬
iting vocabulary knowledge. When vocabulary knowledge improves, it sets a cir¬
cular pattern into motion. Children read more, comprehend more, learn more
words, and do better in school. Effective word-learning instruction is the key to
launching the upward spiral that leads to academic success (see Chapter 11 for fur¬
ther discussion).

TRADITIONAL VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION THAT DOES NOT WORK

Vocabulary instruction appears to have changed little over the past several decades.
Children are given word lists and are taught to look up words in the dictionary, use
them in sentences, and memorize the definitions. Unfortunately, there is little evi¬
dence that these definitional methods are effective in accelerating children's
vocabulary growth (McKeown, 1993).

Go Look it Up
What is your earliest memory of vocabulary instruction? Perhaps you remember
encountering an unknown word during reading and asking a teacher or parent
what the word meant. "Go look it up" was the inevitable reply. You may remem¬
ber the frustration that ensued, particularly if you tried to follow your teacher's or
parent's instructions.
Imagine that you, a proficient adult reader, are reading a text and encounter
the word pedunculate. You remember the instructions you were given as a child and
look it up in the dictionary. The definition tells you that pedunculate means having
a peduncle (Stein, 1975). You look up the word peduncle and find that it is a stalk
that bears flowers or the fructification in fungi. You may still not be sure what the
word pedunculate means, 5 minutes have elapsed, and you have probably forgotten
the content of the text passage. In addition, you have encountered several more
challenging words such as stalk, fructification, and fungi that add to the complexity
of the word-learning task.
Children's dictionaries are not much better. If you were to ask your students
to look up the word aristocrat in the Macmillan Dictionary for Children (Levey, 1989)
they would find the following definition: a person who is a member of the aris¬
tocracy. Once again, the dictionary does not provide much help in determining
word meaning. As in the case of the adult dictionary, the children's dictionary com¬
plicates the quest for word meaning because the definitions contain complex words
that children may not understand.
When a child is reading silently, asks for help with an unknown word, and is
told, "Go look it up,” he is likely to be frustrated. He is engaged with a text and
just wants to know the meaning of the word so he can continue reading. The com-
The Tools of Success

mand "Go look it up" breaks his concentration, interfering with comprehension.
He may have difficulty finding the unknown word, particularly if it has an
inflected ending (e.g., -ed, -s, -es, -ing) or suffix. For example, the child may not real¬
ize that the dictionary definition for establish is appropriate if he is looking up the
word establishing. Once he successfully locates the word in the dictionary, he may
have to choose among several definitions. The child may also find that he does not
understand the definition any more than the original word. At this point the child's
reading experience has been completely disrupted and no vocabulary acquisition
has occurred. The advice "go look it up" has been completely counterproductive.

Use it in a Sentence
Another common form of vocabulary acquisition instruction is assigning children
the task of writing sentences with the new words. Several factors make this activ¬
ity difficult for children: 1) limited understanding of the words, 2) limited concep¬
tual knowledge about the words, 3) limited syntactical knowledge in reference to
the words. When a proficient adult reader tries to formulate a meaningful sentence
with the word pedunculate, she begins to appreciate the difficulty of this task. The
dictionary definition, "having a peduncle," provides very little information to sup¬
port a meaningful interpretation of the word. The reader may lack conceptual
knowledge about the stalks of fungi, which limits her ability to construct a mean¬
ingful sentence. If the reader has never encountered the word before, she may lack
syntactical knowledge about how the word should be used. Proficient adult read¬
ers know a great deal about vocabulary and syntax, yet they may find the task of
generating a meaningful sentence with words such as pedunculate very difficult.
Children and less proficient adult readers often lack background knowledge of
words, concepts, and syntax, which means that the task of generating meaningful
sentences with unknown words is nearly impossible.

Memorize the Definition

Another common instructional activity is providing definitions of target words and
asking children to memorize them. Nagy (1985, 1988) found that definitional
approaches did not generalize well and had no effect on reading comprehension. In
other words, children could be taught to memorize word definitions successfully but
were not able to comprehend the new words in texts, nor could they use the words
generatively in their own writing. Nagy concluded that definitional approaches were
not an effective means of increasing vocabulary or comprehension.

Complete Word Searches and Scrambles

When teachers realize that traditional instructional methods are not working, they
may turn to teacher supply stores for an alternative approach. They will find a
multitude of "vocabulary" workbooks full of worksheets that purport to provide
12 Getting Started

vocabulary instruction. Activities such as word searches and word scrambles have
little instructional value for teaching vocabulary. Word searches consist of a matrix
of seemingly random letters hiding a number of target words. Children are
required to locate and circle the words, which may be listed horizontally, vertically,
diagonally, or backwards. In word scrambles, children must unscramble the mixed-
up letters, identifying the target words. While word searches and word scrambles
may be fun, they are time-consuming, provide no exposure to words in context,
and contribute little to children's vocabulary growth. Given the limited time avail¬
able to teach vocabulary and the vast number of words children need to learn,
these activities are difficult to justify.

Nick’s Words
Traditional vocabulary instruction often fails to provide children with in-depth word
knowledge, as one teacher discovered. Mrs. Simon, the resource teacher, welcomed
third grader Nick to her classroom. She watched as he diligently completed the vocab¬
ulary worksheets that accompanied his reading book. Nick looked up words in the glos¬
sary and copied the definitions. He completed sentences, inserting the appropriate
words from the word bank, and filled in the boxes in the publisher-created crossword
puzzle. He smiled at her, proud that he could complete the assignment with ease.
Mrs. Simon visited Nick's class later that day during social studies time. The stu¬
dents had completed reading the assigned text and were answering questions on the
board. Nick caught sight of Mrs. Simon and asked her for help. He explained that he
could not do the assignment because he did not understand the words. As she
scanned the textbook, she noticed that three of the words that Nick said he did not
know were part of the vocabulary assignment that he had completed in the resource
room earlier in the day. She pointed to the textbook. “Nick, look here! I saw you work-
'J.
ing on these words this morning.”
“Really?" Nick replied, looking baffled. “This morning we did vocabulary work
from our reading books. This is social studies."

Nick's inability to transfer the definition of language arts words to the com¬
prehension of social studies texts is not surprising. Research has shown that defi¬
nitional approaches to vocabulary instruction merely increase children's ability to
define words but have no effect on reading comprehension (Baumann et al., 2003).
Nick needed more effective vocabulary instruction in order to understand his
social studies textbook. Instruction that is powerful enough to improve reading
comprehension requires a combination of methods that is called comprehensive
vocabulary development in this book.

COMPREHENSIVE VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Comprehensive vocabulary development is a multifaceted, research-based
approach to vocabulary instruction. The model in Figure 1.2 provides an overview
of comprehensive vocabulary development, demonstrating how instructional
The Tools of Success 13

Figure 1.2. Comprehensive vocabulary development.

methods are used to meet instructional goals for three important dimensions of
knowledge.

Dimensions of Knowledge
Comprehensive vocabulary development addresses three dimensions of instruction
that are essential to vocabulary growth (Ruddell, 1994):

• Procedural knowledge—knowing how to use vocabulary acquisition strategies

intentionally during reading
14 Getting Started

• Conditional knowledge—knowing when to use strategies to regulate word learning

• Declarative word knowledge—knowing what (the words) one needs to know

The comprehensive vocabulary development model provides a conceptual frame¬

work for organizing instruction.

Instructional Goals
The following goals drive instruction in each dimension of vocabulary knowledge:

• Children will learn to use effective clarifying strategies (procedural dimension)

• Children will learn to monitor word knowledge and use clarifying strategies
intentionally during reading (conditional dimension)
• Children will build in-depth knowledge of important vocabulary words (declar¬
ative dimension)

Instructional Methods
Instructional methods are the procedures that are used to attain instructional goals
in each dimension of knowledge. For example, mental imagery, word association,
and repeated exposures are methods of building word knowledge, the declarative
dimension of instruction.

THE TOOLS OF SUCCESS

The Tools of Success are instructional activities, the nuts and bolts of a compre¬
hensive vocabulary development program. These activities are designed to build
vocabulary and word-learning skills in each dimension of knowledge. The chart on
the facing page explains where in this book each tool can be found. Teachers can
use the Tools of Success to plan comprehensive vocabulary instruction to develop
the skills and knowledge that the children need in order to read proficiently.
The Tools of Success are presented in Chapters 2-8. (Instruction designed for
young children, English language learners, and whole-school implementation are
provided in Chapters 9-11, respectively.) Detailed instructions, practice worksheets,
and classroom dialogues are provided for the instructional tools. Appendix A con¬
tains a glossary of key terms. An answer key for the worksheets appears in Appen¬
dix B. Once you have finished reading the book, you can return to the Tools of Suc¬
cess and use them to plan comprehensive vocabulary development instruction.
 COMPREHENSIVE VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Dimension Word-learning skill Tools of Success Chapter Page(s)

Procedural Use CLARIFYING Clarifying Strategies Overview Chapter 2 19-20

knowledge: STRATEGIES to make Clarifying Cue Card Chapter 2 38
Knowing how... sense of unfamiliar
Clarifying Cue Card for Kids Chapter 9 138-140, 143
words encountered dur¬
ing reading. Clarifying Cue Card with Catch a Cog-
nate (in English and in Spanish) Chapter 10 149, 156, 157
Mine Your Memory Chapter 2 20-21
Study the Structure Chapter 2 21-29
All in the Family Chapter 2 22, 39
Prefix Chart Chapter 2 23, 40
Attitude Adjustment Chapter 2 24, 42
Root Webs Chapter 2 24-26
Latin and Greek Root Lists Chapter 2 26-27, 43-44
Word Tree Chapter 2 27-28, 45-46
Be a Root Detective Chapter 2 28, 47
Study the Structure Cue Card (in
English) Chapter 2 28-29, 48
Study the Structure Cue Card (in
Spanish) Chapter 10 158
Consider the Context Chapter 2 29-35
Be a Context Detective Chapter 2 30, 49
Be a Super Sleuth Chapter 2 30, 50-51
High-Frequency Signal Words Chapter 2 31
Sequence Signal Words Chapter 2 31-32, 52
Compare-and-Contrast Signal Words Chapter 2 32, 53
Signal-Words Cloze Chapter 2 32, 54
Cause-and-Effect Signal Words Chapter 2 32-33, 55
Stop for Signal Words Chapter 2 33, 56-57
Consider the Context Cue Card (in
English) Chapter 2 58
Consider the Context Cue Card (in
Spanish) Chapter 10 159
Substitute a Synonym Chapter 2 35-36
Five Steps Chapter 2 36, 59-60
Additional Clarifying Strategies Chapter 2 37
Ask an Expert Chapter 2 37
Place a Post-It Chapter 2 37
Catch a Cognate Cue Card (in English
and in Spanish) Chapter 10 149-152, 160, 161
Catch a Cognate Worksheet Chapter 10 149-151, 162

Conditional Determine levels of Stop Sign Chapter 4 73-76

knowledge: word learning. Zone of Understanding Chapter 5 78-79
Knowing when... Use comprehension- Stoplight Vocabulary Chapter 5 79-84, 85-87
monitoring devices and Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree Chapter 6 92-93, 94
other METACOGNl-
TIVE SKILLS.

Declarative word Acquire in-depth Word Study Journal Chapter 7 103-105, 110-111
knowledge: WORD KNOWLEDGE. Mental Imagery Chapter 7 105-106
Knowing what... Apply word knowledge Expressive Vocabulary Cloze Chapter 7 106-107, 112
to reading comprehen- Getting Into Words with Poetry Chapter 7 107-108
sion. 113-114
Semantic Maps Chapter 8
Feature Analysis Charts Chapter 8 114-116, 125, 126
Word Scales Chapter 8 116, 127
More Word Scales Chapter 8 116, 128
Picture Prediction Chapter 8 117-119, 129
Picture Prediction Response Chart Chapter 8 119-122, 130
Title Prediction and Sorting Chapter 8 122-124

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
16 Getting Started

There is no rigidly defined order for teaching children the Tools of Success;
however, the clarifying strategies are often taught first because they provide a good
foundation for comprehensive vocabulary development. With carefully designed
instruction, children internalize the clarifying strategies and are able to infer word
meaning from the books that they read. The next step is for students to learn the
metacognitive skills that they need to monitor comprehension and regulate clari¬
fying strategy use. Explicit vocabulary instruction is also incorporated and is taught
across the curriculum. A variety of declarative tools are used to ensure that chil¬
dren acquire in-depth knowledge of high-utility words. Teachers select the tools
they need for each lesson to maximize children's word learning and reading com¬
prehension proficiency.
The following vignette demonstrates how Mr. Thomas used the Tools of Suc¬
cess to help his students read and comprehend a demanding text.

The Tools of Success in Action

Mr. Thomas was planning a reading lesson for his fifth-grade students based on the
story The Life of a Cowboy. He knew that the story contained a number of challeng¬
ing words that might limit the children's comprehension. He decided to focus on
vocabulary instruction, using the Tools of Success. Mr. Thomas was not sure which
words would be difficult for the children, so he selected a conditional tool, Stop Sign,
to help them evaluate their word knowledge. Mr. Thomas gave each child a small
paper stop sign on a Popsicle stick and asked the children to raise their signs when¬
ever they heard an unknown word. He read the first 2 pages of the story aloud to the
children and noted raised stop signs. Mr. Thomas carefully reviewed these words and
chose the tools he needed for vocabulary instruction.
Mr. Thomas decided that the word emergencies was central to the meaning of
the text and had to be explicitly taught to the children. He selected a declarative tool,
Semantic Maps, to ensure that the children would acquire in-depth knowledge of this
essential word. He wrote the word emergencies on the board and helped the children
construct a map of words related by meaning. Mr. Thomas also noted that the chil¬
dren had difficulty understanding a number of compound and hyphenated words
(e.g., overturn, panic-stricken, sure-footed, counteract). He decided to teach the chil¬
dren how to use a procedural tool (a word-learning strategy), Study the Structure. He
carefully modeled the strategy, taking extra time to demonstrate how structural
analysis helped him make sense of challenging words in the text.
Once he had completed the vocabulary instruction, Mr. Thomas released respon¬
sibility to the students, asking them to finish reading the story independently. Mr.
Thomas was pleased to see that children were actively engaged in reading the story
and demonstrated strong comprehension of the text. He used the Tools of Success
effectively to strengthen the children’s vocabulary and to ensure a successful reading
experience.
Teaching
Clarifying Strategies
 Chapter 2

Strategies that
Strengthen Comprehension

Mrs. Stein sipped her coffee and opened the morning newspaper. Soon she was
deeply engrossed in an article about education. Finishing the first part of the article
on the front page, she flipped through the newspaper to the second half of the arti¬
cle on page 6. She was annoyed to find that a large inkblot down the center of the
page obscured one or more words in each line of the text. Mrs. Stein was very inter¬
ested in the article, so she persevered, using context clues to infer the identity of the
missing words. Although this reading experience entailed a great deal of extra effort,
Mrs. Stein was able to read and comprehend the article.

Good readers know what to do when they encounter missing or unfamiliar

words. They use strategies, or problem-solving methods, to infer text meaning. But
most children do not know how to solve word-learning problems and must be pro¬
vided with explicit strategy instruction. This chapter provides methods for teach¬
ing children the clarifying strategies that good readers implement intuitively to
improve word learning and reading comprehension.
When you give a man a fish, he eats for one day. When you teach him to fish, he
eats for a lifetime. Everyone has heard that Chinese proverb and understands the
message. It is more important to teach people skills that will allow them to help
themselves than to give them aid that makes them dependent on the donor. Most
vocabulary instruction entails giving children "fish," that is, words that the teacher
selects and explicitly teaches. While some explicit instruction is necessary, this
method increases children's dependence on the teacher. Children must be taught
independent word-learning strategies that teach them to fish, that is, to acquire
new vocabulary for a lifetime.
Once teachers decide to do the latter, they are confronted with important
questions: Which strategies are most effective in enhancing comprehension? How
do teachers explain these powerful tools to children and help children learn to
implement the strategies independently during reading? Instruction begins with
the Clarifying Cue Card (Lubliner, 2001; see p. 38).
The Clarifying Cue Card comprises four strategies (Mine Your Memory, Study
the Structure, Consider the Context, and Substitute a Synonym) that closely mir¬
ror the strategic behavior of good readers. Each strategy works differently, and no

19
20 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

strategy is always effective. Additional tools (Ask an Expert

and Place a Post-It) are provided for use when the clarifying
CLARIFYING CUE CARD
strategies do not work. The goal of Clarifying Cue Card
When you find a word you don't understand, try the following strategies

MINE YOUR MEMORY

instruction is to help children learn to "fish in all kinds of
Have you ever seen this word before? Can you remember what It means?
water," manipulating strategies flexibly and internalizing
STUDY THE STRUCTURE
Do you know the root or base word? Does the word have a prefix or suffix
that you know? Try to use clues In the word to figure out the meaning.
effective word-learning skills.
The Clarifying Cue Card was designed as a temporary
CONSIDER THE CONTEXT
Look at the Information in the sentence and the whole paragraph. Can you
figure out the meaning of the word? scaffold to be used during the early stages of strategy
SUBSTITUTE A SYNONYM instruction. Teachers do not simply give the cue card to chil¬
When you think you know what the word means, try putting a word with a
similar meaning In the sentence. Does It make sense?
dren and tell them to use it. They must provide a great deal
If the strategies don't work, try these:
of explicit instruction and practice with each word-learning
ASK AN EXPERT
Does someone In your group know what the word means? Can you figure it
out together?
strategy. This helps children gain control over the strategies,

PLACE A POST-IT
increasing the likelihood that they will be able to use them
If you can't figure out the meaning of the word, put a Post-It by the word,
and check with the teacher or look It up In the dictionary later. during independent reading. Once children internalize the
strategies, they discard the cue card, a scaffold that is no
longer necessary. Chapters 9 and 10 describe the use of the
Clarifying Cue Card with younger children and with English language learners,
respectively.

MINE YOUR MEMORY

Clarifying strategy instruction begins with Mine Your Memory, which children
usually learn readily and implement effectively. The rationale for incorporating
this strategy into word-learning instruction is grounded in research. Children con¬
struct word meaning gradually through repeated exposures as they encounter
words during reading. In fact, vocabulary experts estimate that up to 10 exposures
to a word are required for in-depth vocabulary learning to occur (Nagy, 1985, 1988;
Nagy & Herman 1984). Children encounter new words continually and acquire an
initial hazy understanding of word meaning that becomes more precise with every
encounter. During any given time period, children may be learning up to 1,600
words (Carey, 1978). Children can be taught to access these partially learned words
in memory, thereby expanding their vocabulary and helping them to infer the
meaning of texts. Without strategy instruction, children tend to skip words that
look unfamiliar. Once they learn the strategy Mine Your Memory, they become
quite skilled at recalling previous encounters with words. Most children report that
this is the easiest and most effective word-learning strategy that they are taught.
Mine Your Memory instruction is based on a high-interest book filled with rich
vocabulary. When the teacher reads the book aloud to the children, she pauses
when she encounters a challenging word. She thinks aloud as she ponders the
meaning of the word, identifying previous encounters with the word that help to
clarify word meaning. The teacher continues reading until encountering another
difficult word, pauses, and invites the children to reflect on the word. "Have you
ever heard that word before?" she asks. The teacher engages the children in a dis¬
cussion of prior encounters with the word. She points out to the children that the
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 21

Mine Your Memory strategy helps them learn words and construct meaning from
a text.

Mr. Dean's Class

Mr. Dean’s fourth graders had just come in from recess. They bounded into the room
and quickly settled down as he passed out a children's news magazine. Mr. Dean
asked the children to follow along as he read from an article about South Africa: “The
southern tip of Africa is a medley of cultures and landscapes"(Time Inc., 2002, p. 2).
Mr. Dean stopped reading. “Wow, these are hard words!” he said, eyeing the chil¬
dren. “Does anyone know what a medley is?" The children sat quietly, pondering the
question. Courtney raised her hand.
“In Girl Scouts we sing a lot of medleys. They're songs put together into one big
song.”
Mr. Dean smiled, delighted with the response. “Great job clarifying the word med¬
ley, Courtney! How did you figure it out? Did you use any of the clarifying strategies?”
Courtney explained, “Well, I knew right away that the word was familiar. But I wasn't
sure what it meant in the article. When I mined my memory I remembered the Girl
Scouts songs and then I knew what it meant.”
Mr. Dean asked the children, “How many of you remember singing medleys?”
(Most of the children raised their hands.) “So, most of you already knew this word, but
you did not realize it. That's the point of Mine Your Memory. You dig into your memory
and pull out those words you already know. This is a really powerful strategy that will
help you understand a lot of hard words.” Mr. Dean reminded the students that they
had already learned about the meaning of the word culture. He asked another stu¬
dent, Ari, what a medley of cultures could be.
“Is it different groups of people put together, like a medley of songs?" Ari asked
hesitantly.
“Exactly!” Mr. Dean praised Ari’s response and returned to the magazine.
Although this was a current events lesson, he embedded clarifying strategies for word
learning into his instruction. This helps the children learn to apply such strategies flexi¬
bly to a range of texts.

STUDY THE STRUCTURE

Mr. Dean’s Class

Mr. Dean continued to read the article about South Africa with his fourth-grade stu¬
dents. He stopped after reading the following line in the magazine: “With its dramatic
mountains..." (Time Inc., 2002, p. 2).
“Okay, we better stop here! What are dramatic mountains?” Mr. Dean asked,
emphasizing the word dramatic.
Leora, who loved theater, eagerly answered, “I know! It's like drama.”
Mr. Dean looked puzzled. “How can mountains be like drama?” he asked.
22 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

Leora explained, "Drama is a story that makes you feel like you’re in another
world. It’s amazing! So, I think dramatic mountains are amazing too. They're so high or
beautiful, when you see them, it’s like you’re in another world."
Mr. Dean gave a thumbs-up to Leora. “That’s a perfect clarification of the phrase
dramatic mountains. Which strategy did Leora use?”
Nicole raised her hand. “She used Study the Structure because drama was inside
the word.”
Mr. Dean nodded approvingly and moved on with the lesson.

Study the Structure is a particularly complex clarifying strategy for children to

learn. It entails learning word parts and applying the knowledge strategically to
infer word meaning. Teachers begin instruction with base words, then move on to
affixes (prefixes and suffixes, including inflected suffixes such as -s, -ed, and -ing),
followed by high-frequency Latin and Greek roots. Initial instruction focuses on
helping children recognize words that are part of the same word family. For exam¬
ple, build is a base word that is part of a word family that includes building, builds,
rebuild, and many other words. If children learn to use structural clues with base
words and common prefixes and suffixes, they can infer the meanings of up to 80%
of words containing affixes (White, Power, & White, 1989). (For further discussion
of base words, high-frequency Latin and Greek roots and affixes, and structural
analysis, see Henry, 2003.)

All in the Family

The universal concept of family relation¬
ships is used as a basis of instruction in the
activity All in the Family (see p. 39). Chil¬ ALL IN THE FAMILY
dren readily grasp the idea that words are Word families are groups of words that are related to the
same base word. If you know the base word. It Is easy to
find all of the relatives. Just look Inside the word! In the
example below, we read the story In the box and underline
related to each other just as the children are the words that belong to the send family. tVe write each
word In the send family in the circle

related the members of their own families.

All in the Family helps children recognize /
A SEN0
spin
[
\
1 need 10 send a birthday card to my grandma. She always
sends me a card and a present for my birthday Last vear 1
sent the card to the wrong address It came back to me with
the label returned to sender. This year I'm sending Grandma
and construct meaning for related words N. sender / two cards. Just In case 1 make a mistake1

Read the story in the box below. Underline the words that are part of the build,
encountered during reading. work, and employ word families, and write them In the family circles.

Affixes
A vast number of affixes and roots are
found in the books children read. To make
the most of limited instructional time,
teachers focus instruction on the word parts
that children will encounter most fre¬
quently. For example, a small number of
negative prefixes (i.e., un-, in-, im-, il-, and z>-) account for 37% of words with pre¬
fixes that children are likely to encounter (White, Sowell, & Yanagihara, 1989).
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 23

Mrs. Yoshi's Class

4 4 4 ;
Mrs. Yoshi, a sixth-grade teacher, decided to spend part of her language arts block on
vocabulary instruction. Noting that her struggling readers often failed to recognize
words containing affixes even when knowing the base words, Mrs. Yoshi devoted sev¬
eral lessons to this topic. She began by introducing her students to high-frequency
negative prefixes, using a prefix chart (see p. 40). She placed a transparency of the
chart on the overhead projector and showed the children how to record the word
unnecessary. Mrs. Yoshi modeled filling in the chart, writing the word, the prefix fun-J,
the prefix's meaning (not), the base word (necessary), the base word’s meaning
(something you need), and the meaning of the word cre¬
ated by adding the prefix to the base word (something
you don’t need). Mrs. Yoshi selected another word begin¬
PREFIX CHART
ning with the prefix un- (unusual) and asked the children to
Base word
(word Prefixed help fill in the chart. Then she asked the children generate
Prefixed Prefix's without Base word's word's
word Prefix meaning prefix) meaning meaning
a list of additional examples.
“Who can think of another word that starts with un-?”
Mrs. Yoshi asked. The children came up with a number of
words, including unlikely, unforgettable, unfair, and
unlucky, which Mrs. Yoshi listed on the board. She passed
out copies of the prefix chart and asked the children to
select words from the list and to fill in their prefix charts.
When the children completed the task, Mrs. Yoshi called
the class together and invited the children to take turns fill¬
ing in the chart on the overhead transparency.
When they had finished filling in the chart, Mrs. Yoshi
announced, "I have a challenge for you! Do you think you
can use a word with and without a prefix in the same sen¬
tence?” The children thought for a few minutes and then
began to raise their hands.
WORDS WITH
NEGATIVE PREFIXES Mike came up with a sentence that made the other
children laugh. “I think it’s unfair when we get homework
over the weekend, but it’s fair if we have enough time to
get it done before Friday."
Mrs. Yoshi jokingly replied, “Kind teachers give their
students plenty of warning before being unkind enough to
assign homework over the weekend." The students
laughed at the clever exchange. More important, they
discontented
displace
gained insight as to how prefixes can be used to alter word
dissimilar unboarablo unorganaec
uncivil (rod
unconquered
unconscious meaning.
unwanted

inexperienced
unfortunate
unidentified unworthy During the next few days Mrs. Yoshi used the prefix
innumerable

chart (see p. 40) and word lists (see p. 41) to introduce the
children to additional words with prefixes. Mrs. Yoshi also
24 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

paused to point out words with prefixes in the children’s textbooks and encouraged
them to watch for words containing prefixes as they read independently. She was
pleased to see that the children's comprehension of words containing prefixes grew
steadily over the next few weeks.

The lists of words with prefixes shown on page 41 are based on information
found in The Living Word Vocabulary (Dale & O'Rourke, 1981), which lists com¬
monly used words and identifies the percentage of children who know the words
at particular grade levels (at the fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth, and twelfth grades and
at the postsecondary level). Page 41 shows fourth- and sixth-grade lists of words
with prefixes (known by two thirds of children at these levels, respectively).

Attitude Adjustment (High-Frequency Negative Prefixes)

Once children have been introduced to high-frequency prefixes they need addi¬
tional practice manipulating word parts. The instructional activity Attitude Adjust¬
ment (see p. 42) addresses the manipulation of high-frequency negative prefixes.
Attitude Adjustment uses a comical letter to teach chil¬
dren to recognize and understand high-frequency nega¬
tive prefixes [un-, in-, im-, z7-). The purpose of the activ¬
ATTITUDE ADJUSTMENT
ity is to help children gain control over these prefixes,
Harry has a bad attitude. He adds a negative prefix to almost everything he
says. This Is Harry's letter to you. increasing their ability to use the Study the Structure
Dear Classmate,

I dislike you because you are very unkind to me.

strategy effectively. After the teacher has read the letter
Your unpleasant attitude makes me very unhappy.

I dislike all of the other kids In my class, too. aloud, the children work together, deleting the negative
They are unable to follow the rules In the games
we play. This makes me quite displeased. Their
behavior Is Inappropriate, and I am usually unable
to enjoy being in the class.
prefixes and rereading the text. (Not all negative prefixes
I really dislike my teacher, Mr. Jones. He has
unrealistic expectations of us. and I always
misunderstand his directions. His explanations
appear in Attitude Adjustment.)
are Illogical, and I am discontented in his class.

I also dislike my family, particularly my brother, Sam. His clothing Is dis¬ Children enjoy the humorous aspects of Attitude
tasteful and he always behaves Inappropriately. He is completely unreliable,
and that makes me feel very uncomfortable. I wish he would disappear
sometime soon.
Adjustment and are eager to write their own "bad atti¬
I especially dislike my dog, Max. He has a very unpleasant smell and looks
unappealing. Max is so unintelligent that he Is incapable of doing tricks.
Max Is disloyal to me and disappears as soon as I come home from school
each day. I really disagree that dogs are a man's best friend.
tude" letters, using the lists of words with negative pre¬
I am a very unhappy kid because I have the most disagreeable friends and
the most disreputable family In the world. fixes (see p. 41) as sources of additional vocabulary.
Insincerely yours,

Harry
Grouping prefixes with similar meaning and extending
Help give Harry an attitude adjustment! Delete the negative prefixes un, U-,
In , and dls■ from his letter. Read the letter again. Does Harry sound nicer
instruction to include writing activities help children
without the negative prefixes?

acquire in-depth knowledge of prefix meaning. This type

of instruction promotes lexical access so that children
can clarify words containing affixes readily.

Root Webs
In the Root Webs activity, the teacher begins Latin and Greek root word instruc¬
tion by introducing a high-frequency root such as form. She writes the root on the
board, defines it, and asks the children to brainstorm words from the same word
family. The teacher records all of the words that the children generate on the
board. She asks the children to identify the words on the list that have prefixes and
underline the prefixes. The teacher asks the children to select words on the list that
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 25

do not have inflected endings (e.g., -ed, -s, -es, -ing) or suffixes for the first level of
the root web. She circles the words that the children suggest and writes these
words on the root web and links them to the root (see Figure 2.1).
The teacher discusses each word in the web, explaining how prefixes and roots
combine to create word meaning. Then the teacher points out words on the list that
have inflected endings and other suffixes. She adds words with the inflected end¬
ing -ed to the root web and invites children to add additional inflected endings (e.g.,
the verb endings -s, -ing). With the children's contributions, the root web now looks
like Figure 2.2.
Finally, the teacher introduces the suffix -er and models adding it to the word
inform. She invites the children to add words, pausing to explain that suffixes do
not work in every combination of prefixes and roots. The teacher points to the
word information on the word list the children generated, suggesting that they add
words ending in -ation or -tion to the root web. Now the root web (see Figure 2.3)
contains 24 words based on the root form. The teacher points out to the children

Words that contain the root form

information
inform
formed
deform
reform
reforms
informed
formula
transform
transformed

Figure 2.1. Root web 1, with a list of form words children have suggested. This initial web shows the root and prefixed
words that the children have suggested (without inflected suffixes).

Figure 2.2. Root web 2. This intermediate web adds words with inflected endings for verbs, -ed, -s, and -ing.
26 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

Figure 2.3. Root web 3. This final web adds words with the inflected endings -er and -ation.

that knowing how to use roots, prefixes, and suffixes to construct meaning provides
the children with powerful word-learning skills.
Now that the teacher has modeled the process of creating root webs, she is
ready to transfer responsibility to the students. She passes out copies of Latin and
Greek root lists (see pp. 43-44) and asks the children to select roots to web. Then
children work in pairs constructing their own root webs that they share with the
class.

Latin and Greek Root Lists

Once children have learned the high-fre¬
quency affixes and have worked with root
webs, they are ready for instruction in
w
j LATIN ROOT UST J|
important Latin and Greek roots. Pages 43 ROOT WHAT IT MEANS EXAMPLE
diet to say contradict (say something against)

and 44 include Latin and Greek root lists, equ the same fiOUal (having the same value or qual
lty)
fac/fact/fect to do, to make factory (a place where things are

respectively, that can be used for a variety form shape

made)
deformed (misshapen)
Ject throw ei£ti (to throw out)
of instructional activities. These particular Jud/Jur/Jus Judge prejudice (negative Judgment about
people)
loc place location (a place)
roots were selected based on a word-fre¬ man hand manual (by hand)
mem remember memorize (learn something by heart)
port to carry
quency guide for children's texts (Zeno, transport (to carry from place to
place)
prlm/prln first primary (first or most Important)

Ivens, Millard, & Duvvuri, 1995). The ques/quer

scrlb/scrlpt
to ask
to write
question (something you ask)
manuscript (a written draft of a
book)

word-frequency guide lists all of the words sens/sent

spcc/spect
to feel
to look
sensation (a feeling)
Inspect (look at very carefully)
struct build structure (something that has been
found in school literature (novels and text¬ tract drag or pull
built)
extract (to pull out of something)
trans across tiansfer (move something from one
books) and the number of times each word place to another)
val to be strong/worth valuable (to be worth a lot)
voc voice, to call advocate (to voice support, a person
appears at various grade levels. I examined who docs so)

roots found in books such as Word Journeys

Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 27

(Ganske, 2000) and English Words from Latin

and Greek Elements (Ayers, 1986) and iden¬
tified a large number of high-frequency
Latin roots. Only those Latin roots that
were linked to at least 100 derived words ROOT
astro
t GREEK ROOT LIST '1f
WHAT IT MEANS
star
EXAMPLE
aslronomy (study of the stars)

(words taken from a source) at the sixth- auto

bio
self
life
aulQgraph (signature by one's self)
liiclogy (the study of living things)
geo earth geology (study of the earth)
grade level were included in the Latin Root gram/graph write, record autograph (a written signature)
meter/metr measure barometer (a measure of air pres
sure)
List (see p. 43). The frequency of words micro small microscope (a tool that makes things
look larger)
logy study of cardiology (study of the heart)
derived from Greek roots was much lower, phll love Philadelphia (nicknamed "City of
Brotherly Love’)
phono/phon sound telephone (a device that carries
so Greek roots with at least 25 derived sound a long way)
photo/phos light phMflgraphy (taking pictures using
light)
words at the sixth-grade level were pol/polis city, state political (having to do with running a
city or state)
phys nature physical (relating to the natural
included in the Greek Root List (see p. 44). world)
tech/techn art, skill isibnical (requiring special skills)

When children learn high-frequency tele far telephone (tool that allows you to
talk to someone far away

roots, they gain understanding of the words

that appear frequently in the elementary
curriculum and acquire the tools to make
sense of more challenging words. For exam¬
ple, the high-frequency Latin root port means to carry from one place to another. Once
children learn this root they are capable of understanding words such as transport
(appears 31 times in school texts, according to Zeno et ah, 1995), export (appears 3
times), portable (appears 2 times, according to Zeno et al.), and so forth. In addition,
children can make sense of such words as deportation that do not appear in school
texts until the postsecondary level.

Word Tree
The Word Tree activity provides children with additional practice and flexibility in
manipulating high-frequency Latin and Greek roots and affixes. The teacher begins
by preparing a Word Tree transparency (see
p. 45) and hands out copies of the Word Tree
worksheet (see p. 46). He models filling in
the first root, sped, and discusses the mean¬
ing of each derived word that the children
identify. He explains how affixes are com¬
bined with roots to determine word mean¬
ing. The teacher models selecting the next
root from the Latin or Greek root list (see pp.
43 and 44, respectively). Then he asks each
child to work with a partner to complete the
rest of the word trees on the worksheet.
When the children finish the activity, they
share their word trees with the class, dis¬
cussing the meanings of the words that are
derived from the roots. To increase the like-
28 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

lihood that children will internalize the

meaning of Latin and Greek roots and their WORD TREE
derived words, the teacher displays the chil¬ This word tree has words from the Latin root sped, which means look. Can you figure
out what the words mean by knowing the root? Fill In the root chart below.

dren's Word Tree worksheets on the bulletin Origin (Greek or Latin) Lain
look

board. Word Meaning

Meaning

Meaning

Be a Root Detective Crow your own word trees using your Latin and Creek word lists. Underline the r
each word and find out what it means.

Vocabulary interventions often succeed in _ Origin (Greek or Latin) _

Meaning of r<

increasing children's vocabulary knowledge Word _

Word
or strategic skills without improving chil¬
Meaning

dren's reading comprehension. Apparently,

these interventions fail to provide children
Meaning of root

with knowledge and skills that they can Meaning

Meaning
Meaning
transfer beyond the original instructional Meaning
Meaning

setting. To increase reading proficiency,

children must learn to transfer their knowl¬
edge of words and word parts to the strate¬
gic comprehension of texts. Instruction BE A ROOT DETECTIVE
begins with a specially designed text. Nat¬ Read the text below and underline the words with Larin and Greek
roots. Give the meaning of each underlined word luse your Latin
and Creek root lists If you need help) Then explain the meaning
of the text In your own words.
ural texts do not usually provide sufficient
Tile historian was Inspecting the Native American artifacts that she had found In the
cave The first thing she did was photograph each Item In Its original location Then she had
opportunities for children to practice infer¬ to extract the Items from the cave very carefully so that they wouldn't be damaged. Once the
artifacts were removed from the cave, the historian needed a logical way to organize them
She carefully examined each Item and used scientific techniques to decide how old It was

ring word meaning from structure. The text Every artifact was dated, except for some microscopic pieces of pottery that were too dlffl
cult to work with. Once the historian dated the artifacts, she began to put them In chrono
logical order.
The historian took careful notes about the artifacts. She wrote a detailed description of
for the Be a Root Detective activity (see each Item In her Journal and dictated additional notes into her tape recorder She planned to
return to the university and write a monograph about her discovery. She was very proud to
have discovered such an Incredible collection of ancient Native American artifacts.
p. 47), based on fifth-grade social studies
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning _

and science vocabulary, was specially con¬ Word- Origin (Greek or Latin)- Meaning —
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meanlng_
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning _
structed to provide Study the Structure strat¬ Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning —
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning-

egy practice. Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning—

Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning _
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning-
The Be a Root Detective text includes Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning—
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning —
10 words (inspecting, artifact, photograph, Word__ Origin (Creek or Latin)_ Meaning —

The meaning of the paragraph in my own words:

location, extract, technique, microscopic,
description, dictated, and monograph) found
on the Latin and Greek root lists (see pp.
43-44). Proficient students can be challenged to find additional words derived
from Latin and Greek roots, such as logical and chronological.

Study the Structure Cue Card

Children gain increasing flexibility as they practice implementing Study the Struc¬
ture with specially designed texts such as the one in the Be a Root Detective activ¬
ity. Now it is time to move students on to using regular textbooks and novels. It is
very important to help the children transfer their emerging strategy skills to clari¬
fying words in authentic texts. The Study the Structure Cue Card (see p. 48)
reminds children to use structure clues while reading and instructs children to take
a mental "snapshot" after they have analyzed an unknown word so that they can
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 29

remember its parts later. The intent is to

ensure that children fully internalize this
clarifying strategy and use it spontaneously STUDY TIC STRUCTURE CUE CARD

during independent reading. Chapter 10

contains a Spanish translation of the Study When you find a word you don't understand, try this strategy:

the Structure Cue Card (see p. 158). STUDY THE STRUCTURE

Try to use the word’s structure (how it Is made) to help you. Do you know
the mystery word's root7 Does It have a prefix or suffix that you know? Try
to use clues In the word to figure out the meaning.

Base words
Base words are building blocks that are used to make many other words.
CONSIDER THE CONTEXT When you find a mystery word, look for the base word and see If It helps
you figure out the meaning.

Roots

How useful is context? Many vocabulary Many words In English have Greek or Latin roots. The root can help you fig¬
ure out the meaning of the mystery word. Check your Greek and Latin root
lists to find out.

experts assert that it is a major source of Prefixes

A prefix Is a beginning part that helps give a word meaning. Does the mys¬
tery word have a prefix that you know?
vocabulary growth and reading comprehen¬ Suffixes
A suffix Is an ending part that helps give a word meaning. Does the mystery
sion (Nagy et ah, 1986, 1987). Others argue word have a suffix that you know?

SNAPSHOT
that context is tricky and does not often Pretend you have a camera, and take a picture of the word and the sentence
It is In so that you will remember the word the next time you see it. Each
time you see the mystery word, it will be easier to remember.
provide helpful clues to word meaning
(Beck et ah, 2002). According to research,
context is more likely to help a child infer
word meaning under the following conditions: 1) The text provides plenty of infor¬
mation that supports inference, 2) the target word and the contextual support are
closely linked, 3) the child has partial word knowledge, and 4) the child has back¬
ground knowledge related to the unknown word (Nagy et al., 1986, 1987).
Context is an important strategy that helps children "learn to fish." Explicit
Consider the Context strategy lessons followed by opportunities to practice are
essential components of instruction. Teachers also increase strategy learning by
modeling Consider the Context whenever appropriate teachable moments occur.

Mr. Dean’s Class

Mr. Dean was reading from an article about soccer in South Africa to his fourth-grade
students: “The entire country rejoiced when the national team Bafana Bafana, won
the African National Cup in 1996" (Time Inc., 2002, p. 2).
Mr. Dean stopped and asked the students what the word rejoiced means. Almost
every hand in the room waved eagerly. Mr. Dean called on Lenny, who replied, “They
were happy.”
Mr. Dean asked Lenny which strategy he used to clarify the word.
"Well, I kind of knew the word already, so first I mined my memory. I remembered
that we read this story about people rejoicing when their sons came home from war.
But I also used Consider the Context. You can tell the people were happy because it
says their team won."
Ari added, “You can also tell what the word means because rejoiced sounds like
joy and that means the same thing as happy."
Mr. Dean replied, “That's right! You each used a different clarifying strategy to
make sense of the word rejoiced. In this case, all of the strategies worked.”
Mr. Dean’s fourth-grade lesson used an authentic text that facilitates the chil¬
dren’s use of Consider the Context. The article provides rich contextual support that is
30 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

close to the target word rejoiced. The children had partial word knowledge that
makes using context easier. Many of them are soccer players, so their interest was
heightened and they had plenty of background knowledge to apply to word com¬
prehension.

The instructional implications of this example are considerable. Background

knowledge facilitates the use of context, so if children are not familiar with con¬
cepts presented in the text, they need instruction prior to reading. Background
knowledge can be activated with pictures, films, and word-prediction activities (see
Chapter 8). The purpose of this preteaching is to ensure that unfamiliar words in
the text are new labels for known vocabulary, rather than entirely new concepts
for the children. Learning new labels for unfamiliar concepts is a much more dif¬
ficult task for children and can be avoided with appropriate instruction.

Be a Context Detective

Proficient readers know that context does Name:_ Date:

not always work, but most children lack BE A CONTEXT DETECTIVE

the ability to think critically about strategy Context clues can be anywhere! Clues can be found next door. In the neigh
borhood. or far away. The easiest clues to find are Ihe ones that are clos¬
est to the mystery word. But. even when clues are hard to find, good detec¬

effectiveness. Teachers build flexible strate¬ tives don't give up! They keep on looking until they solve the mystery!
(Mystery words arc underlined.1

Here Is an example of a next-door clue'

gic thinking by providing examples of con¬ The young apprentice was living with the printer's family and learning how to be a printer, too.

Notice how easy this clue Is to find. It is right next door (In the same sentencei as the mystery
text that is helpful, not helpful, and mis¬
Explain the meaning of the mystery word; _

leading. Children also tend to give up

This Is an example of an In-the-neighborhood clue.

quickly if they do not find context clues The ships were loaded with exports from the colonies. The ships sailed across the Atlantic
Ocean on a trade route between Britain and the 13 colonies. Once the ships arrived in
Britain, the products from the colonies were sold for a profit.

very close to the target word. Teachers help This clue Is a little harder to find. It Is in the neighborhood, but you have to read more than
one sentence to find the meaning of the mystery word.

children develop flexible strategic skills by Explain the meaning of the mystery word; _

--
Here Is an example ol a far-away clue
teaching them to hunt for context clues Plantation owners grew crops such as rice, tobacco, and indigo. These products were
called cash crops because they brought money back to the plantation when they were sold.
Large plantations were able to produce cash crops because they had so many slave workers
throughout the text. The terms next door, in Indigo became an Important cash crop in the 1700s. People liked colorful clothing.
They were willing to spend more money for cloth that was dyed blue

the neighborhood, and far away are used to This clue requires good detective workl The meaning of the mystery word Is far away, in the next
paragraph.
Explain the meaning of the mystery word _
characterize the proximity of contextual
How did you use clues to figure out each kind of mystery word '
support for the unfamiliar word. The Be a
Context Detective instructional worksheet
(see p. 49), designed for the upper-elementary grades and beyond, reinforces chil¬
dren's understanding of context clues. (Similar activities for students in primary
grades are included in Chapter 9.)

Be a Super Sleuth
Children need practice using new word-learning tools to transfer their skills to texts.
The Be a Super Sleuth activity (see pp. 50-51) provides children with the opportu¬
nity to practice identifying and using different kinds of context clues. The purpose
of Be a Super Sleuth is to help children infer word meaning from texts that include
comma clues (appositives), explanation clues, feeling clues, or opposition clues.
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 31

High-Frequency Signal Words

Students often struggle to make sense of
content-area textbooks even when they
understand the key vocabulary. One factor
that contributes to textbook difficulty is
the frequent use of signal words. Signal
words are usually adverbs that indicate a
particular kind of relationship between
concepts in a text. Students often fail to
notice signal words and thus miss essential
clues about the meaning of text passages.
Explicit instruction and guided practice in
using signal words increases children's
comprehension of content-area textbooks
substantially. Table 2.1 contains high-fre¬
quency signal words grouped into cate¬
gories based on meaning.

Sequence Signal Words

Teachers begin instruction by pointing out
signal words as they read aloud simple non¬
fiction books to children. Children quickly
learn to recognize signal words such as
those that indicate sequence in the life
cycles of various animals. Teachers can use
a sequence chart and create simple cloze
(fill-in-the-blank) activities to reinforce sig¬
nal-word instruction. In the initial stages of
instruction, the teacher and children com¬
plete the cloze activity together, discussing
possible word choices for each blank. The

Table 2.1. High-frequency signal words

Definition Example Addition Sequence Comparison Opposition Cause-and-effect

words words words words words words words

means for example also first... similar in contrast because

refers to for instance another second... just like but therefore
consists of such as furthermore next in the same yet SO
including in addition then way on the other consequently
in other words
moreover finally in comparison hand due to
soon likewise however so that

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
32 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

Sequence Signal Words activity (see p. 52), based on the book Tale of a Tadpole
(Wallace, 1998), includes a sequence chart and cloze passage. The activity is suit¬
able for a wide range of age groups and helps to build awareness of sequence signal
words.

Compare and Contrast Signal Words, and Signal-Words Cloze

Teaching children to recognize signal words is particularly important as they enter
the upper-elementary grades. Social studies and science textbooks contain large
numbers of signal words that often contribute to comprehension problems. Chil¬
dren need to focus on signal words as context clues as they read content-area texts.
Teachers can increase the effectiveness of
signal-word instruction by using graphic
organizers to demonstrate the relationship
between concepts in the text. The Venn dia¬
gram in the Compare and Contrast Signal
Words activity (see p. 53) and the Signal-
Words Cloze activity (see p. 54) are de¬
signed to help children learn and recognize
signal words they are likely to encounter in
social studies textbooks. Teachers can de¬
sign similar activities for signal words often
found in science and other content-area
textbooks.

Cause-and-Effect Signal Words

Learning to identify causes and effects in
content-area texts is another important
skill in the upper-elementary grades.
Teaching children the meaning of cause-
and-effect signal words develops their abil¬ SIGNAL-WORDS CLOZE
Explorers and Settlers
ity to comprehend challenging texts. Teach¬
A cloze Is a text that Is missing key words. Read each
ers can introduce the Cause-and-Effect sentence In the cloze passage below. Find the missing
word or phrase In the box teach word/phrase Is used
only once). Write the word/phrase on the correct line

Signal Words (see p. 55) using the folk tale so that the story makes sense.

"The Little Red Hen." The teacher begins just like but alike however similar different yet

instruction by reading aloud the story to Explorers and settlers were

from Europe. Explorers were _
because both groups came
. settlers because they did harmful
things to the native people. _ _. explorers were _
the children. She helps the children iden¬ from settlers because they returned to Europe.
Explorers wanted to find riches and land for the king,_

tify the causes of the problem (the animals' tiers wanted to find new homes. Explorers and settlers were _
many ways,-they had very different goals

refusal to help) and the effect (the hen's Now. write your own cloze, using compare andcontrast signal words. Sec if
a friend can figure out the missing words.

decision not to share the bread). The

teacher asks the children to use signal
words to fill in the cloze passage at the bot¬
tom of the page 55. This activity may
appear simplistic but is actually quite com-
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 33

plex. Children must analyze the story,

Name:_ Date-_
identifying key causes and effects. Then
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT SIGNAL WORDS
they fill in the blanks in the cloze activity,
The Little Red Hen
working with cause-and-effect signal A cause-and-effect diagram shows the relationship
between things that happen In a story or historical
event. Let's look at the story "The Little Red Hen,' for
words. This activity can be used with a example. Write the causes (what the animals did to
make the hen angry) In the first row of boxes. Then
write the effect Iwhat happened as a result) In the
wide range of age groups and helps to box on the right.

build vocabulary and text analysis skills

that children transfer from folk tales to
content-area textbooks and novels. Cause-and-effect cloze: In the passage below, fill In the missing cause-and-
effect signal words using words found In the box, (Each word/phrase Is used
only once.)

because therefore as a result consequently so that

Stop for Signal Words The hen asked the animals to help her plant the wheat_they
could have bread, She asked them to help her harvest the wheat. They refused
to help, _. the hen did It herself. She asked the animals to help
her bake the bread. They would not help her._the hen baked It
Upper-grade teachers explicitly teach chil¬ herself_she needed help and the animals would not help her. the
hen got angry. _, she ate the bread all by herself.

dren to recognize signal words using the Think about the cause-and-effect signal words you used. Could you switch the
signal words from one sentence to another7 Why or why not?

Stop for Signal Words activity (see pp.

56-57). Grouping signal words into seman¬
tic categories helps children identify and
comprehend related words.
Teachers explicitly teach each category
STOP FOR SIGNAL WORDS
of signal words to the children, using the
Signal words are Important clues. Stopping and thinking about
signal words will help you figure out the meaning of the text.
examples provided on pages 56-57 to model
the construction of sentences containing sig¬ DEFINITION CLUES: These signal words define something.

refers to
An American refers to someone who Is a citizen of
means the United States of America.
nal words. Teachers ask the children to gen¬ consists of

erate their own sentences for each signal EXAMPLE CLUES: These signal words provide an example.

for example
for Instance Many Immigrants came to America to find Jobs.
word in the category and encourage them to such as
For Instance, they hoped to find work In American
factories.
Including
share their sentences with the class. When
ADDITION CLUES: These signal words show addition.

the children read the social studies textbook, also

another
Native American tribes were pushed off of their own
In addition land and forced to sign unfair treaties. Furthermore.
teachers point out examples of signal words furthermore they were given the worst land for reservations.

moreover

and discuss the importance of these words SEQUENCE CLUES: These signal words explain the order of events.

first
in conveying the meaning of the text. last
following Following the end of the Civil War. the South had to
Extending signal-word instruction through then change its way of life. Plantations had to be run
without slaves to do the worlc
later

the use of cloze activities is discussed later in at that time

this chapter.

Mrs. Chin’s Class

4 <J <5

The following discussion in Mrs. Chin's fourth-grade classroom illustrates the Stop for Sig¬
nal Words activity. Mrs. Chin discussed signal words found in a passage from the social
studies textbook.

Mrs. Chin: (Reads the text passage aloud) "The Native Americans received food and
shelter in the missions; however, many of them longed to return to their vil¬
lages."
(Begins discussion) Okay, everyone. Please take out your Stop for Signal
Word sheets, the ones with the big stop sign on top. Remember, we went
34 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

over the different kinds of signal words? (Children nod). Does anyone see
a signal word in this sentence?

Maurice: Yeah, it's however.

Mrs. Chin: Good, Maurice! What kind of signal word is it?

Monica: (looks at the Stop for Signal Words sheet) A contrasting one?

Mrs. Chin: That's right. Now, I want you to tell me why this word is so important.

Maurice: Because it tells what the Native Americans wanted to do.

Mrs. Chin: Okay, what did they want to do?

Maurice: They wanted to go back to their homes.

Mrs. Chin: Right! Now, where’s the contrasting information?

Maurice: Umm...I don’t know...

Mrs. Chin: Maurice has given us a good start by pointing out that however is a con¬
trasting word. He also told us that the Native Americans wanted to go
back to their villages. Can anyone tell us what the contrasting point is?

Dana: Well, it’s contrasting how the missions were good and bad for the people
at the same time. Even though the Native Americans got food, they still
wanted to go home to their villages.

Mrs. Chin: Exactly! Dana, you explained that very well, and you used another signal
word that means the same thing. Even though and however are both con¬
trasting words. Whenever you see contrasting signal words, you want to
look for things that are not the same.

Mrs. Chin needs to point out examples of signal words frequently as her fourth
graders grapple with the complex language in social studies texts. She should also
give the children cloze activities and opportunities to work together to find and
explain signal words encountered during reading. This instruction is vitally impor¬
tant in providing the children with the skills to comprehend upper-grade textbooks
and literature. Important signal words that children need to learn are included in
Table 2.1 on page 31 and in the worksheet on pages 56-57.

More Signal-Word Cloze Passages

The teacher can extend signal-word instruction by constructing cloze passages
from children's textbooks or from a reading anthology. The teacher copies a page
of text, deletes signal words using correction fluid or correction tape, provides stu¬
dents with copies of this cloze passage, and models filling in the passage. Children
can try different words in the same signal-word category to determine whether the
words can be used interchangeably. These signal-word activities enhance chil¬
dren's ability to comprehend challenging texts.
Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 35

The following cloze passage was created from the fifth-grade social studies
book America Will Be (Armento, Nash, Salter, & Wixson, 1991). The signal words
(before, such as, at that time, for example, so, however, thus) are used to fill in the
blanks in this passage about the Industrial Revolution.

_1770, most goods— _ clothing and shoes—were made

by hand._, most Americans lived on farms. A family member might
need a shirt,_. _, someone in the family would spin
wool into thread, weave it into cloth, and sew the shirt.
Americans did not make all their own goods, _. Some things—
such as glass, tools, and some cloth—were made in Britain and imported. Dur¬
ing the mid-1700s British inventors looked for ways to make these goods more
cheaply and_increase their sales. (Armento et ah, 1991, p. 422)

Consider the Context Cue Card

Instruction based on the Consider the Context Cue Card (see p. 58) helps children
learn to recognize and use different types of context clues. Children are taught to
recognize explanation clues that provide
information about word meaning and to
recognize appositives, definitions enclosed
CONSIDER THE CONTEXT CUE CARD
in commas following the target words. Stu¬
dents learn to infer word meaning based on
When you find a word you don't understand, try this strategy
feeling (emotional) clues in the text. Chil¬
CONSIDER THE CONTEXT

dren also learn to interpret tricky opposi¬ Read the sentence. Does It give you a clue about the word's meaning? Read
the whole paragraph. Now can you tell what the word means? Don't give up!
You may need to read further to find Information about the word. Use the
following context clues to help you.
tional words such as but, however, although, Look for comma clues.
Context clues sometimes hide Inside double commas. Here's an example:
on the other hand, and in spite of that provide The alien, a creature from another planet, Jumped out of the spaceship.
Notice that the definition of the word alien Is Inside the commas.

Look for explanation clues.

important clues about word meaning. The Here’s an example: The shaman was worried, The people of the tribe trusted
him to take care of their health. But many people were sick and his medicine
wasn't working. Notice that the word shaman Is explained by the sentences
Consider the Context Cue Card can be used that follow.

Look for feeling clues.

for instruction with children who are in the Here's an example. Last night I was terrified. 1 was home alone when the
storm began. The lights went out. Lightning crashed and thunder shook the
house. Notice that word terrified Is explained by the scary things happening
In the next several sentences.
upper-elementary grades and beyond. Look for opposition clues such as but, even though, however, and although.
Context clues sometimes hide Here's an example I was exhausted, but I
Chapter 10 contains a Spanish translation couldn't get any rest because of the baby's crying. Notice that the opposition
word bul signals that a clue Is hidden In the phrase following the opposi¬
tion word.

of Consider the Context Cue Card (see p.

159).

SUBSTITUTE A SYNONYM

Substitute a Synonym is a secondary strategy that is used after a word has been
clarified with one or more of the primary strategies Mine Your Memory, Study the
Structure, and Consider the Context. This secondary strategy helps students to
check word meaning to ensure that it makes sense. Teachers increase the effec¬
tiveness of this strategy by allowing children to choose a word, a phrase, or an
example to check word meaning.
36 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

rAAA M Dean's Class

4 d
4 4
Mr. Dean’s fourth graders clarified several words in the current events article they were
reading, “Welcome to South Africa” (Time Inc., 2002). After they finished clarifying the
word rejoiced, Mr. Dean asked the fourth graders to come up with a synonym to
check that Lenny’s clarification of the word rejoiced was correct. Joel raised his hand
and suggested the word celebrated. Mr. Dean asked him to try the synonym so that
the class can decide if it works. Joel read the sentence with the synonym: “The entire
country celebrated when the national team Bafana Bafana, won the African
National Cup in 1996.”
Lenny raised his hand. “I think was happy works better. The entire country was
happy when the national team Bafana Bafana won.”
Mr. Dean pointed out that both synonyms work well. “You can use a word, a
phrase or an example when you substitute a synonym. The point is to check and make
sure that you understand the word. Did Joel and Lenny check the word, and did it
make sense?" (The children nodded.) “Good
job, boys!” Mr. Dean gave Joel and Lenny a -
thumbs-up and returned to the text.
Date

FIVE STEPS
Five Steps: Substitute a Synonym Substitute a Synonym

Teachers such as Mr. Dean model the use of

clarifying strategies extensively and engage FIVE STEPS
1, Mine Your Memory and try to think of the word.
Have you seen II In a book or heard the word before?
children in text-based discussions. This 2, Try to picture the word In the sentence
Imagine Hedwlg flying Into the room and dropping an envelope In
Harry's hands.
type of instruction helps children learn to 3, Think of other words that mean the same thing,
[delivers—gives, brings)
4. Substitute a Synonym In the sentence.
implement clarifying strategies with a wide A snowy owl named Hedwlg brings Harry Potter's mall.
S. Check! Does the synonym make sense in the sentence? If It makes sense,
you can continue reading. If not, try again!

range of texts. The Five Steps: Substitute a (Yes, the synonym makes sense.)

FIVE STEPS IN ACTION

Synonym activity (see pp. 59-60) provides l et's try It! We ll follow the five steps to make sense of the word habitat In the
following sentence
Hedwlg lives with Harry Potter at Hogwarts,
additional practice in using the Substitute a but snowy owls' normal habitat Is In the Arctic region.
1. I think I remember reading about endangered animals' habitat—It's
where they live,

Synonym clarifying strategy to figure out 2. I can picture the habitat, a cold, snowy place where snowy owls live
3, Habitat means a place where an animal lives, Its home.
4 Hedwlg lives with Harry Potter at Hogwarts, but snowy owls' normal
the meaning of challenging words encoun¬ home Is In the Arctic region.
5. Yes, It makes sensei

tered during reading.

Strategies that Strengthen Comprehension 37

ADDITIONAL CLARIFYING STRATEGIES

Catch a Cognate, Ask an Expert, and Place a Post-It
Additional clarifying strategies that children may need include the following: Catch
a Cognate, Ask an Expert, and Place a Post-It. Catch a Cognate is designed for
classes that include Spanish-speaking children. Instructional methods for this strat¬
egy are provided in Chapter 10. Ask an Expert is intended for use during coopera¬
tive group work. When children are working together, clarifying words as they
read, they can ask a peer expert to help them figure out the meaning of unfamiliar
words. Place a Post-It is used when all of the other strategies have failed. The Post-
It signifies the need to look up the word or discuss it with the teacher after read¬
ing time has ended. Ask an Expert and Place a Post-It are less effective strategies
than the four main clarifying strategies, but they convey an important point: Chil¬
dren may not skip words while reading. Every word must be clarified or marked
for later attention. This is a critically important point in fostering children's vocab¬
ulary growth. The more often children wrestle with unfamiliar words, the more
layers of meaning are constructed, and the greater the likelihood that word learn¬
ing will occur. Skipping words, on the other hand, provides minimal exposure to
new words and lessens engagement with texts. Once children have been taught the
word-learning strategies, they are ready to put them all together and use the strate¬
gies with texts.
 CLARIFYING CUE CARD
When you find a word you don’t understand, try the following strategies:

MINE YOUR MEMORY

Have you ever seen this word before? Can you remember what it means?

STUDY THE STRUCTURE

Do you know the root or base word? Does the word have a prefix or suffix
that you know? Try to use clues in the word to figure out the meaning.

CONSIDER THE CONTEXT

Look at the information in the sentence and the whole paragraph. Can you
figure out the meaning of the word?

SUBSTITUTE A SYNONYM
When you think you know what the word means, try putting a word with a
similar meaning in the sentence. Does it make sense?

If the strategies don’t work, try these:

ASK AN EXPERT
Does someone in your group know what the word means? Can you figure it
out together?

PLACE A POST-IT
If you can’t figure out the meaning of the word, put a Post-It by the word,
and check with the teacher or look it up in the dictionary later.

From Lubliner, S. (2001). A practical guide to reciprocal teaching (pp. 34, 39).
Bothell, WA: Wright Group/McGraw-Hill; adapted by permission.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

38 by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Name: Date:

ALL IN THE FAMILY

Word families are groups of words that are related to the
same base word. If you know the base word, it is easy to
find all of the relatives. Just look inside the word! In the
example below, we read the story in the box and underline
the words that belong to the send family. We write each
word in the send family in the circle.

I need to send a birthday card to my grandma. She always

sends me a card and a present for my birthday. Last year I
sent the card to the wrong address. It came back to me with
the label returned to sender. This year I’m sending Grandma
two cards, just in case I make a mistake!

Read the story in the box below. Underline the words that are part of the build,
work, and employ word families, and write them in the family circles.

Ever since he was a little boy, Jason was interested in his dad’s
work. Jason’s dad owned a construction company that built houses and
apartments. He employed six workers who helped him. Jason always
wanted to be a builder like his dad. He begged his dad to take him to
work. But his dad said that a construction site was too dangerous for
small children.
When Jason turned 10, his dad finally agreed to take him to work.
On the first day of winter break, Jason and his dad went to see the new
apartment house the company was building. They put on hard hats to
protect their heads. Dad helped Jason climb into the lift that took
them to the third floor. Dad had to discuss some problems with the
manager. Meanwhile, Jason watched the builders pounding nails into
boards. “Can I help?” he asked eagerly.
The workers laughed. “Your dad is our employer, and he would fire
us if you got hurt. Don’t worry! You’ll be old enough to work before
long. Then you’ll wish you were still a boy with nothing to do but
play.”
The workers were right. When Jason turned 16 he began working
for his dad’s company. He worked very hard and tried to be the perfect
employee. Sometimes when he was very tired, Jason remembered how
he used to beg his dad to take him to work when he was a little boy.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 39
Name:_ Date:

PREFIX CHART

Base word
(word Prefixed
Prefixed Prefix’s without Base word’s word’s
word Prefix meaning prefix) meaning meaning

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
40 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 WORDS WITH
NEGATIVE PREFIXES
Level 4

dis- il-, in- mis- un-

disagree illegal misbehave unattached unlikely
disappear incomplete misfortune unattractive unlucky
disapprove incorrect misjudge uncertain unnecessary
discomfort independence misplace unchanged unpleasant
disconnect insane mistreat unclean unprepared
discover invisible misunderstand undisturbed unprotected
dislike unexpected unready
disobey unexplored unreasonable
displease unfair unsafe
unfinished unseen
unfriendly unskilled
unhappy untrue
unharmed unwanted
unheard of unwelcome
unimportant unwilling
uninteresting unwise
unkind unworthy
unknown unwritten

Level 6

dis- il-, in- mis- un-

discontented inability misfit unable unlike

displace inaccurate misinformation unaware unlock
dissimilar incapable mislead unbearable unorganized
inconsiderate mismanage uncivilized unsteady
incredible mispronounce unconquered unsuccessful
incurable mistrust unconscious untidy
indescribable uncover unusual
ineffective uneasy unwanted
inexact unfortunate unwise
inexperienced unidentified unworthy
innumerable uninjured

Source: Dale & O’Rourke, 1981.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 41
 ATTITUDE ADJUSTMENT
Harry has a bad attitude. He adds a negative prefix to almost everything he
says. This is Harry’s letter to you.

Dear Classmate,

I dislike you because you are very unkind to me.

Your unpleasant attitude makes me very unhappy.

I dislike all of the other kids in my class, too.

They are unable to follow the rules in the games
we play. This makes me quite displeased. Their
behavior is inappropriate, and I am usually unable
to enjoy being in the class.

I really dislike my teacher, Mr. Jones. He has

unrealistic expectations of us, and I always
misunderstand his directions. His explanations
are illogical, and I am discontented in his class.

I also dislike my family, particularly my brother, Sam. His clothing is dis¬

tasteful and he always behaves inappropriately. He is completely unreliable,
and that makes me feel very uncomfortable. I wish he would disappear
sometime soon.

I especially dislike my dog, Max. He has a very unpleasant smell and looks
unappealing. Max is so unintelligent that he is incapable of doing tricks.
Max is disloyal to me and disappears as soon as I come home from school
each day. I really disagree that dogs are a man’s best friend.

I am a very unhappy kid because I have the most disagreeable friends and
the most disreputable family in the world.

Insincerely yours,

Harry

Help give Harry an attitude adjustment! Delete the negative prefixes un-, il-,
in-, and dis- from his letter. Read the letter again. Does Harry sound nicer
without the negative prefixes?

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
42 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 LATIN ROOT LIST
ROOT WHAT IT MEANS EXAMPLE
diet to say contradict (say something against)
equ the same equal (having the same value or qual
ity)
fac/fact/fect to do, to make factory (a place where things are
made)
form shape deformed (misshapen)
ject throw eject (to throw out)
jud/jur/jus judge prejudice (negative judgment about
people)
loc place location (a place)
man hand manual (by hand)
mem remember memorize (learn something by heart)
port to carry transport (to carry from place to
place)
prim/prin first primary (first or most important)
ques/quer to ask question (something you ask)
scrib/script to write manuscript (a written draft of a
book)
sens/sent to feel sensation (a feeling)
spec/spect to look inspect (look at very carefully)
struct build structure (something that has been
built)
tract drag or pull extract (to pull out of something)
trans across transfer (move something from one
place to another)
val to be strong/worth valuable (to be worth a lot)
voc voice, to call advocate (to voice support; a person
who does so)

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 43
 GREEK ROOT LIST
ROOT WHAT IT MEANS EXAMPLE
astro star astronomy (study of the stars)
auto self autograph (signature by one’s self)
bio life biology (the study of living things)
geo earth geology (study of the earth)
gram/graph write, record autograph (a written signature)
meter/metr measure barometer (a measure of air pres¬
sure)
micro small microscope (a tool that makes things
look larger)
logy study of cardiology (study of the heart)
phil love Philadelphia (nicknamed “City of
Brotherly Love”)
phono/phon sound telephone (a device that carries
sound a long way)
photo/phos light photography (taking pictures using
light)
pol/polis city, state political (having to do with running a
city or state)
phys nature physical (relating to the natural
world)
tech/techn art, skill technical (requiring special skills)
tele far telephone (tool that allows you to
talk to someone far away

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
44 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Root Origin (Greek or Latin)
Meaning of root
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 45
Name:_ Date:

WORD TREE
This word tree has words from the Latin root spect, which means look. Can you figure
out what the words mean by knowing the root? Fill in the root chart below:

Root sp&ct Origin (Greek or Latin) Latin

Meaning of root look
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning

Grow your own word trees using your Latin and Greek word lists. Underline the root in
each word and find out what it means.

Root Origin (Greek or Latin)

Meaning of root
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning

Root Origin (Greek or Latin)

Meaning of root
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning
Word Meaning

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
46 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name:-- Date: _

BE A ROOT DETECTIVE
Read the text below and underline the words with Latin and Greek
roots. Give the meaning of each underlined word (use your Latin
and Greek root lists if you need help). Then explain the meaning
of the text in your own words.

The historian was inspecting the Native American artifacts that she had found in the
cave. The first thing she did was photograph each item in its original location. Then she had
to extract the items from the cave very carefully so that they wouldn’t be damaged. Once the
artifacts were removed from the cave, the historian needed a logical way to organize them.
She carefully examined each item and used scientific techniques to decide how old it was.
Every artifact was dated, except for some microscopic pieces of pottery that were too diffi¬
cult to work with. Once the historian dated the artifacts, she began to put them in chrono¬
logical order.
The historian took careful notes about the artifacts. She wrote a detailed description of
each item in her journal and dictated additional notes into her tape recorder. She planned to
return to the university and write a monograph about her discovery. She was very proud to
have discovered such an incredible collection of ancient Native American artifacts.

Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning

Word- Origin (Greek or Latin)- Meaning
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word _ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning
Word_ Origin (Greek or Latin)_ Meaning

The meaning of the paragraph in my own words:

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 47
 STUDY THE STRUCTURE CUE CARD

When you find a word you don’t understand, try this strategy:

STUDY THE STRUCTURE

Try to use the word’s structure (how it is made) to help you. Do you know
the mystery word’s root? Does it have a prefix or suffix that you know? Try
to use clues in the word to figure out the meaning.

Base words
Base words are building blocks that are used to make many other words.
When you find a mystery word, look for the base word and see if it helps
you figure out the meaning.

Roots
Many words in English have Greek or Latin roots. The root can help you fig¬
ure out the meaning of the mystery word. Check your Greek and Latin root
lists to find out.

Prefixes
A prefix is a beginning part that helps give a word meaning. Does the mys¬
tery word have a prefix that you know?

Suffixes
A suffix is an ending part that helps give a word meaning. Does the mystery
word have a suffix that you know?

SNAPSHOT
Pretend you have a camera, and take a picture of the word and the sentence
it is in so that you will remember the word the next time you see it. Each
time you see the mystery word, it will be easier to remember.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
48 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name;--- Date:_

BE A CONTEXT DETECTIVE
Context clues can be anywhere! Clues can be found next door, in the neigh
borhood, or far away. The easiest clues to find are the ones that are clos¬
est to the mystery word. But, even when clues are hard to find, good detec¬
tives don’t give up! They keep on looking until they solve the mystery!
(Mystery words are underlined.)

Here is an example of a next-door clue:

The young apprentice was living with the printer’s family and learning how to be a printer, too.

Notice how easy this clue is to find. It is right next door (in the same sentence) as the mystery
word.
Explain the meaning of the mystery word:

This is an example of an in-the-neighborhood clue:

The ships were loaded with exports from the colonies. The ships sailed across the Atlantic
Ocean on a trade route between Britain and the 13 colonies. Once the ships arrived in
Britain, the products from the colonies were sold for a profit.

This clue is a little harder to find. It is in the neighborhood, but you have to read more than
one sentence to find the meaning of the mystery word.
Explain the meaning of the mystery word: _

Here is an example of a far-away clue:

Plantation owners grew crops such as rice, tobacco, and indigo. These products were
called cash crops because they brought money back to the plantation when they were sold.
Large plantations were able to produce cash crops because they had so many slave workers.
Indigo became an important cash crop in the 1700s. People liked colorful clothing.
They were willing to spend more money for cloth that was dyed blue.

This clue requires good detective work! The meaning of the mystery word is far away, in the next
paragraph.
Explain the meaning of the mystery word: -

How did you use clues to figure out each kind of mystery word?

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 49
Name:_ Date:_

BE A SUPER SLEUTH
Context Detective Work for Experts
How do you figure out the meaning of a word you aren’t sure about? Look
for the following clues that can help.
COMMA CLUES are the easiest to figure out. The definition
of the word is right there between the commas!
EXPLANATION CLUES can be a little more difficult when
the definition is farther from the word it defines.
FEELING CLUES are challenging. You have to figure out the
meaning of the word from all of the other information in the text.

Look at each underlined word. Use context clues to figure out what the word
means and then explain how you figured it out.
1. The Native American tribe settled on a mesa, a steep, flat-topped hill,
hundreds of years ago. This location made the village difficult for ene¬
mies to attack.

What does the word mean?_

Type of clue_'

2. The colonists were forced to pay taxes they felt were unfair. The British
government did not listen to their complaints. Some colonists were so
angry they didn’t want to be British citizens any more. They began to
think of rebelling against Britain.

What does the word mean?_

Type of clue_

3. Soon after the Revolutionary War Americans began to feel a sense of

nationalism. They felt a sense of belonging to the new nation.

What does the word mean?_

Type of clue_

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
50 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
4. The Northwest Ordinance was passed in 1787. It was supposed to pro¬
tect the rights of Native American tribes; however, this law did not work
and the Native Americans continued to be pushed off of their land.
What does the word mean? __
Type of clue ___

5. The explorers often traveled on the Ohio River or one of its tributaries.
It was much easier to travel on the many small rivers flowing from the
Ohio than it was to travel through the wilderness in the new territory.
What does the word mean?_
Type of clue_

6. There were many American settlers in Texas that wanted to be part of

the United States. They wanted the government to annex Texas. Finally
the government agreed, and Texas became a new state.
What does the word mean?_
Type of clue_

7. The new government helped people feel part of their country by choos¬
ing national symbols such as the American flag and the Great Seal of the
United States.
What does the word mean? ___________________
Type of clue_

8. Textiles, cloth goods made from cotton or wool, were produced in large
factories.
What does the word mean?_
Type of clue-

Think about it!

Which sentences contain comma clues?_
Which sentences contain explanation clues?_
Which sentences contain feeling clues? _

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 51
Name:__ Date: __

SEQUENCE SIGNAL WORDS

A sequence chart shows the most important things that happen in a story in
the correct order. Fill in the sequence chart below with the most important
things that happened in Tale of a Tadpole.

A cloze is a story that is missing important words. This cloze is missing

sequence words that help show the order of the events in the story. Read each
sentence. Pick the correct sequence word or phrase from the box below, and
write in on the line so that the story makes sense. (Tach word/phrase is used
only once.)

Now Finally Not long after that Next Then First

This is how a tadpole becomes a frog.

_there is a little egg in the pond.
_the little tadpole comes out of the egg.
_the tadpole grows legs and arms.
_, the tadpole’s tail begins to shrink.
_the tadpole becomes a little spotted frog.
_the frog can breathe air like we do.

Source: Wallace, 1998.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
52 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: Date:

COMPARE AND CONTRAST SIGNAL WORDS

Explorers and Settlers

A Venn diagram shows how two things are similar and different. Begin by fill¬
ing in the middle section of the Venn diagram, showing how explorers and set¬
tlers were similar. Then fill in the outside circles, showing how explorers and
settlers were different.

Explorers Both Settlers

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 53
Name:_ Date:_

SIGNAL-WORDS CUDZE
Explorers and Settlers
/\ cloze is a text that is missing key words. Read each
sentence in the cloze passage below. Find the missing
word or phrase in the box (each word/phrase is used
only once). Write the word/phrase on the correct line
so that the story makes sense.

just like but alike however similar different yet

Explorers and settlers were _ because both groups came

from Europe. Explorers were _ settlers because they did harmful

things to the native people. _, explorers were _

from settlers because they returned to Europe.

Explorers wanted to find riches and land for the king, _ set¬

tlers wanted to find new homes. Explorers and settlers were_in

many ways,___they had very different goals.

Now, write your own cloze, using compare-and-contrast signal words. See if
a friend can figure out the missing words.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
54 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: Date:_

CAUSE-AND-EFFECT SIGNAL WORDS

The Little Red Hen
A cause-and-effect diagram shows the relationship
between things that happen in a story or historical
event. Let’s look at the story “The Little Red Hen,” for
example. Write the causes (what the animals did to
make the hen angry) in the first row of boxes. Then
write the effect (what happened as a result) in the
box on the right.

Cause-and-effect cloze: In the passage below, fill in the missing cause-and-

effect signal words using words found in the box. (Each word/phrase is used
only once.)

because therefore as a result consequently so that

The hen asked the animals to help her plant the wheat_they
could have bread. She asked them to help her harvest the wheat. They refused
to help. _, the hen did it herself. She asked the animals to help
her bake the bread. They would not help her. _________, the hen baked it
herself._she needed help and the animals would not help her, the
hen got angry. __, she ate the bread all by herself.

Think about the cause-and-effect signal words you used. Could you switch the
signal words from one sentence to another? Why or why not?

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 55
 STOP TOR SIGNAL WORDS
Signal words are important clues. Stopping and thinking about
signal words will help you figure out the meaning of the text.

DEFINITION CLUES: These signal words define something.

refers to
An American refers to someone who is a citizen of
means the United States of America.
consists of

EXAMPLE CLUES: These signal words provide an example.

for example
for instance Many immigrants came to America to find jobs.
For instance, they hoped to find work in American
such as factories.
including

ADDITION CLUES: These signal words show addition.

also
another
Native American tribes were pushed off of their own
in addition land and forced to sign unfair treaties. Furthermore.
they were given the worst land for reservations.
furthermore
moreover

SEQUENCE CLUES: These signal words explain the order of events.

first
last
following
Following the end of the Civil War, the South had to
then change its way of life. Plantations had to be run
without slaves to do the work.
later
next
at that time

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
56 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
COMPARISON CLUES: These signal words compare things that are similar.
similar
in the same way
Explorers set out to find riches in new lands.
just like
Likewise. European kings hoped to gain land and
likewise treasure by supporting explorers.

in comparison

OPPOSITION CLUES: These signal words contrast things that are different.
in contrast
on the other hand
however Explorers hoped to find riches to take back to
Europe. However, settlers were different. They
whereas hoped to build homes and stay in the new land.
but
yet

CAUSE-AND-EFFECT CLUES: These signal words show that one thing causes
another.

because
for
therefore
so The white settlers brought diseases that were
as a result deadly to the native people. Conseguentlv. huge
numbers of Native Americans died.
consequently
due to
thus
this led to

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 57
 CONSIDER THE CONTEXT CUE CARD

When you find a word you don’t understand, try this strategy:

CONSIDER THE CONTEXT

Read the sentence. Does it give you a clue about the word’s meaning? Read
the whole paragraph. Now can you tell what the word means? Don’t give up!
You may need to read further to find information about the word. Use the
following context clues to help you.

Look for comma clues.

Context clues sometimes hide inside double commas. Here’s an example:
The alien, a creature from another planet, jumped out of the spaceship.
Notice that the definition of the word alien is inside the commas.

Look for explanation clues.

Here’s an example: The shaman was worried. The people of the tribe trusted
him to take care of their health. But many people were sick and his medicine
wasn’t working. Notice that the word shaman is explained by the sentences
that follow.

Look for feeling clues.

Here’s an example: Last night I was terrified. I was home alone when the
storm began. The lights went out. Lightning crashed and thunder shook the
house. Notice that word terrified is explained by the scary things happening
in the next several sentences.

Look for opposition clues such as but, even though, however, and although.
Context clues sometimes hide. Here’s an example: I was exhausted, but I
couldn’t get any rest because of the baby’s crying. Notice that the opposition
word but signals that a clue is hidden in the phrase following the opposi¬
tion word.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
58 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name:___ Date:_

FIVE STEPS
Substitute a Synonym
Substitute a Synonym is a strategy that will help you figure
out words you don’t know. Look at this sentence:
A snowy owl named Hedwig delivers Harry Potter’s mail.
Let’s say you don’t know the word delivers. Here are five steps
that will help you make sense of the word.

FIVE STEPS
1. Mine Your Memory and try to think of the word.
Have you seen it in a book or heard the word before?
2. Try to picture the word in the sentence.
Imagine Hedwig flying into the room and dropping an envelope in
Harry’s hands.
3. Think of other words that mean the same thing.
(delivers—gives, brings)
4. Substitute a Synonym in the sentence.
A snowy owl named Hedwig brings Harry Potter’s mail.
5. Check! Does the synonym make sense in the sentence? If it makes sense,
you can continue reading. If not, try again!
(Yes, the synonym makes sense.)

FIVE STEPS IN ACTION

Let’s try it! We’ll follow the five steps to make sense of the word habitat in the
following sentence:
Hedwig lives with Harry Potter at Hogwarts,
but snowy owls’ normal habitat is in the Arctic region.
1. I think I remember reading about endangered animals’ habitat—it’s
where they live.
2. I can picture the habitat: a cold, snowy place where snowy owls live.
3. Habitat means a place where an animal lives, its home.
4. Hedwig lives with Harry Potter at Hogwarts, but snowy owls’ normal
home is in the Arctic region.
5. Yes, it makes sense!

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 59
Now you try it! Follow the five steps to figure out the meaning of the under¬
lined words.

Hedwig looks small in her cage, but snowy owls have a 5-foot wingspan.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

When enemies threaten Hedwig, she knows how to defend herself.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Hedwig leaves her cage each night to hunt for prev.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Write four sentences of your own. Include a hard word in each sentence and
underline it. Switch papers with a partner. Follow the five steps to figure out
the meaning of the words in your partner’s sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
60 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Chapter 3

ifying
in Action

Teaching children to implement clarifying strategies spontaneously and flexibly

during reading takes a great deal of carefully designed instruction. The following
instructional framework can be used to organize clarifying strategy instruction
(Gambrell et ah, 1999; Lubliner, 2001; Palincsar, 1983, 1985; Pearson & Dole, 1987;
Pressley et ah, 1995):

• Access prior knowledge: Discuss the content of the text before reading, using pic¬
tures and examples if important concepts are unfamiliar.

• Provide a rationale for instruction: Explain to children that learning this particu¬
lar strategy will help them understand what they read and perform better in
school.

• Use explicit instruction, including modeling and thinking aloud: Provide careful
instruction, teaching children exactly how to select and implement the clarify¬
ing strategy. Model the process using examples with a range of texts. Demon¬
strate how to think aloud so that children can view the internal process of pro¬
ficient strategy implementation.

• Scaffold instruction: Use the Tools of Success, such as cue cards (see pp. 38, 48,
and 58), and concrete symbols to help children understand abstract ideas. Grad¬
ually withdraw scaffolds as students gain understanding and internalize new
strategic skills.

• Guide practice: Ask students to try the new strategy with your help. Encourage
them to work with partners and to support one another as they practice the
strategy. Provide coaching and encouragement to the children as they work.

• Release responsibility: Encourage children to implement the strategy during inde¬

pendent reading and acknowledge their efforts and success.

Following is a snapshot of a clarifying strategy lesson based on the instruc¬

tional framework. The lesson was designed to help children select and implement
appropriate clarifying strategies with unfamiliar words encountered in a text.

61
62 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

Model Lesson: Mrs. Green's Class

“Hi, Dr. Lubliner!” The third graders greeted me enthusiastically. I was a regular visitor
at Blackwood Elementary School, working with teachers to strengthen their literacy
instruction. I had modeled several strategy lessons in Mrs. Green's class over the past
few months, so the children and I knew each other well. Mrs. Green assured me that
she had worked hard on the clarifying strategies (see Chapter 2) and that the children
were ready for action. I passed out copies of the book Monsters of the Deep (Blake,
1996) and asked the children to take out their Clarifying Cue Card (see p. 38). I
pointed to the enlarged version of this cue card posted on the classroom wall and
reviewed the strategies: Mine Your Memory, Study the Structure, Consider the Context,
and Substitute a Synonym. I was pleased that the children seemed to be quite famil¬
iar with these strategies.

Dr. Lubliner: Now that you all remember the clarifying strategies we learned last
time, I have a question for you: Why do we need these strategies?

Tara: To help us read better?

Dr. Lubliner: Right! Strategies help people learn words, which makes it easier to
understand books. These are the same strategies that grown-ups use
when they have to read hard books and articles.

Ben: My dad always tells me to look it up when I find a word I don’t know.
Clarifying Strategies in Action 63

Dr. Lubliner: 1 can't believe it! That’s exactly what my dad used to tell me too! (Chil¬
dren laugh.) Dictionaries are fine, but when you’re reading and you
don’t want to spend a lot of time looking up a word, clarifying strate¬
gies work a lot better. So, if you learn to use clarifying strategies, you’ll
only need to use the dictionary for the really hard words.
Okay, let’s get started! Today we’ll be working with one of my favorite
books (holds up Monsters of the Deep). We’re going to use the book to
practice the clarifying strategies. I’m going to start by reading the first
paragraph on page 2. I’ll try to find the hard words, and then I’ll use the
clarifying strategies on the Clarifying Cue Card to help me figure out
what the words mean. 1 want you to follow along in your books and lis¬
ten very carefully. (Reads)
Much of the world under the water is alien to us. Large areas of the world’s
oceans and seas remain unexplored—deep, dark, and mysterious. (Blake,
1996, p. 2)
(Thinks aloud) Hmm... 1 need to pick out the hard words and clarify
them. 1 think that alien is a hard word. Now, which strategy can 1 use to
clarify the word? 1 know! (Points to the first strategy on the chart) 1 can
mine my memory to see if I’ve ever seen or heard the word before.
Alien.... Let’s see.... 1 think 1 remember seeing aliens from outer space
on TV. They’re strange little space men. So, 1 think alien must be some¬
thing strange. Now, I’ll substitute the synonym strange to make sure 1
understand the word (substitutes the word and reads the sentence):
Much of the world under the water is strange to us. Yes, 1 think that
makes sense.
Now, who can explain what 1 just did?

Joon-Rae: You figured out the word.

Dr. Lubliner: How did 1 do it?

Joon-Rae: You mined your memory. You remembered what you knew about
aliens from outer space.

Dr. Lubliner: That’s right! What else did 1 do?

Alison: You used another word to check and it worked!

Dr. Lubliner: Great! Now, this time I’m going find a hard word and we’ll practice
clarifying it step by step. Let’s see...l think unexplored is a hard word. I’ll
look at the Clarifying Cue Card (points to the chart) and find the best
strategy to help me figure it out. 1 always try Mine Your Memory first to
see if 1 know the word. But this time it doesn’t work because 1 can’t
remember anything about the word unexplored. So, I’ll try the next
strategy, Study the Structure. That means 1 need to look at the word
parts to try to make sense of the word. 1 think it works! 1 know that
 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

explore means to investigate or look around and un- means not. So

unexplored means that no one has looked around. Now that 1 have an
idea of what the word means, 1 need to use Substitute a Synonym just
to be sure. So, I’ll put in the synonym uninvestigated and read the sen¬
tence again: Large areas of the world's oceans remain uninvestigated.
Does that make sense? (Children nod.) Yes, it does!

Dr. Lubliner: Now, 1 want you to help me with the next word, mysterious. How should
we clarify this word?

Stevie: You could use Mine Your Memory. My mom and 1 are reading a Harry
Potter book, and a lot of things they talk about are mysterious.

Dr. Lubliner: What do you think that means?

Stevie: Well, Harry Potter is a wizard and lots of things that happen to him are
kind of weird and scary.

Dr. Lubliner: Good work! Stevie could mine his memory because he already knew a
lot about the word mysterious. What would you do if you didn’t already
know the word?

Sarah: You could Study the Structure, but that would only help if you knew the
words inside.

Dr. Lubliner: Which word is inside?

Sarah: Mystery; I’ve heard it but 1 don’t exactly know what it means.

Shobha: 1 think the easiest thing is Consider the Context. You can tell that it’s
deep and dark, so you know it’s kind of strange and scary.

Dr. Lubliner: Great job! That’s a very good way to clarify the word. Let's try Substi¬
tute a Synonym to make sure that Stevie and Shobha clarified the word
correctly. Which synonym shall we use?

Kevin: Scary.

Dr. Lubliner: Okay, let’s try it! Large areas of the world's oceans and seas remain
unexplored—deep, dark, and scary. Do you think that works? (Children
nod.) Strange would also work, wouldn't it? Both synonyms help us fig¬
ure out that mysterious means something we don’t really understand
and that we're a little afraid of.

Dr. Lubliner: You’ve done a great job helping me clarify the words. Now, do you
understand how it works? Clarifying strategies are like tools in a toolbox.
You pick the tool you need to figure out a tricky word.

Stevie: What if the tools don’t work?

Dr. Lubliner: That happens sometimes. You try a strategy and it doesn’t work. Then
you try another one. (Points to the last two strategies on the cue card.)
Clarifying Strategies in Action 65

If nothing works you can always ask a neighbor or put a Post-It in the
book and look it up in the dictionary after you finish reading.
Now, it’s your turn to try the clarifying strategies. I want you to read
the next paragraph with your partner. Then decide which words are
hard, and use your strategies to clarify them. Does everyone under¬
stand? Good! Just raise your hand if you get stuck, and Mrs. Green or I
will come and help you. (Children begin working.)

Ben: (Raises his hand to ask for help) I forget what to do, and Joon-Rae
doesn't know either.

Mrs. Green: How could you find out? Is there something in the room or on your desk
to remind you?

Ben: Oh yeah, the cue card!

Mrs. Green: Here it is! Now let’s use the Clarifying Cue Card to figure out the first
word. I’ll help with this one, and then you can clarify the rest of the
words yourselves.

The children worked independently with partners, clarifying the challenging words
in the next two paragraphs of the book. Mrs. Green and I walked around the class-
66 Teaching Clarifying Strategies

room, coaching and encouraging them as they worked. Most of the pairs were mak¬
ing good progress implementing the clarifying strategies, though they still needed
more practice to become proficient, independent word learners. I wrapped up the
lesson with a brief discussion, allowing the children to share comments about the
experience. Most of the children reported that clarifying was fun and expressed con¬
fidence that they “did it right." I concluded by reminding them to use the clarifying
strategies every time they read.

The model lesson in Mrs. Green's class illustrates a number of points about
clarifying strategy instruction. Children need explicit instruction with a great deal
of modeling in order to learn how strategies work. The teacher guides the children
through their initial attempts at implementing clarifying strategies and provides a
cue card as a scaffold to support learning. Gradually, the teacher withdraws sup¬
port and allows the children to assume responsibility for their own learning. Chil¬
dren work together on clarifying strategy activities so that they can learn from each
other. The teacher reminds the children frequently to use strategies during inde¬
pendent reading. A variety of instructional texts are used for strategy instruction,
helping children develop skills that transfer across the curriculum.
The success of clarifying strategy lessons is dependent on a range of factors,
including careful teacher preparation and well-designed instructional texts. The
importance of these factors were highlighted by my visit later that day to Mr. Brad¬
shaw's class.

Model Lesson: Mr. Bradshaw’s Class

Mr. Bradshaw approached me in the lunchroom and asked if I would model a clarify¬
ing strategy lesson based on his third-grade science textbook. I had not scheduled
any lessons after lunch, so I agreed to visit his class. When the bell rang, I accompa¬
nied Mr. Bradshaw to his classroom. He quickly posted an enlarged version of the Clar¬
ifying Cue Card (see Figure 2.1) on the wall and introduced me to the children. I
handed out copies of the cue card and demonstrated how to use each of the strate¬
gies. The children caught on quickly, and I was pleased with their response to instruc¬
tion. I decided that it was time to model the strategies with the book that Mr. Brad¬
shaw provided. I had not seen this particular book before, but I assumed that it would
work well.
“You did a great job with the Clarifying Cue Card, everyone! Now let’s open your
science books to page 54 and see how the clarifying strategies work with words in a
book.”
The children opened up their books and searched for the page. “Okay, let’s get
started. I’ll read aloud and you follow along in your books. When we come to a hard
word we’ll stop and use our strategies."
I began reading the first paragraph of the text and stopped at the word evolu¬
tion. Unfortunately, the definition of evolution was enclosed in parentheses immedi-
Clarifying Strategies in Action 67

ately after the word. “Can anyone tell me how we could figure out this word?” I
asked.
One of the girls raised her hand, “It says what it means right here!" she said, point¬
ing to the book.
“I know. But how could we figure it out if the definition were not there?” I asked.
The children looked puzzled. It was clearly beyond their capacity to clarify a word
that was already defined. So, we continued reading the text. Nearly all of the hard
words were accompanied by definitions, which made it very difficult to implement
clarifying strategies. However, the textbook provided definitions only once. When the
children encountered the difficult words again, there was no information in the text to
support comprehension.
“Look boys and girls, here's the word evolution again. Can anyone mine their
memory and tell me what it means?"
The children stared at me blankly. I realized that they did not remember having
read the definition and had not acquired even partial word knowledge. We tried the
clarifying strategy Consider the Context and were able to construct word meaning
that the children were far more likely to remember.

The experience in Mr. Bradshaw's class taught me several valuable lessons. I

realized that despite my status as an expert teacher, I could not simply walk into a
classroom unprepared and teach clarifying strategies effectively. I decided that in
the future I would not accept last-minute requests for model lessons that did not
allow me the time to preview the textbooks and prepare materials. My experience
underscored the fact that effective instruction requires careful preparation.
I also gave a great deal of thought to the problem I encountered with the text¬
book. The inclusion of definitions immediately following the difficult words was
intended to support comprehension but actually seemed to inhibit the children's
word-learning proficiency. The third graders were unable to use strategies in the
presence of definitions, and they did not retain definitional information that sup¬
ported comprehension. The clarifying method was at odds with the goals of the
textbook publisher, and the textbook trumped the method!
When teachers design clarifying strategy lessons, they need to look for texts
that are not too considerate. When definitions and pictures accompany every chal¬
lenging word, the children do not have to work at word learning. Consequently,
they are unable to comprehend the textbook when the words appear again with¬
out supporting information. Clarifying strategy lessons should be based on texts
that include challenging words and ample opportunities for strategy use because
these text characteristics are likely to support vocabulary acquisition and reading
comprehension.
 Part III

Developing
Metacognitive Skills
 Chapter 4

Traffic Signs,
Word Knowledge,
and Self-Monitoring
“Mommy, why are you stopping?” my daughter once asked. We were on our way to
preschool, and I had just pulled to a stop in front of a large red stop sign. Three-year-
old Dania (now grown up and a teacher herself) was intrigued by the power of the
stop sign to regulate my driving behavior. I explained the importance of traffic signs
and signals, telling her that these devices ensure that we follow the traffic laws that
keep us safe. I reminded her of the rules we had talked about: “Stop at the red light!”
“Look both ways before crossing!” Traffic signs and signals were a familiar part of her
world, a set of symbols she already understood at the age of 3.

In this chapter, several instructional activities based on traffic signs and sig¬
nals are introduced. These devices scaffold instruction because they are concrete
symbols that children understand. Children know that traffic signs and signals reg¬
ulate our movement, warning us about speed limits and hazards and ordering us
to stop, turn, go, and so forth. The stop sign serves a similar purpose when used
to teach word comprehension skills. It provides children with a symbolic repre¬
sentation of the cognitive process of stopping when one does not understand a
word in a text. Teachers use the symbolic activities described in this chapter to
scaffold children's understanding of complex metacognitive skills. Gradually, chil¬
dren begin to internalize self-regulating skills and no longer need the concrete
symbols used for instruction. By the time they are adults, good readers have fully
internalized self-regulating behaviors that promote reading proficiency.
Imagine that you, a proficient adult reader, are reading a book and encounter
the following passage:

Mark rushed through the corridor, his thoughts consumed by the scoritome.
When he reached the classroom door, he paused for a moment, caught his
breath and entered the room.

Did you stop when you read the pseudoword scoritome? What thoughts went
through your mind as you realized you did not know the word? Some people
describe the experience of reading as an internal movie, with a series of pictures
flashing through the mind at lighting speed. When an unknown word is encoun¬
tered, the screen goes blank, signaling the need for reparative action. The blank
screen that jars the mind into action provides evidence of the proficient reader's
metacognitive skills.

71
72 Developing Metacognitive Skills

You probably stopped when you became aware that you did not know the
pseudoword scoritome. Now, reflect for a moment on how you solved the problem
of the unknown word. Which strategies did you use? Did you quickly try memory
and discover the word was not in your personal lexicon? You probably reread the
passage and used context to try to figure out the meaning of the word. Good read¬
ers know what to do. They use powerful metacognitive skills to monitor compre¬
hension and to determine when strategies are needed to restore comprehension.

METACOGNITION AND VOCABULARY

Metacognitive knowledge is defined as awareness of one's own cognitive
processes, that is, thinking about thinking. It entails self-monitoring, the ability to
monitor one's own learning, and self-regulation, the ability to implement strategies
to achieve cognitive goals. Words are the smallest units of verbal thought, building
blocks of meaning (Vygotsky, 1978). Monitoring word knowledge is an integral part
of monitoring comprehension of texts. Good readers appear to use a self-monitor¬
ing device to track comprehension as they read. When they encounter an unknown
word, the self-monitoring device acts as a stop sign, signaling the need to repair the
problem. Children and less proficient adult readers do not appear to have func¬
tioning self-monitoring devices to track comprehension. When they come across an
unknown word while reading, they keep reading, unaware that a problem exists.
Often they continue to read, skipping unfamiliar words without taking reparative
action. If this pattern continues, comprehension breaks down and meaning is lost.

FALLING OFF THE PAGE

Sometimes comprehension breaks down, and the reader continues to skim the sur¬
face of the text. This process of losing meaning can be called falling off the page. All
of us experience this phenomenon from time to time, due to lack of interest, dis¬
traction, or other factors. Good readers quickly realize that they have fallen off the
page and take action to restore comprehension. This metacognitive behavior, how¬
ever, is not an innate skill for many readers. Explicit instruction is necessary if chil¬
dren are to learn to continually monitor comprehension and to take reparative
action when they fall off the page.

INTENTIONAL WORD LEARNING DURING READING

Researchers agree that most vocabulary is acquired through incidental word learn¬
ing, defined as acquiring vocabulary during reading without conscious effort or
instruction (Baker, 1995; Fukkink & de Glopper, 1998; Nagy, 1988; Nagy & Her¬
man, 1984). Incidental word learning, however, is a very inefficient process and
results in only a 5% chance of a given word being learned in any particular
encounter with a text (Nagy, 1985). The purpose of this chapter is to reduce chil¬
dren's reliance on incidental vocabulary acquisition by providing them with the
skills to become intentional word learners. When children internalize effective
Traffic Signs, Word Knowledge, and Self-Monitoring 73

clarifying strategies and use them intentionally, word learning during reading can
be substantially improved.
The process of intentional word learning looks like this: A child reads a text,
monitoring word comprehension. She encounters an unknown word, assesses her
level of word knowledge, and determines that reparative action is necessary. She
attempts to understand the unknown word, possibly trying several clarifying
strategies before meaning is constructed. This intentional word learning process
provides her with multiple opportunities to acquire new vocabulary.

TEACHING CHILDREN METACOGNITIVE SKILLS

Children must internalize an array of metacognitive skills if they are to become
efficient word learners. The first task is to teach children that the purpose of read¬
ing is to make meaning of a text. The centrality of meaning making in the reading
process seems obvious to good readers, but many children who lack reading pro¬
ficiency are completely unaware of this basic concept. In fact, many children say
that good reading is "saying words fast and right." They identify fluency and accu¬
racy, rather than the extraction of meaning from a text, as the essence of good read¬
ing. The current emphasis on developing reading fluency may exacerbate this
problem. Unless teachers are careful to emphasize the importance of understand¬
ing, rather than focusing narrowly on speed and accuracy, children may miss the
essential nature and purpose of reading proficiency.

MONITORING WORD KNOWLEDGE

Stop Sign
Teachers begin metacognitive instruction by teaching children to think as they read
and to monitor their own word comprehension. The Stop Sign activity is used as
the basis of instruction. The red paper stop sign used in this activity is a visual tool,
reminding children of the need to stop for unknown words. (Teachers cut stop
signs out of red construction paper and mount them on Popsicle sticks.)
The following snapshot of Stop Sign takes place in a third-grade class that
includes a number of struggling readers. In a prior lesson, the teacher, Ms. Ames,
had introduced the text The Great Race (Brocker, 2000) and developed background
knowledge by showing pictures of Alaskan sled dogs. She read the story and dis¬
cussed it with the students. Ms. Ames is now preparing to read the story for the
second time, with a focus on monitoring word knowledge. The snapshot begins as
she models identifying unknown words in sentence.

Ms. Ames’s Class

Ms. Ames: Boys and girls, I want you to listen carefully as I read this sentence:

John went home after school and started his homework.

What were you thinking when I read the sentence?

74 Developing Metacognitive Skills

Tenisha: About a boy doing his homework.

Ms. Ames: Right! Did anyone have a picture of John in his or her mind?

Drew: Yeah! I pictured him sitting at a table like the one where I do my home¬
work.

Mara: I pictured him walking home and sitting on his bed doing homework like
I do.

Ms. Ames: Good! We all use our own experiences when we read. We make mean¬
ing out of the story that way. Now listen to this sentence:

John went home after school and started his opus.

What happened when I read the word opus?

Tenisha: I didn't know it.

Ms. Ames: What thoughts went through your head?

Tenisha: Nothing.... I didn't have any thoughts because I don't know what
opus is.

Ms. Ames: That's exactly right! When you don’t know a word, your mind goes blank.
When that happens you need to stop reading and do something to fig¬
ure out the word. So, tell me to stop reading like this! (She models lifting
the stop sign.) If you do fhis every time you don’t understand a word, it
will help you a lot. You'll start to pay attention to words you don’t know,
and then you'll learn them.
Now, I’m going to read The Great Race (Brocker, 2000). We read the
story yesterday and looked at pictures of sled dogs. Remember? (Stu¬
dents nod.) Today we’re going to read it again and just focus on the
hard words in the story. Watch what I do! I'm going to pretend that I'm
one of you. I’ll start reading on page 18, and when I come to a word
Traffic Signs, Word Knowledge, and Self-Moniforing 75

thaf I don’t understand I'll use my stop sign like this (lifts stop sign). (Begins
reading)

Balto, the sled dog, plunged through the roaring blizzard...

(Stops reading, lifts the stop sign, and begins to think aloud) Plunged
...hmm...l could see the sled dog in my mind as I was reading. I came to
the word plunged, and my mind went blank. So I raised my stop sign and
tried to figure out the word plunged... Oh, I think I remember that word.
I read in our science book that the sea lions plunged into the water
when they were afraid. So, I think plunged means jumped in, or some¬
thing like that. Let’s check. Balto, the sled dog jumped into the roaring
blizzard....Yes, it makes sense....
Does everyone understand what I just did? (Students nod.) First I lifted
the stop sign to show that the word plunged was unfamiliar. I mined my
memory and figured out what the word meant. Then I substituted a syn¬
onym to make sure that the meaning made sense.
Now I want you to follow along in your books and try to picture the
words in your head as I read. When I read a word you don’t know, lift up
your stop sign. I'll stop reading and we’ll figure out what the word
means. (Reads slowly from the text)
On January 20, 1925, a radio signal went out across the frozen land of Alaska.
It was an urgent...

Josh: Stop! (Raises his stop sign) I don’t get that word you read.

Ms. Ames: Urgent?(Josh nods.) Does anyone know what the word means?

Tenisha: It means very important, doesn’t it?

Ms. Ames: Yes, you’re right, Tenisha. And great job, Josh! That's exactly what I want
you to do. Each time you hear a word you don’t know lift up your stop
sign. Now that we understand the word urgent, we can go on with the
76 Developing Metacognitive Skills

story. (She continues reading. The children lift their stop signs whenever Ms.
Ames reads an unknown word.)

The students in this snapshot were struggling readers who had not learned to
monitor word knowledge or reading comprehension in the early grades. Ms. Ames
was determined to teach them essential metacognitive skills this year. She carefully
prepared for the first lesson, developing background knowledge with pictures,
reading and discussing the content of the story. This ensured that the students
could focus all of their cognitive resources on the metacognitive skill that she was
teaching. She started her instruction with a very simple example, using a single
sentence to help the children identify an unknown word. She modeled the process
of signaling a loss of comprehension with the stop sign and then demonstrated the
same process with a word from the text. She modeled thinking aloud to demon¬
strate her metacognitive processes as she dealt with an unknown word. Then she
guided the students as they used the Stop Sign strategy, helping them to identify
and make meaning of unknown words in the story.
In subsequent lessons, Ms. Ames encouraged the children to take more
responsibility for word monitoring, assigning them to read and implement the Stop
Sign strategy while reading with a partner. The students used the red paper stop
signs for several weeks, gradually internalizing the metacognitive skills that would
allow them to monitor word knowledge independently while reading.
 Chapter 5

Word Learning
and Self-Regulation

I once conducted a vocabulary development workshop with a group of elementary

school teachers. We were discussing methods of building word knowledge when a
fourth-grade teacher stopped me with a question: "What does it mean to know a
word?" she asked. I realized that this was a very important point that teachers need
to consider carefully. I explained that knowing a word might imply word recogni¬
tion, receptive understanding, or expressive competence. It depends on the
reader's purpose. If the reader's goal is to monitor comprehension of a text, partial
word knowledge is probably sufficient. If the reader needs to understand the word
and use it expressively, then full concept knowledge and syntactic control is
required. Defining word knowledge is not a simple matter. Researchers have exam¬
ined children's word knowledge and have determined that word learning proceeds
in stages, beginning with words that are completely unknown, progressing to
words that are partially known, to words that are known well and can be used
independently (Dale, 1965; Graves, 1984).

WORD-LEARNING CONTINUUM
The word-learning process can be viewed as a continuum, composed of red, yel¬
low, and green zones that represent the stages of vocabulary acquisition (see Fig¬
ure 5.1). The word-learning continuum is used to identify levels of children's
vocabulary knowledge. Words that fall in the red zone are easy to identify. Chil¬
dren do not recognize red-light words from prior exposure, nor are they familiar
with any aspect of word meaning.
The yellow zone includes a broad range of words that children partially know.
Yellow-light words usually reflect incomplete concept knowledge and limited abil¬
ity to generalize understanding from one context to another. When a child is asked
to define a yellow-light word, his response provides an indication of word-learning
proficiency. At the early stages of yellow-light word learning, the child tends to gen¬
erate categories or give examples to explain word meaning. For instance, he might
describe a vehicle as something like a car. When asked to construct a sentence with
a yellow-light word, the child may construct a syntactically correct sentence that
does not reveal word meaning, such as I have a vehicle. Although the syntax is cor¬
rect, it is impossible to determine whether the child understands the target word.

77
78 Developing Metacognitive Skills

RED ZONE YELLOW ZONE GREEN ZONE

Red-light words Yellow-light words Green-light words

i don’t know the 1 under¬ 1 can give 1 can define 1 know the word
word. stand the examples the word. well and can
general of the use the word
meaning of word. meaningfully in a
the word, sentence.
but 1 can’t
use it.

1 need to stop and 1 need to slow down and 1 can read at the
use clarifying check my comprehension. speed limit.
strategies.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.

Figure 5.1. The word-learning continuum.

Green-light words are characterized by full concept knowledge and expressive

competence. A child who fully understands the word vehicle, for example, should
be able to generate a sentence with clear, meaningful referents, such as the fol¬
lowing: My dad has a vehicle that he drives to work. This sentence provides evidence
that complete word learning has occurred.

ZONE OF UNDERSTANDING
Zone of Understanding is a self-monitoring Tool of Success based on the word¬
learning continuum. The teacher begins instruction by drawing a horizontal line on
the board and placing a magnet next to the line. She uses colored chalk or erasa¬
ble markers to underline the left part of the continuum in red, the center in yel¬
low, and the right side in green. She carefully explains each zone and provides
examples of red-light, yellow-light, and green-light words. She models the process
of categorizing words and placing a magnet on the appropriate place on the con¬
tinuum. The teacher first identifies a red-light word and thinks aloud as she cate¬
gorizes the word as completely unknown. She indicates her lack of word knowl¬
edge by placing the magnet in the red zone. The teacher then uses clarifying
strategies to construct a rough understanding of the word and then moves the mag¬
net into the yellow zone. Finally, she demonstrates full word knowledge by using
the word correctly in a sentence and moves the magnet into the green zone.
Once the teacher has modeled this process several times, she asks the children
to work individually on the following task: They are asked to look at list of 10
words found in their basal reading story. They circle each word with a red, yellow,
Word Learning and Self-Regulation 79

. lH! *

or green crayon, colored pencil, or marker to indicate the appropriate zone of

understanding. Then the teacher calls on individual children to come up to the
board and move the magnet along the word-learning continuum according to their
level of word knowledge. The teacher coaches the children, providing them with
valuable experience in monitoring word comprehension.

READING SPEED AND WORD COMPREHENSION

Children often feel pressured to read rapidly, particularly in a group context. It is
misguided to emphasize speed at the expense of comprehension. Children should
not be allowed to exceed the speed limit, the pace that allows for full comprehen¬
sion. When all words in a sentence are green-light words, children can read at the
speed limit. When a reader encounters a yellow-light word, she needs to slow down
and monitor comprehension. Often, partial
word knowledge is sufficient to support
comprehension and reading can proceed. STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY
When the reader comes to a red-light word, STEP 1
Look at each of the words on your Stoplight Vocabulary work

however, she needs to come to a full stop sheet. If you have never heard of the word before, It’s a red-
light word. Color the top light red. If you have heard the word
before but are not sure what It means, it's a yellow-light word.
Color the middle light yellow. If you know the word and can
and implement clarifying strategies. use It In speaking or writing. It's a green-light word. Color the
bottom light green.

STEP 2
Look for these words as you read. Use your clarifying strate¬
STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY gies and try to figure out what the words mean.

STEP 3
Stoplight Vocabulary is a highly effective As you become more familiar with the words on your work¬
sheet, they will change categories from red light to yellow
light to green-light words. When you are sure that a word has
tool that children enjoy. The teacher begins changed category for you, color In the correct light next to the
word.

by reviewing a text that the children will be Example Now you are When you

□
Let’s say a little more learn the
you have familiar word profit
reading. She then selects challenging words never heard
of the word
profit. The
with the
word and
have an Idea o well enough
to use It
while speak¬

and lists them next to the stoplights on the red light Is

colored In
because
profit is a
o about Its
meaning.
It's now a
yellow-light
o ing or writ¬
ing, you can
color in the

Stoplight Vocabulary Worksheet. The teach¬ red-light

word for
word for
you. The
you. yellow green-light
light Is now word for
er places the Stoplight Vocabulary trans¬ colored In. youl

parency (see p. 85) on the overhead projec-

80 Developing Metacognitive Skills

tor and explains the process. She shows the

Date

children how to color the stoplights red,

STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY
yellow, or green to indicate their level of Follow these steps for Stoplight Vocabulary. If you don't know a word at all,
color the stoplight beside It red. If you have heard of the word but aren't
sure what It means, color the stoplight yellow. If you know the word and can
word knowledge. The teacher passes out use It while speaking or writing, color the stoplight green. Use your clarifying
strategies as you read and try to figure out what the Stoplight Vocabulary
words mean. As you learn the words, color the traffic lights again to show
how well you know the words now.
copies of the Stoplight Vocabulary sheet
conflict navigate

(see p. 86) and explains that the words on o o

the list are found in the text that the chil¬ o o
dren will be reading. The teacher instructs O o
the children to work independently, color¬ expel authority

o D
ing in each stoplight to indicate their level
o O
of word knowledge. As the children com¬ o O
plete their Stoplight Vocabulary sheets, the
o o
dlfreqqrd treaty

teacher walks around the room, noting

words that the children have colored red. o o
This provides valuable information about
o o
the students' vocabulary knowledge so that
instructional time is not wasted teaching children words they already know. Chil¬
dren are responsible for identifying their initial word knowledge and for monitor¬
ing and changing the stoplights as word learning occurs. Page 86 shows a Stoplight
Vocabulary sheet based on words found in an upper-elementary social studies
textbook.
The following vignette portrays a Stoplight Vocabulary lesson based on the
Stoplight Vocabulary sheet on page 86. Fifth-grade teacher Mr. Mason has selected
words from a unit on explorers that he thinks will be difficult for the students.
While preparing the Stoplight Vocabulary sheet for students, he made a trans¬
parency of the sheet.

Mr. Mason’s Class

4 4 d \
Mr. Mason: Okay folks. I’m going to pretend to be a student. I’m looking at a list of
tough words (points to the Stoplight Vocabulary sheet, on page 86, dis¬
played on the overhead projector) that are in this unit of the social stud¬
ies book. I’m going to think aloud for you as I decide what to do about
the first word on this Stoplight Vocabulary sheet.
The first word is conflict. Let’s see.... The first thing I need to do is decide
if I know this word at all. I think I’ve heard it before, and it has something
to do with fighting. So, it definitely isn’t a red-light word for me. Now the
question is how well do I know this word? I can’t really define it exactly
and I sure can’t use it in a sentence! So, I think it’s a yellow-light word. (The
teacher colors the stoplight next to the word conflict yellow.)
Now, let’s look at the word expel. Suppose I don’t know this word at all.
What color do I put in the stoplight?
Word Learning and Self-Regulation 81

Kristen: Red!

Mr. Mason: Right! (Colors the stoplight next to the word expel red) Red is for words
you don’t know at all.
Now, this next one is harder. I think I know the word navigate really well.
How can I tell if a word should be colored green, if it's really a green-light
word for me?

Brittany: You can explain about it.

Mr. Mason: That’s a start. But, if you really know a word, you should be able to use it
in a sentence. So, this is my sentence: When my family takes a trip, it's my
job to navigate so that we don't get lost. Can you tell I know what the
word means from this sentence? (Children nod.) Okay, so I can color the
stoplight green (colors stoplight).
Now, please look at each word on your Stoplight Vocabulary sheet and
color the stoplights red, yellow, or green. I want you to think very carefully
and try to be honest. This is only going to help you learn if you color in the
stoplights based on what you really know. Okay? Let’s get started!

As the children color in the stoplights, Mr. Mason circulates, checking on their
work. He notes words that many children have colored red and thinks that these
words may require explicit instruction. He monitors the children's green-light
words, asking them to construct sentences to confirm word knowledge. A number
of children have to go back a level to yellow when they are unable to demonstrate
thorough word knowledge. Once the children have completed their Stoplight
Vocabulary sheets, the teacher calls them back together. Mr. Mason's class is now
ready for the next part of the lesson, which is based on the Stoplight Vocabulary
82 Developing Metacognitive Skills

sheet shown on page 86 and the Clarifying Cue Card (p. 38), which the children
use to clarify red- and yellow-light words.

Mr. Mason’s Class

Mr. Mason: Now I am going to show you how to clarify the words on your Stoplight
Vocabulary sheets while you read the social studies textbook. Please take
out your Clarifying Cue Cards and open your social studies books to
page 89. I'm going to read aloud, and I'd like you to follow along. I'll stop
when I come to the first stoplight word.
(He reads a paragraph of the text and stops to clarify the first stoplight
word.) When the settlers moved west and took over more Indian land,
there was increasing conflict with the native people.
Let’s see...conflict....Here's a word I colored yellow on my Stoplight
Vocabulary sheet. First I’ll use Mine My Memory to discover what I know
about the word conflict. I remember that I've heard that word before—
it has something to do with fighting. I don’t think Study the Structure will
help. So, next I’ll use Consider the Context. Conflict seems to be about
problems between the settlers and the Native Americans. I'll use Substi¬
tute a Synonym just to be sure I know this word: When the settlers moved
west and took over more Indian land there was increasing fighting with
the native people. Yes, that makes sense!
Now, take a look at my Stoplight Vocabulary sheet on the overhead.
I’ve worked on this word, and I think I really know it now. So, what do I
need to do?

Colin: Make a sentence with the word?

Mr. Mason: Right! Let's see....Here’s my sentence: If you follow the rules, we won't
have any conflict in this classroom. (Children laugh.) Do I understand the
word really well now? (Children nod.)
Okay, I’m going to color the stoplight green because I’ve learned this
word thoroughly (colors the stoplight next to the word conflict green).

Mr. Mason models clarifying another word and calls on students to demonstrate
clarifying additional words with his coaching. Then he asks them to complete the
activity in pairs, with each partner taking turns reading the text and clarifying the
stoplight words. At the end of the activity, the children return to their Stoplight
Vocabulary worksheets, reevaluating their level of word knowledge for each word
and coloring in the appropriate stoplights if word learning has occurred. In the next
vignette, two children finish reading and work together on their Stoplight Vocabu¬
lary sheets (see p. 86).
Word Learning and Self-Regulation 83

Mr. Mason's Class

Kristen: (Finishes reading the last paragraph in the chapter) That’s it! We're done!

Brittany: Not yet! We’re supposed to go back and change the colors on the stop¬
lights now...if we learned anything about the words.

Kristen: Okay, you want to go first?

Brittany: Yeah! I'll do conflict. I colored it yellow.

Kristen: Can you make it green?

Brittany: Yeah, Mr. Mason showed us that one: If you follow the rules, we won't
have any conflict in this classroom. See, it’s green! (Colors stoplight
green)

Kristen: (Laughs at Brittany's example and colors the stoplight beside conflict
green on her own worksheet)

Brittany: Wait! You can't color it too. You have to make your own sentence.

Kristen: Well, you used the teacher's sentence.

Brittany: Yeah, but you let me go first!

Kristen: Okay, okay, here’s your sentence: I have a conflict with you right now.

Brittany: (Laughs) Okay, color it green! Let's do a new one. How about disregard?
I colored it red the first time.

Kristen: I colored it green.

Brittany: You did? Then make a sentence with it.

Kristen: I like disregard.

Brittany: (Argumentatively) That doesn't count. You can't tell what the word
means in your sentence.

Kristen: (Raises her voice) Yes you can!

Mr. Mason: (Hears the girls arguing and comes over to help) What’s the problem,
girls?

Brittany: She colored disregard green, but her sentence doesn't count because
you can’t tell what the word means.

Mr. Mason: What’s your sentence, Kristen?

Kristen: Uh...l guess it’s not green (crosses out the green circle). I'll make it yellow.

Mr. Mason: Can you tell me something about the word disregard, Kristen?
84 Developing Metacognitive Skills

Kristen: Well, in the book it made sense. It was something like not caring about
the Indians.

Mr. Mason: Great! That's a perfect example of a yellow-light word. You can under¬
stand it in context, but you don't fully know the word yet. Good work,
girls!

This snapshot illustrates the importance of providing

opportunities for children to work together on metacog¬
nitive activities. When Mr. Mason was talking about the
word conflict, he did almost all of the talking. The stu¬
dents were relatively passive recipients of his instruc¬
tion. When he grouped the children into pairs and asked
them to work cooperatively on the assignment, the
quantity of student speech rose substantially. Although
the children needed explicit instruction in this metacog¬
nitive task, they also benefited from the opportunity to
discuss words with a peer and to try their emerging
word-learning skills.
A set of Stoplight Vocabulary instructional materials is
provided on the following pages. The teacher's trans¬
parency master (see p. 85) is used for modeling the
process that has been described in this chapter. Two ver¬
sions of student Stoplight Vocabulary sheets (see pp.
87-88) are instructional tools that teachers can adapt for
the grade and proficiency level of the students. The ver¬
sion with fewer stoplights (see p. 87) is suitable for
younger children and struggling readers. Older children
and more proficient readers benefit from the larger
number of stoplights on the advanced version shown on
page 88.
 STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY

STEP 1
Look at each of the words on your Stoplight Vocabulary work¬
sheet. If you have never heard of the word before, it’s a red-
light word. Color the top light red. If you have heard the word
before but are not sure what it means, it’s a yellow-light word.
Color the middle light yellow. If you know the word and can
use it in speaking or writing, it’s a green-light word. Color the
bottom light green.

STEP 2
Look for these words as you read. Use your clarifying strate¬
gies and try to figure out what the words mean.

STEP 3
As you become more familiar with the words on your work¬
sheet, they will change categories from red-light to yellow-
light to green-light words. When you are sure that a word has
changed category for you, color in the correct light next to the
word.

Example:
Let’s say
you have
never heard
of the word
profit. The
red light is
colored in
because
profit is a
red-light
word for
you.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 85
Name:_ Date:_

STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY
Follow these steps for Stoplight Vocabulary. If you don’t know a word at all,
color the stoplight beside it red. If you have heard of the word but aren’t
sure what it means, color the stoplight yellow. If you know the word and can
use it while speaking or writing, color the stoplight green. Use your clarifying
strategies as you read and try to figure out what the Stoplight Vocabulary
words mean. As you learn the words, color the traffic lights again to show
how well you know the words now.

disreaard treaty

O O
o O
o o
Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension
by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
86 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: Date:_

STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY
Follow these steps for Stoplight Vocabulary. If you don’t know a word at all,
color the stoplight beside it red. If you have heard of the word but aren’t
sure what it means, color the stoplight yellow. If you know the word and can
use it while speaking or writing, color the stoplight green. Use your clarifying
strategies as you read and try to figure out what the Stoplight Vocabulary
words mean. As you learn the words, color the traffic lights again to show
how well you know the words now.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 87
Name:_ Date:_

STOPLIGHT VOCABULARY
Follow these steps for Stoplight Vocabulary. If you don’t know a word at all,
color the light red. If you have heard of the word but aren’t sure what it means,
color it yellow. If you know the word and can use it while speaking or writing,
color it green. Use your clarifying strategies as you read and try to figure out
what the Stoplight Vocabulary words mean. As you learn the words, color the
traffic lights again to show how well you know the words now.

o O o o
O O o o
O o o o

O o o o
o o o o
o o o It
o
o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
(J o o o
o o o o
o o o o

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
88 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Chapter 6

Controlling
Word-Learning Strateg les

Now that children know the clarifying strategies and can accurately identify their
levels of word learning, they are ready for another level of skill in the conditional
dimension: self-regulation of strategic knowledge. Self-regulation entails selecting
the most appropriate strategy or strategies to clarify unknown words, checking to
make sure the constructed meaning makes sense, and responding flexibly when a
strategy does not work.
Teaching children to regulate the use of clarifying strategies is a complex under¬
taking. Children often expect to be given rules such as math formulas and expect
the rules to work consistently in producing the desired outcome. Clarifying
involves a different set of expectations. A clarifying strategy must be understood
as a heuristic, an approach to problem solving that may or may not work, rather
than as an algorithm that is guaranteed to produce a solution. Children must
develop persistence in applying strategies and a tolerance for frustration when
strategies are not effective. Explicit instruction helps children develop the
metacognitive skills necessary to manage strategies effectively. The following dia¬
logue takes place in a sixth-grade classroom as the teacher, Mrs. Miller, guides the
students in acquiring conditional strategic skills.

Mrs. Miller's Class

Mrs. Miller: (Points to the Clarifying Cue Card [see p. 38] chart on the wall) We’ve
been working on the clarifying strategies for quite a while, and you know
them pretty well. Today we're going to look at the strategies more closely
and decide how they should be used. Take a look at this sentence on the
overhead projector:
Although they had worked well together up to this point, the boys had a dis¬
agreement over the way the final part of the project should be done.

If you weren’t sure about the word disagreement, what is the first clarify¬
ing strategy you would try?

Justin: I’d mine my memory. I know what a disagreement is.

Mrs. Miller: Yes, most people try Mine Your Memory first. If Mine Your Memory works,
then they can check themselves with Substitute a Synonym and get back

89
90 Developing Metacognitive Skills

to the text. Justin, which synonym would you substitute to check your
understanding of this word?

Justin: Urmm...argue...1 think they were arguing, so I’d use the word argument
instead of disagreement.

Mrs. Miller: Try it!

Justin: Although they had worked well together up to this point, the boys had an
argument over the way the final part of the project should be done.

Mrs. Miller: Does that make sense?

Students: Yeah!

Mrs. Miller: Good! Now, let's say that you did not already know the word disagree¬
ment. Mine Your Memory did not work. Should you just give up and use
Place a Post-It?

Erin: 1 think you could use Study the Structure for the word.

Mrs. Miller: Tell us how that would work!

Erin: You can see the word agree inside the word. If you know that agree is to
think the same thing as someone, then you could figure out that disagree
is to not think the same thing.

Mrs. Miller: That’s great, Erin! Now check your understanding with Substitute a Synonym.

Erin: Okay.... Although they had worked well together up to this point, the boys
did not think the same thing over the way the final part of the project
should be done.

Mrs. Miller: What do you call it when people have different ideas about somrething?
(No response) You could say that the boys had a difference of opinion.
What about Consider the Context? Does context help clarify the word?

Justin: Not for me.

Mike: Yeah, it does. Look! (Points to the word although on the transparency) If
you know that although means something different is going on, you know
that at first they worked well together, but then they did not work well
together anymore on the final part of the project.

Mrs. Miller: Good work, Mike! Now, 1 want you to think about this for a minute. Did
each person clarify the word disagreement the same way?

Students: No!

Mrs. Miller: Right! Clarifying is different for each person because it depends on your
individual word knowledge. The key point is to use the clarifying strategies
flexibly so that they work for you.
Controlling Word-Learning Strategies 91

Now, take a look at this sentence on the overhead:

The teacher frowned at the students as she passed back the papers, for she was
very disappointed in the students' test scores.

Let’s assume for a moment that you don't know the word disappointed.
You’ve tried Mine Your Memory and it didn’t work. Does the next strategy,
Study the Structure, help?

Tania: Yeah. You can look at the prefix d/s- and know that it means not.

Mrs. Miller: Not what? How does that help?

Tania: Umm...Not appointed...no, it doesn't make sense.

Erin: Study the Structure doesn’t work, so you have to use Consider the Con¬
text. If you look at the word frowned, you know the teacher isn't happy
about the tests.

Mrs. Miller: Exactly! That’s what I mean by flexible. You can think of strategies as tools
in your toolbox. If one doesn't do the job, you try another.

Mrs. Miller then guides the students through a number of examples, helping them
to identify clarifying strategies that do and do not work with various texts. She
begins with simple words so that the children's initial attempts at self-regulation
will be successful. As the children gain confidence in their ability to use clarifying
strategies effectively, Mrs. Miller increases the difficulty level of the vocabulary.
Then she asks the students to work in pairs, clarifying a series of challenging words
from their social studies textbook. As the students work, Mrs. Miller circulates,
checking for understanding and coaching as needed. She is pleased to see that the
students' use of the clarifying strategies is becoming more flexible.
92 Developing Metacognitive Skills

CLARIFYING STRATEGY DECISION TREE

The most important task that the students must accomplish now is to internalize
the flexible strategic skills that they have learned and apply them to independent
reading. The Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree (see p. 94) provides a road map for
clarifying strategy use. Each step in the
process is outlined in graphic form to help
children internalize the process. The pur¬
CLARIFYING STRATEGY DECISION TREE
pose of this activity is to teach children to
use clarifying strategies flexibly and effec¬
tively during independent reading. Since
Ask an Expert is only effective when chil¬ JRN TO THE TEXT

dren are working in group or during full

class instruction, it has not been included RETURN TO THE TEXT

in the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree.

Now that Mrs. Miller has taught her stu¬
dents to select and implement appropriate
clarifying strategies, she is ready to move to
905717 _"Em'i IQ THE TEXT.

the next level of complexity. In the follow¬

ing snapshot, she helps her students learn
to use the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree.

Mrs. Miller’s Class

Mrs. Miller: Okay, please put your books down! I'd like to talk for a minute about the
clarifying strategies. How did the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree work?
L. Does anyone have a comment?

Rachel: I tried it. I came to this word I never saw before. I couldn’t remember what
to do, so I looked at the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree.

Mrs. Miller: Did it help you?

Rachel: Yeah, sort of. I skipped Mine Your Memory because I knew I didn't know
the word. The Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree said to try Study the Struc¬
ture next. There weren’t any word parts, so that didn’t help. Then it said to
try Consider the Context, and that worked.

Mrs. Miller: Good work, Rachel. Clarifying can be frustrating. You stuck with it, and
your persistence paid off. You figured out the meaning of the word. Any¬
one else?

Juan: I got into the book and forgot to use the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree.

Mrs. Miller: Were there any words you did not know in the chapter?

Juan: Yeah, but I could figure them out right away.

Controlling Word-Learning Strategies 93

Mrs. Miller: So, you have learned the clarifying strategies so well that you use them
automatically. That's great! Please put the Clarifying Strategy Decision
Tree into your binders and remember to use it when you read independ¬
ently. Doing this will really help you learn more words and become a bet¬
ter reader.

Proficient readers such as Juan quickly discard the Clarifying Strategy Decision
Tree because they know what to do when they encounter an unfamiliar word dur¬
ing reading. Juan has already internalized effective clarifying strategies that he
applies efficiently as he reads. Other children need explicit instruction and sup¬
portive tools such as the Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree to help them develop
these essential metacognitive skills.
The methods included in this chapter should be incorporated into a wide range
of reading activities over an extended period of time. Teaching children to monitor
comprehension, learn words intentionally while reading, and apply clarifying
strategies effectively will help the children become proficient independent readers.
CLARIFYING STRATEGY DECISION TREE

STOP FOR
UNKNOWN
WORDS

MINE YOUR SUBSTITUTE

MEMORY A SYNONYM If you know the word,
TRY to be sure. RETURN TO THE TEXT.
Have you seen
THIS or heard the
word before?

STUDY THE
STRUCTURE SUBSTITUTE
A SYNONYM If you know the word,
Yes
TRY Do you know a to be sure. RETURN TO THE TEXT.
THIS word part?
Does this help No
you understand
the word?

CONSIDER
THE CONTEXT SUBSTITUTE
A SYNONYM If you know the word,
■ Yes-
TRY Can you tell to be sure. RETURN TO THE TEXT.
THIS what the word
means from the . No
words around
it?

PLACE A
POST-IT RETURN TO THE TEXT.

TRY If nothing else

THIS works, come
back to the
word later.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
94 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Building
Word Knowledg
 Chapter 7

Choosing Words
to Teach and Learn

One Monday morning, I was seated in a second-grade classroom in a high-achieving

school. I had come to observe Jennie, who was beginning the take-over phase of her
final student teaching placement. On the day of my visit, she was teaching a read¬
ing lesson based on the guidelines in the basal teacher's guide. Jennie began by
preteaching the list of vocabulary words taken from the story. It was immediately
apparent that Jennie's students already knew the words that she was attempting to
teach them. They shouted out answers to her questions and demonstrated their bore¬
dom by rolling their eyes and sighing loudly. When Jennie asked the children to define
the word kitchen, they lost patience. The whole class burst into giggles as one of the
bolder girls contemptuously replied, “Duh!” Realizing that the lesson was not going
well, Jennie became increasingly frustrated. She did not have the experience to eval¬
uate the recommended words in the teacher’s guide in terms of the vocabulary
knowledge of her students. She simply followed the guidelines for teaching vocabu¬
lary and wasted valuable instructional time.
Another day, I was visiting the classroom of Sandi, a veteran second-grade
teacher in a very low-performing school that has a lot of English language learners.
She was also frustrated with the guidelines in her teacher’s guide. “Just look at these
words,’’ she complained to me, pointing to the word grotesque. “These kids barely
speak English, and we're expected to teach them words I did not learn until at least
middle school. I’m just overwhelmed and the kids are miserable. I don’t feel like we’re
getting anywhere." Unlike Jennie's basal teacher's guide, which had simplistic vocab¬
ulary lists, Sandi’s reading anthology included so many difficult words that vocabulary
instruction foundered and the children were unable to understand the stories at all.

Jennie and Sandi are typical of many classroom teachers, frustrated with text
selections and recommended vocabulary lists. The instructional guidelines they
are expected to follow do not work well, particularly with children on opposite
ends of the achievement spectrum. These stories underscore an important point:
Teachers, not textbook publishers, are most qualified to choose the words that their
students need to know.
Teachers know that children need to learn a vast number of words in order to
read proficiently but may not be sure which words they should teach. Vocabulary

97
98 Building Word Knowledge

experts suggest that teachers sort words into three tiers based on the frequency and
utility of the words (Beck et ah, 2002). These categories provide teachers with
guidelines for making instructional decisions. Teachers do not need to teach com¬
mon words categorized as Tier One because most children already know them.
Teachers should focus their instruction on Tier Two words, which are high utility
and are not already known by most children. Tier Three words are so esoteric or
infrequent at a particular grade level that it makes little sense to teach them at all.
The word grotesque, included in Sandi's second-grade basal reader, is a good exam¬
ple of a Tier Three word.
There is little consensus as to the particular words that belong in the Tier Two
category. Each group of children is different in terms of age, preexisting vocabu¬
lary, and background knowledge. Experts agree that Tier Two words support com¬
prehension of texts the children are reading and are worth the investment of
instructional time because they are likely to be encountered again in other contexts
(Beck et al., 2002).
Teachers do not have to depend on textbooks to supply vocabulary lists. Tier
Two words are everywhere! Rich, meaningful vocabulary words that children do
not already know can be found in the textbooks and trade books that are used for
instruction and in books that teachers read aloud to their classes. For example, a
fourth-grade teacher might identify the words concealed, intruders, and thrust from
the first chapter of the novel Island of the Blue Dolphins (O'Dell, 1960). These words
can be categorized in Tier Two because many fourth-grade children do not know
them and the words are likely to be encountered again in the books that the chil¬
dren read. The words pluralism, ethnic, and diversity, found in the first chapter of
the fifth-grade social studies book America Will Be (Armento et al., 1991), are
appropriate Tier Two choices for fifth-grade vocabulary instruction. These words
must be taught because they are essential for comprehension of the chapter and
are used multiple times in the textbook. The first chapter of the America Will Be
also contains a number of low-frequency words such as gumbo, jambalaya, and
zydeco. These can be categorized in Tier Three because they are not needed to com¬
prehend the text and are rarely encountered in fifth-grade books. When children
encounter Tier Three words in their textbooks, teachers should simply explain
what the words mean and move on to more important vocabulary instruction.

EXPLICIT VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION

After identifying the words that children need to learn, teachers must plan vocab¬
ulary instruction that will positively affect reading comprehension. Superficial
word-learning activities will not suffice. Vocabulary experts have found that effec¬
tive instruction requires a great deal of time; up to 17 minutes per word is neces¬
sary to provide thorough word learning (Beck et al., 2002; Stahl, 1989). The instruc¬
tional activities included in this chapter are designed to build in-depth word
knowledge that promotes reading comprehension.
Choosing Words to Teach and Learn 99

EVALUATING VOCABULARY DEMANDS OF TEXTS

It is important that the teacher evaluate the vocabulary demands of the text before
planning vocabulary instruction. This helps her determine the level of support that
the students will need for successful reading.
The teacher copies the text passage that the students will be reading. She
underlines the words that might be difficult for her students to understand. Then
the teacher evaluates the words based on the guidelines shown in Table 7.1 on
page 101.

Conceptual Load

The first aspect of text that is evaluated is conceptual load. Several factors con¬
tribute to the conceptual load of a particular word, including the level of abstrac¬
tion and the background knowledge that children need to make sense of the word.
The conceptual load of a particular word varies considerably depending on a par¬
ticular child's home, community, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and other fac¬
tors. For example, the word blizzard is concrete and easy to understand for a child
who lives in a cold winter climate. The same word might be significantly more dif¬
ficult for a child who lives in a desert or tropical climate, due to lack of background
knowledge. Words that are highly abstract such as eventually tend to be conceptu¬
ally difficult for most children.

Word Utility

Word utility refers to the usefulness of a word. Words that appear frequently in
grade-level texts have a high level of utility and are important for children to know.
Words that children are unlikely to ever encounter again have a very low level of
utility and are probably not worth teaching. This can be a tricky category, because
words that appear frequently in texts are often the same words that children
already know. Teachers should evaluate words carefully in regard to this topic, in
order to identify high-utility words that children do not already know.

Word Frequency
Word frequency refers to the number of times a particular word appears in the
text. (A text is defined as an article or a chapter in a textbook or novel.) The word
may appear in the same form or in slightly different forms. For example, a text with
the words establish, established, and establishment has three words from the estab¬
lish word family. Children reading this text would encounter the word family estab¬
lish three times, which is a high level of word frequency. This topic is important
because repeated exposures is one of the primary ways that children acquire new
vocabulary. Texts with high word-frequency levels are likely to support vocabulary
acquisition.
100 Building Word Knowledge

Contextual Support
Contextual support measures the degree to which children can infer word mean¬
ing from a text. Texts differ in terms of the support they provide in reference to
word meaning. The closer the definitional information is to the target word, the
easier it is for children to infer word meaning. Contextual support should be care¬
fully evaluated because it is not always helpful and may even be misleading. A text
with a high level of contextual support helps children derive word meaning as they
read, another important method of vocabulary acquisition. It is important to dis¬
tinguish texts with a high level of contextual support from those that provide
explicit definitions for challenging words. These texts are too considerate and may
undermine children's ability to infer word meaning from natural contextual clues
in textbooks and novels.

Morphological Support
Morphological support measures the extent to which children can use morphology
(examination of word parts) to infer word meaning. High morphological support is
often provided by compound words such as downsize or by words with high-fre¬
quency prefixes or suffixes such as pre- or -tion. Texts that provide high levels of
morphological support encourage children to grapple with word meaning, increas¬
ing vocabulary development.

Total Average Score

The total average score is calculated across topics for all underlined words. This
score, calculated with a particular group of children in mind, helps the teacher
determine whether the vocabulary demands of the text are at an independent
(easy), an instructional (moderate), or a frustration (difficult) level for the children.

Percentage of Unknown Words in the Text

The percentage of unknown words in a text passage is determined by dividing the

number of unknown (underlined) words by the total number of words. This per¬
centage is not an absolute number because individual children differ in their word
knowledge and may have partial or full understanding of the words the teacher has
selected. An estimate of the percentage of unknown words helps the teacher deter¬
mine the amount of vocabulary instruction that children will need in order to
understand the text. Researchers agree that children must know 85%-90% of the
words in a text in order to read with full comprehension (Freebody & Anderson,
1983; Nagy & Scott, 2000; Stahl, 1989).
Choosing Words to Teach and Learn 101

Table 7.1. Rubric for evaluating the vocabulary demands of text.

Level of demand

Vocabulary 1 2 3
demand category Independent Instructional Frustration

Conceptual load Words are concrete and Words are somewhat Words are abstract and
label things that most concrete and refer to represent concepts
children know about things some children do most children do not
and understand. not know about or know or understand.
understand.
Word utility Words are high utility Words are of moderate Words are low utility
and are likely to be utility and may be and are unlikely to be
encountered again in encountered again in encountered again in
grade-level texts. grade-level texts. grade-level texts.
Word frequency Words are repeated Words appear more Words do not appear
several times in the text, than once in the text, more than once in the
possibly in different possibly in different text.
forms. forms.
Contextual support Contextual support is Contextual support is Contextual support is
high. moderate. low or misleading.
Morphological support Word structure provides Word structure provides Word structure provides
high level of support. moderate level of sup¬ no support.
port.

Percentage of unknown A small percentage A moderate percentage A high percentage

words in the text (less than 10%) of the (10°/o-1 5%) of the (more than 15%) of the
words in the text are words in the text are words in the text are
unknown. unknown. unknown.

Example Evaluation of Vocabulary Demands of a Text

Ms. Reed, a fifth-grade teacher, evaluated the vocabulary demand of "Life of a
Cowboy" (Schlissel, 1995), prior to beginning instruction. She underlined 10 words
in the text she felt were likely to be difficult for the students:

Crossing open land almost always meant emergencies. A river at flood time
could overturn wagons. A drowning, panic-stricken calf might kill the cowboy
trying to save it. Flat stretches of land concealed rock and holes that could trip
even a sure-footed horse. The bite of a rattlesnake could penetrate a cowboy's
boot. Then his only chance would be to cut the flesh between the fang marks
and suck out the venom. Some cowboys poured gunpowder on the wound to
counteract the poison. (Schlissel, 1995, p. 28)

Then, Ms. Reed evaluated the conceptual load, word utility, word frequency, con¬
textual support, and morphological support for each word based on the rubric (see
Figure 7.1).
102
H
x
QJ
<0
Vocabulary

c
C
SZ
1

o
£
o
C/I
O
t
Z5

55
'O
demand category panic-strichen stretches sure-footed penetrate venom wound counteract Average score

'go
—
—
—
CM
CM
—
Cm
—
—
co
in

Conceptual load

—
—
—
CM
CM
CM
CM
—
CM

—
in

Word utility

CM
CM
CM
CM
CM
CO
CM
CM
—
c\i

CO

Word frequency

CM
—
—
—
CM
—
—
—
—
CM
CO

Contextual support

co
—
CO
CO
—
CO
CO
CO
—

Morphological support 2.2

Total average score: 1.72

CL
CD
CJ
CD
C
03
CD
3
c
o
<:
c
£
o
“O
(/)
JZ
CD
CD
X
CM

-♦—*
o
eP

o>
Figure 7.1. Evaluating the vocabulary demands of “The Life of a Cowboy” (Schlissel, 1 995).
Choosing Words to Teach and Learn 103

The teacher's analysis of the

vocabulary demands of "The Life
of a Cowboy'' revealed the fol¬
lowing information: The percent¬
age of unknown words was 12%,
a challenging but appropriate
level of difficulty for an instruc¬
tional text. The total average score
was 1.72, indicating that the text
was at an easy instructional level
for this class. The teacher con¬
cluded that the majority of the
children in the class would be
able to comprehend the text with appropriate instruction. You can use the blank
form on page 109 to evaluate the vocabulary demands of a text you are planning
to use for instructional purposes.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Word Study Journal

As important as it is for teachers to select

appropriate vocabulary words to teach, it is
equally important for children to choose
WORD STUDY JOURNAL
the words they want to learn. The Word
CONTEXT AND
Study Journal activity provides children SURROUNDING
MEMORY
STRUCTURE
STRATEGIES MEANING
WORD PRACTICE
u«dJo figure
crlpllon of how
with an individual record of word-learning appeared) •how* I’m rlghi)
lacud riy
Codif dwto boot ihe rev* when Orudure to %■
"ThealorS&mleT- meytact*- sycan cf three
ctood rh;wporsrce ftooabcirtmh
activities. The purpose is to increase moti¬ ctcottcd rttym' j£xn rratrrn
■iACn/i i
a£an cr itfc irdendood Ihe
rrprtsrcc of pg-
vation for word learning by providing chil¬ vae .t.SJ'. •

dren with individual choice. The Word

Study Journal activity also enhances vocab¬
ulary acquisition by providing multiple
exposures to new words encountered dur¬
ing reading.
The Word Study Journal includes two
components: a transparency master (see p.
110) and a student copy of the Word Study
Journal (p. 111). Teachers use the overhead transparency to carefully model record¬
ing information in the Word Study Journal. Once the children understand the
process, they can use their Word Study Journals to keep a record of their word
learning.
In the following vignette, fifth-grade teacher Mr. Hamilton models entering the
word reform in the Word Study Journal (see p. 110). He demonstrates each step of
the process on the overhead transparency, modeling thinking aloud to help the chil¬
dren understand his reasoning.
104 Building Word Knowledge

Mr. Hamilton's Class

“Let’s see....I need to decide which of the Name:_ Date:-

words in this paragraph I should put in my WORD STUDY JOURNAL

Word Study Journal. I'm not sure what the
word reform means, so I'll write it in the first
box. It says that I also need to write down
where the word appeared. So, I'll write that I
found it in the social studies book, along with
the sentence it appears in: The colonists
understood the importance of political
reform. Now I'm going to try to remember if I
heard the word before. I think I remember
hearing people talk about it when we had
the election. So, I'll write election in the MEM¬
ORY box. Next, I need to write down the
CONTENT AND STRUCTURE strategies I used. I
think I can use Study the Structure. I know the word parts re- and form. Re means to
do something again, and form means shape or structure. Now, I can write Study the
Structure in the CONTEXT AND STRUCTURE STRATEGIES box. Next, I have to write down
what I think the word means in the next box. I think reform is to change or make some¬
thing better. So, I'll write that in the MEANING box. I also have to explain why I know
I'm right. I'm pretty sure I'm right because Substitute a Synonym works: The colonists
understood the importance of political change. So, I'll also record that in this box.
The last thing I have to do is tell when and how I used the word. Okay! (Saturday)
I asked my parents to reform the system of chores and allowance in our family. I'll write
it in the WORD PRACTICE box and that’s it! I’m finished with the word reform."
Choosing Words to Teach and Learn 105

The Word Study Journal activity offers children choice in the words that they
attend to, a factor that has been shown to increase motivation to learn (see, e.g.,
Guthrie & Humenick, 2003). Once children have recorded words in their journal,
the teacher encourages them to document use of the clarifying strategies—Mine
Your Memory, Study the Structure, Consider the Context, and Substitute a Syn¬
onym. In addition, Word Study Journals require students to become actively
engaged in word learning as they use new words in playful and informal ways.

Mental Imagery
Teachers incorporate the Mental Imagery strategy into word-learning instruction
by teaching children to construct a picture of words in their minds in response to
the reading of a high-interest text. The purpose of the activity is to stimulate chil¬
dren's imaginations and to help them develop enthusiasm for word learning.
Teaching children to construct mental images is not as easy as it sounds, despite
the enormous amounts of time many children spend watching visual images on tel¬
evision. When children view visual images, they are engaged in a passive process
that is entirely different than the construction of their own mental imagery.
Children were not always passive recipients of visual images. For example, an
elderly friend and I were discussing the difference between listening to children's
radio and watching children's television. He explained, "When my children were
young, they listened to cowboy shows on the radio. When it was time for their
favorite show, my boys put on their cowboy hats and guns and grabbed their hobby
horses. They were part of the story, riding their horses and shooting their toy guns
right along with their favorite characters. Sometimes they jumped out of their seats
and wrestled with each other, like the actors on the radio. By the time the show
was over, they were worn out and ready for dinner.
"When my great grandchildren watch TV, it's completely different. They just
sit there, as if in a trance, and don't move for hours at a time. They even watch the
106 Building Word Knowledge

commercials without moving a muscle. When it's time for dinner, they whine and
fuss about turning off the TV."
My friend's description of his children's response to radio programming
demonstrates an important point. When children create their own mental images,
they must draw on prior knowledge and imagination to construct word meaning.
All children are capable of constructing mental imagery, but their ability to gener¬
ate visual images may have been stunted by years of passive exposure to television
and video games. They need instruction that will help them recover the ability to
generate visual images, which is a powerful word-learning tool.
The vignette in the introduction to this book demonstrates the effectiveness of
using vividly written poems to stimulate children's imagination and ability to con¬
struct visual images. The teacher asks the children to close their eyes and paint a
picture with words in their minds. As the children read the words of the poem,
they spontaneously implement strategies needed to infer word meaning. They
demonstrate their comprehension with pastel drawings of the mental images they
have constructed. The Mental Imagery strategy is an important component of word
learning that is particularly effective in developing children's expressive language.

Expressive Vocabulary Cloze

Cloze passages are short texts with missing words. Children fill in the blanks with
words that fit the meaning of the text. The purpose of cloze activities is to sensi¬
tize children to the nuances of word meaning and to help them develop control
Choosing Words to Teach and Learn 107

over expressive vocabulary. Cloze activities

can be creative and provide a good segue to
Name:_ Date:_

independent descriptive writing.

EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY CUOZE
Teachers prepare cloze passages by
The Bear
writing short stories with key words that con¬ What kind of a bear do you have? (Look at your group's
label.) Think about words that describe your bear. Use the

vey meaning. The key words are replaced words to fill In the blanks In the story.

Yesterday we went to the zoo to see the animals. My favorite animal was
with blank spaces. Because this kind of the_ bear. When I first saw him, he was-In the
_He had - teeth. His fur was-.
and his_was__ 1 wanted to get closer. Sud¬
cloze activity focuses on developing chil¬ denly the bear_All of the kids were-But I
was_I can't wait to go back to the zoo to see the_
bear again.
dren's expressive vocabulary, no word bank
Share your bear story with the class. Draw a picture of your bear in the box
below.
should be provided with the cloze passage.
The children learn to fill in the blanks,
altering the story through their vocabulary
selections. The Expressive Vocabulary Cloze
form on page 112 shows an example of a
simple cloze passage suitable for use with
younger children or upper-grade students
who are in the initial stages of instruction. The teacher gives each table group a dif¬
ferent label (e.g., angry, beautiful, young, old, friendly) that the children must use to
guide their selection of words for the cloze passage. For example, here is how one
group of third graders filled in the cloze passage from the form on page 112. The chil¬
dren's teacher had given them the label angry to use to guide their word selections.

Yesterday we went to the zoo to see the animals. My favorite animal was the
angry bear. When I first saw him, he was snarling in the cage. He had sharp
teeth. His fur was spiky, and his face was scary. I wanted to get closer. Sud¬
denly the bear attacked. All of the kids were frightened. But I was brave. I
can't wait to go back to the zoo to see the angry bear again.

Cloze passages take children beyond inferring word meaning in texts, to

expressive word knowledge. Children must have complete control of semantic and
syntactic aspects of vocabulary in order to complete this activity. For example, one
sentence in the form on page 112 states, All of the kids were -
But I was_Children must be sensitive to the oppositional meaning
that results from the signal word but if they are to select appropriate words for the
cloze passage.

Getting Into Words with Poetry

Children learn vocabulary more readily when there is a discernible purpose for word
learning. Good writing requires words that are rich and interesting. When children
are motivated to write well, they often search for the words they need to express
themselves, as the vignette about Alex demonstrates (see Introduction). Teachers can
accelerate children's vocabulary development through writing activities.
Most children enjoy writing poetry, particularly if they are not required to use
a rigid format. Once they are engaged in writing poems, children become highly
 Building Word Knowledge

motivated to capture their thoughts in words. They wrestle with words, struggling
to express themselves fluently and thoughtfully. The purpose of writing poetry in
vocabulary instruction is to teach children to savor perfectly chosen words.
Getting into words with poetry leads into getting into words with prose. Chil¬
dren become attuned to the nuances of word meaning and the importance of
choosing words carefully to express their thoughts. Poetry writing also helps chil¬
dren develop an ear for the sound of words. Gradually students learn that good
writing entails varying sentence patterns and using a wide variety of words.
 Average score
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Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
1> —1 O u 3
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03s- *->O *—u
13 4-. 3 —c "to "O«
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Evaluating the Vocabulary Demands of a Text

03 £ C
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03 03 r—1
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Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

m £ H ° ^
sZ X CL co X
13 13 13.. 3 13—1
T
-i
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13 SZ
13 4-' 13
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1 03
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3 -5 S u G u Cb
13 —. CL> T3 u ££
£3 co
2 >-5 2 03 ^ 03
U ~a £ co U"D a

ld ID

, G 13
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03 B
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13 X O >
m bJO
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— 13 o
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CO <c? 13 QJ
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<
T3
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c .5
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Percentage of unknown words in the text:

Si co CL
►.2 03 co
^ 13
13 13 S-
S—i
J_

!§ O O
bO 13

X c G -G £to x:CU £ B
-X 03
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2 «-2 |
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CL 3
CL - 3 x:
o ^ S CO 03 co

^■s
13 13
J-t to — ^
Morphological support

c O
CO o_ — u
■£ o ~o 00
Total average score:
Contextual support

P. <u osi
£
demand category

£ J= >£ C4_
S
Conceptual load

Word frequency

03
O cu J_ >s

S
uG
03 o3 ^
D
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X3 2
Word utility

13
13 ^
Vocabulary

13
C
CO
<13 13 • V V, G
13 13 X 03 >
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13 X) a -2 13 Z3 T3 03
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a> 109
 WORD STUDY JOURNAL

CONTEXT AND
WORD AND STRUCTURE
SURROUNDING STRATEGIES MEANING
TEXT MEMORY (Strategies I (What the word WORD PRACTICE
(Book/sentence (Where I heard used to figure means and (Date and des¬
where the word or saw the out the word’s a synonym that cription of how
appeared) word before) meaning) shows I’m right) I used the word)

reform 1 heard it on 1 used Study the It means to (Saturday) 1 ashed my

Social studies boot: the news when Structure to fig¬ change or make parents to reform the
"The colonists under¬ they were talk¬ ure it out: something belter system of chores and
stood the importance ing about the means to do 1 (enow I’m right allowance in our family.
of political reform.” election. again, and form because 1 used
means to shape. Substitute a Syn¬
So reform is to onym.- "The colon¬
shape again or ists understood the
change. importance of poli¬
tical changes.”

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
110 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: -- Date:_

WORD STUDY JOURNAL

CONTEXT AND
WORD AND STRUCTURE
SURROUNDING STRATEGIES MEANING
TEXT MEMORY (Strategies I (What the word WORD PRACTICE
(Book/sentence (Where I heard used to figure means and (Date and des¬
where the word or saw the out the word’s a synonym that cription of how
appeared) word before) meaning) shows I’m right) 1 used the word)

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 111
Name: Date:

EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY CUOZE

The Bear
What kind of a bear do you have? (Look at your group’s
label.) Think about words that describe your bear. Use the
words to fill in the blanks in the story.

Yesterday we went to the zoo to see the animals. My favorite animal was
the_ bear. When I first saw him, he was_in the
_He had _ teeth. His fur was_,
and his_was_I wanted to get closer. Sud¬
denly the bear_All of the kids were_But I
was I can’t wait to go back to the zoo to see the_
bear again.

Share your bear story with the class. Draw a picture of your bear in the box
below.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
112 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Chapter 8

Graphic Organizers
and Word Sorts

Graphic organizers are part of the Tools of Success because they help make think¬
ing visible. Children examine the relationships between words and concepts, relate
concepts to prior knowledge, and create graphic representations of their thinking.
When children organize information graphically, they are likely to retain word
meaning. According to vocabulary research, graphic organizers such as semantic
maps, semantic feature analysis charts, and linear arrays are effective methods of
developing in-depth word knowledge that supports reading comprehension (Nagy,
1985).

SEMANTIC MAPS
Semantic maps, also called word webs, look like the spokes of a wheel. An impor¬
tant text concept is placed at the center of the map, and lines radiating outward
connect the center to related words. The purpose of semantic mapping is to help
children identify associations between words. The graphic component in semantic
mapping makes it an effective word-building activity, particularly for struggling
readers.
Upper-grade teachers can use simple texts such as picture books for initial
instruction, moving to more complex texts once the children have mastered word
association tasks. For example, one fourth-grade teacher used the picture book
Strega Nona (de Paola, 1975) to teach children how to construct a semantic map (see
Figure 8.1). The topic word, cooking, is placed in the center of the semantic map.
This word is linked to words found in the book that have to do with cooking.
Once the children are familiar with semantic maps, the teacher can begin
using grade-level texts. The following is an example of a fourth-grade semantic
mapping activity based on the book Island of the Blue Dolphins (O'Dell, 1960). The
teacher has selected as a topic words that describe a location for this activity. The
first map that the children construct simply lists some of the words mentioned in
the first several chapters of the book that relate the word location (e.g., cliff, beach,
ledge, shore, cove, cave).
The teacher increases the complexity of the semantic map by asking the chil¬
dren to think of ways to sort the locations on the island. The children come up
with two categories, high places and places by the ocean. They construct a semantic
114 Building Word Knowledge

Figure 8.2. Semantic map: Island of the Blue Dolphins. (Source: O’Dell, 1960.)

map composed of two categories and sort the location words into the appropriate
categories (see Figure 8.2). This activity helps the children build connections
between groups of semantically related words.
Semantic maps become increasingly valuable as children grow older and are
confronted with more challenging vocabulary and unfamiliar concepts in textbooks
and novels. Semantic mapping can be used effectively well into high school, help¬
ing students organize their thinking about important words and concepts.

SEMANTIC FEATURE ANALYSIS

Semantic feature analysis is a method of vocabulary development based on a

matrix. The purpose of feature analysis is to teach the deep meaning of important
words associated with a topic. Feature analysis is an effective way to teach the
vocabulary and the underlying concepts that are important in understanding a text.
Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts 115

For example, a third-grade class is about to read an arti¬

Name:___ Date:_
cle about reptiles. The teacher has created a semantic
feature analysis matrix listing various types of reptiles
FEATURE ANALYSIS CHART
All About Reptiles
that are discussed in the article, including dinosaurs,
This feature analysis chart will help you organize Information and snakes, and lizards (see p. 125). Vocabulary words that
learn new words about reptiles. Look at the example In the first
row. The brontosaurus was enormous, Is extinct, and was a vege
tartan. So, those boxes are checked on the chart. Now look at the
other rows and check each box that describes the reptile.
are found in the text are listed across the top of the
matrix. The students read the text and try to discover
which words are associated with each type of reptile.
The appropriate words are checked off on the matrix as
they are encountered in the text. (The first row is com¬
Choose two reptiles from the chart and compare them.
Write a paragraph telling how the reptiles are the same and
pleted as an example.) The activity provides the students
how they are different.

with repeated exposure to important vocabulary words

and a review of the content of the article.
When the children have completed the semantic
feature analysis chart, the teacher asks them to choose
two reptiles to compare. The following composition,
written by third graders Rebecca and David, compares the characteristics of the
brontosaurus and tyrannosaurus. Notice how the children have incorporated the
new vocabulary words into their writing:

We compared two reptiles that were dinosaurs. Both of them were enormous. That
means really big. The brontosaurus was vegetarian, so he wasn't really that dan¬
gerous. The tyrannosaurus was a carnivore. That means he would eat you if he could
because he liked meat. The brontosaurus was sort of dangerous, too. Because he
116 Building Word Knowledge

was so big he could step on you and you would die. So,
it's pretty lucky that they're extinct.
Name: Date:

FEATURE ANALYSIS CHART

Feature analysis activities can be adapted for use with
In the Year of the Boar different age groups and subject areas. Although the
and Jackie Robinson
activity is often used with social studies and science
This feature analysis chart will help you organize information and
learn words from the book In the Year of the Boar and
Jackie Robinson, by Bette Bao Lord. Each word that describes
Shirley Is checked (first row). Fill out the chart, checking the
vocabulary, it works equally well with literature. The
words that describe Mabel and Emily. Then fill In the chart,
checking the words that describe you! 1 form on page 126 demonstrates a semantic feature

Shirley
analysis chart for the fifth-grade novel In the Year of the
Mabel
Emily
Boar and Jackie Robinson (Lord, 1984). The first column
You
contains the names of important characters in the book,
Once you have filled out the chart, write a paragraph comparing yourself with your
favorite character in the book.
and the horizontal row includes adjectives found in the
book that describe some of the characters. Filling in the
feature analysis chart after reading provides the children
with a review of story content and practice manipulating
important vocabulary words.

WORD SCALES
A word scale, also known as a linear array, is a list of adjectives organized by inten¬
sity of a particular characteristic. The purpose of a word scale is to teach children
to discriminate between words that describe the same thing. Constructing a word
scale requires children to carefully evaluate nuances of word meaning, thus help¬
ing to build rich descriptive vocabulary.
The completed word scale shown at the top of page 127 is based on the word
mad. The fourth-grade teacher guides the children through the mad word scale. She
then guides them through filling in the bad word scale at the bottom of page 127
and then asks them to construct their own word scales with other adjectives (see p.
128). Teachers of younger children can begin instruction by reading aloud the book
Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day (Viorst, 1972), which
provides children with rich examples of words to use in the bad word scale. This
introductory activity is also recommended for English language learners and other
children with weak vocabulary development.

WORD PREDICTION

Mr. Crane opened the newspaper and saw a picture of a small town in Kansas that
had been ravaged by a severe storm. As he focused on the picture, a series of words
flashed through his mind. His first thoughts were tornado, cyclone, and funnel cloud
because they are words used to describe this kind of storm. Then he considered the
damage that the storm had probably caused, and the words disaster, destruction,
ravaged, and damaged occurred to him. Although he hadn’t read the article yet, Mr.
Crane began to imagine the emotions that people were feeling as a result of the
storm. The words terrified, horrified, and frightened entered his mind as he gazed at
Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts 117

the picture. Without conscious effort, Mr. Crane utilized background knowledge about
tornadoes to anticipate the vocabulary that would be found in a text.

The importance of prior knowledge in

reading comprehension has been exten¬
sively documented (Hirsch, 2003; Nagy,
WORD SCALES
1985; Nagy et ah, 1986). Student learning is
Mad and Bad Words
maximized when teachers build and acti¬ Mom was mad. How dull! Mad is a boring word that describes a range of feelings.
The Mad Box below contains many strong, interesting words that mean mad. The
vate background knowledge, providing chil¬ words are ranked according to how much madness they express.

The Mad Box

dren with the opportunity to make connec¬
tions between new information and that
which is already known. Background
knowledge is equally important at the word
Now try the word bad. Brainstorm all of the words you can think of for bad. Write

level because words represent concepts that them In the Bad Box below. Then write them on the scale, ranked according to how
much badness they express.

must be understood in order for reading The Bad Box

comprehension to occur. Picture Prediction

and Title Prediction and Sorting are the
Tools of Success that teachers use to build
background and vocabulary knowledge.
Some teachers think that word predic¬
tion is just like preteaching vocabulary. But,
the two activities are actually quite differ¬
ent. Conventional methods of preteaching
vocabulary typically entail a passive role
for children, who must wait for the teacher
to identify the hard words, explain word
meaning, and interpret the text. Conven¬
tional preteaching of vocabulary reduces
the need for children to work hard at word
learning or reading comprehension. Meth¬
ods of word prediction (including the Pic¬
ture Prediction and the Title Prediction and
Sorting activities described next), however,
turn over responsibility for word learning
to the students. Children become actively
engaged as they infer text meaning from
pictures and identify key words associated with the topic. Oral language is the
medium for learning, and discussion about the meaning of words builds back¬
ground knowledge and contributes to vocabulary growth.

Picture Prediction
Picture Prediction is a prereading activity that entails the use of a picture to gen¬
erate vocabulary words likely to be found in a text. The purpose of Picture Pre-
118 Building Word Knowledge

diction is to provide children with essential vocabulary, background knowledge,

and motivation to read a book or text passage. The Picture Prediction activity
described in the following vignette is designed for use with younger children. It
can also be used effectively in the upper grades to develop picture prediction skills.

Ms. Agnos’s Class

Ms. Agnos, a third-grade teacher, knew that many of her students struggled with read¬
ing comprehension. Convinced that limited vocabulary contributed to their reading
problems, she incorporated vocabulary development activities into reading instruc¬
tion. Before reading a story about Thanksgiving, Ms. Agnos put a transparency of Pic¬
ture Prediction: The First Thanksgiving (see p. 129) on the overhead projector. She cov¬
ered the story on the transparency with a sheet of paper.
Ms. Agnos asked, “Boys and girls, what
Name:_ Date:_

do you think the story will be about?” The

PICTURE PREDICTION
children predicted that the story would be The First Thanksgiving
Pictures give us clues about a story. They help us think about important words that the
about Thanksgiving. Then she asked, “Which author will use to tell the story. Look at the picture below. What Important words do you
predict will be In the story? How can you tell—what is the reason for your prediction?

words do you think the author will use to tell Words I

predict I'll find
The reason
for my prediction

this story?” The children began with words

that named things found in the picture, such
as Indian, Native American, corn, turkey, and
Read the story below. Circle the words that you predicted would be In the story.
so forth. Next she asked the children to In the year 1620 the Pilgrims sailed on the Mayflower. They had planned to arrive In
Virginia, bui they landed In Massachusetts Instead. It was a difficult Journey to the new

explain the reason for their predictions and place the Pilgrims called Plymouth Colony.
II was Icy cold In Massachusetts that winter. The Pilgrims did not have enough to eat
and were very hungry They survived the first winter thanks to the Wampanoag Indians.
The Pilgrims and the Wampanoag signed a peace treaty and promised to be friends. The
recorded each word and the children's pre¬ Native Americans brought the settlers warm blankets and gifts of food. Including corn and
wild turkey. The Pilgrims celebrated their survival with the holiday of Thanksgiving.

dictions on the chart. Check to see how many of the words you predicted are in the text. What Important
words would you add to your list? Write the words In the chart below and explain
why they are Important.

Greg suggested the word Pilgrim and More Important words Why these word are Important

explained, "The guys in the black clothes and

big hats were Pilgrims. They came here for
Thanksgiving.”
Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts 119

Other children, familiar with the Thanksgiving story, commented on Greg’s expla¬
nation. “They didn’t just come for Thanksgiving. They came here to be free,” stated
Tiana emphatically.
“When they were free, the Indians made them dinner and then they had Thanks¬
giving,” added Corey.
Ms. Agnos asked if there were other words that should be added to the chart.
When the children ran out of ideas, she provided prompts to encourage them to think
of additional words. For example, after reminding the children that the Pilgrims landed
in Massachusetts by mistake, she asked, “What was the weather like in Massachusetts
in the winter?” The children responded with words such as cold, snowy, icy, and so
forth. Ms. Agnos added their words to the chart and recorded the children's reasoning.
Then she told the children that the Pilgrims didn’t have time to grow crops before the
winter began. She asked, “What do you think happened to the Pilgrims when winter
came?” The children responded that they must have been hungry, maybe even starv¬
ing because they didn’t have enough food to eat. Ms. Agnos recorded the words hun¬
gry and starving and the explanations the children gave for their word predictions.
When she felt that the children had predicted most of the story’s key vocabulary,
Ms. Agnos uncovered the Thanksgiving story and read it aloud while the children fol¬
lowed along. She asked the children to raise their hands each time she read a word on
the prediction chart. Ms. Agnos circled these words in the story on the transparency
and continued reading. When the class finished reading, Ms. Agnos asked the children
if they had overlooked any important words in the story when filling out the prediction
chart. The children suggested adding words such as survived and celebrated to the
chart. Ms. Agnos led a discussion as to why these additional words were important in
conveying the meaning of the story. She recorded the words and the children’s expla¬
nations on the chart of more important words on the transparency.
Ms. Agnos used the Picture Prediction strategy to provide her third graders with
the vocabulary knowledge they needed to support comprehension of the story. The
activity was of particular benefit to the English language
learners in the class, providing them with access to key
vocabulary and essential background information about
Thanksgiving.

Picture Prediction is particularly useful in preparing

children to comprehend challenging texts, as the follow¬
ing activity demonstrates. The picture in this activity is
used to help students create a Picture Prediction
Response Chart before they read a fifth-grade social stud¬
ies chapter on explorers.
The teacher guides the students as they make predic¬
tions, prompting them if key vocabulary is not sponta¬
neously generated. The following vignette shows the use
of a Picture Prediction Response Chart (see p. 130).
120 Building Word Knowledge

Ms. Frank’s Class

Ms. Frank: Let’s take a look at the picture on the overhead transparency (p. 130).
Think about the words that might be used to describe this picture. Can you
predict the words that the author will use?

Maika: Explorers?

Ms. Frank: (Writes Maika’s word on the transparency) Good prediction Maika! Why
did you choose the word explorers?

Maika: Because I think the picture looks like an explorer's ship.

Ms. Frank: Great! (Write the reason for Maika’s prediction on the chart.) What else?

Jacob: Discover. The explorers might be about to discover some place.

Ms. Frank: Good prediction! (Writes Jacob’s word and explanation on the chart)
Anything else? (No response from the students.) What did the explorers
have to do to steer their ships?

Jessie: Drive?

Ms. Frank: Okay, what else? (No response) Do you remember the word navigate?
We learned this word in the last chapter. You have to know how to navi¬
gate so you can get where you want to go. (Writes the word navigate and
the explanation on the chart) Now, let's think of some words that have to
do with navigation.

Jessie: Trip, journey?

Ms. Frank: Good ideas! You take a trip or a journey to a new place. I'm sure you know
the word trip already, so we don’t have to list it. Journey is a harder word,
 Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts
121

so let s put it on the chart. Can you predict any other words the author
might use to describe the journey to the New World?

Sharon. Route. That’s the way you go someplace.

Jeremy: Yeah, like my paper route!

Ms. Frank: Great! That sounds like a word we might find in this text. (Ms. Frank writes
the word route and the explanation on the chart. Figure 8.3 shows the Pic¬
ture Prediction Response Chart that Ms. Frank and her students com¬
pleted.)

When children have completed the Picture Prediction Response Chart, they
are ready to read a small segment of text and look for the words that they have
listed on the chart.

Ms. Frank’s Class

Ms. Frank: I'm going to read the section of the chapter called "Early Exploration,"
and I want you to follow along in your books. Watch carefully for words
fhaf we predicted. When I’m finished reading, we’ll make a check on the
chart next to each word that we found. (Reads the text)

PICTURE PREDICTION RESPONSE CHART

Words I predict I’ll find Reason for my prediction

explorers The picture looks like an explorers ship.

discover The explorers might be about to discover some place.

navigate You have to know how to navigate to get where you want to go.

journey You take a journey to find a new place.

route The route is the way you go someplace.

Figure 8.3. Completed Picture Prediction Response Chart.

122 Building Word Knowledge

Europeans had longed to discover a speedier route to Asia for many generations.
They dreamed of conquering new lands, spreading Christianity, and acquiring
great wealth and power. By the 1400s the invention of faster ships and better navi¬
gational equipment made it possible for the Europeans to travel more quickly and
safely than ever before. Across Europe, nations were launching expeditions across
the western ocean. Early explorers did not find a faster route to Asia. They lost their
way and discovered America instead. (Source: Armento et al., 1991.)

Let's see. The first line has the word route, just like we predicted. Let's look
at how it's used. The text tells us that it's the way you go to Asia. (Points to
the chart) So, it’s just exactly like we predicted. Let's check it off on the
chart. Do you see any other words that we predicted?

John: Yeah! Discoveries. Is discoveries the same as discover?

Ms. Frank: Good question! They come from the same word family, so they have simi¬
lar meaning. Discover means to find something and discoveries are the
things that have been found. We can check off the word discover on the
chart.

Shana: Hey, discovered is also in this section.

Ms. Frank: You’re right! Here's another member of the discover family! Do you see
any words that are difficult that we have not listed on the chart? Look for
words that might be important in understanding this paragraph.

Cody: Reality. It looks important.

Susan: That word is easy. It just means real. You can see the word inside.

Ms. Frank: Good work, both of you! Cody picked out an important word, and Susan
showed us how we can figure out what it means by using Study the Struc¬
ture (adds the word to the chart).

Ms. Frank guides this initial reading, modeling for the students how to identify a
word in the text and check it off on the chart. She points out important words in
the text that should be added and asks the children to justify the reasons for includ¬
ing words on the chart. As mentioned previously, the Picture Prediction activity is
more effective than simply preteaching vocabulary words because it increases stu¬
dents' active engagement in the learning process. Although student engagement is
heightened by the Picture Prediction activity, children rarely generate all of the
important words that will be found in a text. Teachers increase the effectiveness of
Picture Prediction by adding words to the prediction list and pointing out the rela¬
tionship of the words to the picture.

Title Prediction and Sorting

Title Prediction and Sorting entails predicting words based on text features and
sorting them into appropriate categories. The purpose of Title Prediction and Sort¬
ing is to introduce important vocabulary and to help children become familiar with
informational text features such as chapter titles, subtitles, and headings.
Graphic Organizers and Word Sorts 123

Figure 8.4 is an example of a Title Prediction and Sorting activity based on a

fifth-grade social studies chapter about explorers (Armento et al., 1991). The
teacher begins by listing the title, subtitle and chapter headings on the board or on
an overhead transparency (Step 1). She creates a blank word sorting chart and

TITLE PREDICTION AND SORTING

Step 1: Identify major headings in “Early Exploration.’’

Trade
■Religion
Wealth
Power

Step 2: Create a blank word sorting chart.

Trade ■Religion Wealth Power

Step 3: List word predictions.

expedition route riches explorers

conquer natives convert navigation
discover treasure

Step 4: Fill in the word sorting chart (before reading).

Trade Religion Wealth Power

expedition natives treasure conquer

route riches

discover
explorers
navigation

Step 5: Check and add to the word sorting chart (after reading).

Trade Religion Wealth Power

S expedition ^natives v'treasure sconquer

■s route convert s riches colonies

^discovery profit

^explorers
navigation
spices

Figure 8.4. Completed Title Prediction and Sorting activity.

124 Building Word Knowledge

inserts the chapter headings into the boxes at the top of the chart (Step 2). The
teacher asks the students to brainstorm, predicting words they think will be found
in the chapter (Step 3). She helps the students organize the words into the appro¬
priate boxes on the word sorting chart (Step 4).
When the children have completed the chart, the teacher demonstrates how to
read the textbook and check the word predictions on the chart. The teacher reads
a passage aloud, inviting the children to stop her when she encounters a word on
the chart (Step 5). She demonstrates how to check off the words that she finds in
the textbook and adds additional important words that were not on the original
chart. When the teacher is sure that the children understand the process, she asks
them to work in pairs to read the remaining text passages and to complete their
own Title Prediction and Sorting charts.
The Title Prediction and Sorting activity is particularly helpful when used
before reading demanding informational texts. The predicting component of the
activity helps the children anticipate important concepts and vocabulary, thus
building background knowledge. The sorting component of the activity helps the
children develop in-depth word knowledge that can be transferred from one learn¬
ing task to another. Teachers use prediction and sorting activities in conjunction
with other word learning tools to ensure that children receive rich, multifaceted
vocabulary instruction.
Name: Date:

FEATURE ANALYSIS CHART

All About Reptiles
This feature analysis chart will help you organize information and
learn new words about reptiles. Look at the example in the first
row. The brontosaurus was enormous, is extinct, and was a vege¬
tarian. So, those boxes are checked on the chart. Now look at the
other rows and check each box that describes the reptile.

enormous extinct endangered vegetarian carnivore dangerous poisonous

brontosaurus V V V

tyrannosaurus

rattlesnake

Gila monster

alligator

Choose two reptiles from the chart and compare them.

Write a paragraph telling how the reptiles are the same and
how they are different.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 125
Name: Date:

FEATURE ANALYSIS CHART

In the 'fear of the Boar
and Jackie Robinson
This feature analysis chart will help you organize information and
learn words from the book In the Year of the Boar and
Jackie Robinson, by Bette Bao Lord. Each word that describes
Shirley is checked (first row). Fill out the chart, checking the
words that describe Mabel and Emily. Then fill in the chart,
checking the words that describe you!

humiliated formidable obedient progressive brainy ambassador puny persuasive

Shirley V z z z

Mabel

Emily

You

Once you have filled out the chart, write a paragraph comparing yourself with your
favorite character in the book.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
126 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: Date:

WORD SCALES
Mad and Bad Words
Mom was mad. How dull! Mad is a boring word that describes a range of feelings.
The Mad Box below contains many strong, interesting words that mean mad. The
words are ranked according to how much madness they express.

The Mad Box angry furious livid annoyed irritated upset

Now try the word bad. Brainstorm all of the words you can think of for bad. Write
them in the Bad Box below. Then write them on the scale, ranked according to how
much badness they express.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 127
Name:___ Date:_

MORE WORD SCALES

Happy, Sad, and Big Words
Brainstorm words to replace the simple, boring words happy, sad, and big, and
put them in the box. Rank the words and put them on the word scales with the
strongest word on top. Then use the strongest word in a sentence.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
128 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
Name: Date:_

PICTURE PREDICTION
The First Thanksgiving
Pictures give us clues about a story. They help us think about important words that the
author will use to tell the story. Look at the picture below. What important words do you
predict will be in the story? How can you tell—what is the reason for your prediction?

Words I The reason

predict I’ll find for my prediction

Read the story below. Circle

the words that you predicted would be in the story.

In the year 1620 the Pilgrims sailed on the Mayflower. They had planned to arrive in
Virginia, but they landed in Massachusetts instead. It was a difficult journey to the new
place the Pilgrims called Plymouth Colony.
It was icy cold in Massachusetts that winter. The Pilgrims did not have enough to eat
and were very hungry. They survived the first winter thanks to the Wampanoag Indians.
The Pilgrims and the Wampanoag signed a peace treaty and promised to be friends. The
Native Americans brought the settlers warm blankets and gifts of food, including corn and
wild turkey. The Pilgrims celebrated their survival with the holiday of Thanksgiving.

Check to see how many of the words you predicted are in the text. What important
words would you add to your list? Write the words in the chart below and explain
why they are important.

More important words Why these word are important

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 129
Name:_ Date:_

PICTURE PREDICTION RESPONSE CHART

In Search of a New World

Words I predict I’ll find Reason for my prediction

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
130 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Part V

Teaching Vocabulary
to Young Children and
English Language Learners
. » ...,S

■*
 Chapter 9

Vocabulary Instruction
for Young Children

It was Mother’s Day, and my family had gathered for a barbecue. Everyone was
watching my 2-year-old twin nephews show off their latest accomplishments.
“Gabriel, what’s this?’’ my sister asked, pointing to a picture of a fire hose in the book.
“Ho!” shouted Gabriel gleefully and everyone applauded.
“Daniel, show me the fire engine,” my sister asked.
Daniel grinned at his audience and pointed to a picture of a fire engine. The fam¬
ily cheered again. A few minutes later the show ended, and we gathered in small
groups to catch up on the latest news. I walked into the living room and observed a
charming sight. Daniel and Gabriel were curled up on the couch listening to my
daughter Dori read the firehouse book again. Her reading was punctuated with
squeals from the twins as they pointed to familiar objects with chubby fingers. It was
clear that they had heard the same story dozens of times, which had resulted in a
great deal of vocabulary growth and enthusiasm about firehouses.

Scenes like this are so commonplace that few people realize the potent effect
they have on children's vocabulary development and ultimate school success. By
the time advantaged children such as Daniel and Gabriel enter school, they will
know thousands of words more than children from disadvantaged homes (Hart &
Risley, 1995, 1999). Some people might shrug and say, "What difference does it
make? After all, schools teach children all the vocabulary words they need to
know, don't they?"
There is a myth that American schools provide upward mobility and unlim¬
ited opportunities to all children. Unfortunately, it is usually not true. Children
from disadvantaged families enter school with fewer skills and far less exposure to
language and vocabulary than their advantaged classmates (Hart & Risley, 1995,
1999). They lag behind children from more privileged families from the first day
of kindergarten and fall further and further behind as they progress through
school. School does little to level the playing field for most children from disad¬
vantaged backgrounds (Biemiller, 2004; Chall et ah, 1990).
Vocabulary experts agree that teaching disadvantaged children more vocabu¬
lary words during the first few years of school is essential if we are to narrow the
achievement gap (Biemiller, 2004). The question that educators must answer is

133
134 Young Children and English Language Learners

how to accelerate children's vocabulary development. Instruction begins with

reading aloud to children, a method that simulates the natural vocabulary acquisi¬
tion of young children such as Daniel and Gabriel.

REPEATED READ-ALOUD
Bedtime stories provide young children with warm memories and rich educational
opportunities. The key factors that make this activity so beneficial include expo¬
sure to the conventions and language of print, repeated exposures to a wide range
of vocabulary words, development of content knowledge that will support future
learning, and the strengthening of emotional bonds between young children and
their parents. Even when children whose parents have not read to them enter
school, it is not too late to capitalize on the benefits of reading aloud. Research has
demonstrated that when teachers incorporate repeated oral readings of high-
interest children's books into early literacy instruction, disadvantaged children
make large gains in vocabulary acquisition (Biemiller, 2004).
A repeated read-aloud program should be carefully structured to maximize
children's vocabulary growth. The teacher selects high-interest fiction and nonfic¬
tion books with plenty of challenging, high-utility vocabulary words. (For further
discussion of high-utility vocabulary words, see Chapter 7.) Instruction begins with
a picture prediction activity. The teacher asks the children to look at the cover of
the book and predict what it will be about. Prereading discussion focuses on key
vocabulary and concepts that may be unfamiliar to the children. (Chapter 8
describes a Picture Prediction strategy for school-age children.)
Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children 135

During the first read-aloud, the teacher does not stop to discuss vocabulary,
allowing children to concentrate on global comprehension of the story. She rereads
the story several more times during the next few days. During these repeated read¬
ing sessions, the teacher stops frequently to discuss challenging words and con¬
cepts. She also uses the new words as often as possible in normal classroom dis¬
course. The teacher reads each story at least three times, providing repeated
exposures to the new words and increasing the likelihood of vocabulary growth.
Teachers often worry that children will become bored with repeated read-
aloud books. Fortunately, however, young children enjoy hearing favorite stories
over and over. They enjoy asking questions and pointing out familiar words and
illustrations in the text. When children's vocabulary is severely underdeveloped,
teachers need to find a variety of ways to increase these children's exposure to
repeated story reading. Teachers can recruit volunteers, classroom assistants, or
older students to read aloud to young children with weak vocabulary development.
Teachers can also increase the benefits of repeated reading by arranging for library
visits or creating disposable books to send home with young children. Although
parents may not have time to read to their children, older siblings, grandparents,
and caregivers often fill in when the family understands that repeated reading of
storybooks is expected and beneficial.
As children grow older they continue to benefit from hearing stories read
aloud. It is not until middle school that most children's reading comprehension
catches up with their oral comprehension. Until that time, children benefit
immensely from hearing stories read aloud. When teachers read aloud, they expose
children to complex language and vocabulary that children rarely encounter in oral
discourse or independent reading.
There is currently a trend toward limiting the range of vocabulary in children's
reading books to encourage the development of fluency. Although fluency is
important, limiting the number of words that children read may be harmful to
their vocabulary development. Without frequent exposure to a wide range of new
words, children are unlikely to acquire enough vocabulary to comprehend the text¬
books and trade books they will encounter in the upper grades. It is essential that
teachers who are using texts with controlled vocabulary provide additional expo¬
sure to challenging words by reading aloud to children. Neglecting vocabulary
instruction may cause serious long-range problems for children, particularly those
who enter school with limited language and vocabulary.
A comprehensive vocabulary development program for young children
includes a range of instructional methods. In addition to vocabulary instruction
based on repeated read-alouds, teachers help children learn to monitor their own
comprehension and provide explicit instruction in word-learning strategies.

WORD-LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

Teachers do not have to wait until children have acquired fluent reading skills to
begin clarifying strategy instruction. Even prereaders can learn to use their mem-
 Young Children and English Language Learners

ory to make sense of unknown words. The following snapshot from the kinder¬
garten classroom of Mr. Lin illustrates this point with a discussion about the chil¬
dren's book Stellaluna (Cannon, 1993).

Mr. Lin’s Class

Mr. Lin: Boys and girls, what was Stellaluna like? (The children provide a vari¬
ety of responses such as little, sad, and lost.) What were the baby
birds like? (The children provide a variety of responses such as little
and hungry.) Do you remember that the author said that the baby
birds that Stellaluna met were curious? (The children nod.) That’s a
tricky word! Now, try to remember! Have you ever heard the word
curious before?

Tracy: 1 know! 1 know! Curious George!

Several children: Curious George! Yeah, Curious George, the monkey!

Tommy: 1 have a Curious George book. My mom reads it to me.

Mr. Lin: That’s right! A lot of you remember reading stories about Curious
George, the monkey. Why did they call him curious? (The children
ponder the question for a moment.)

James: Because he was always getting into trouble.

Tommy: Because he wanted to know about everything.

Lauren: Because he was curious.

Mr. Lin: Okay! You've explained why the monkey was called Curious
George. Now who can tell me how the baby birds in Stellaluna
were curious?

Tracy: They wanted to know how to hang from the nest like Stellaluna, and
they could have gotten hurt. Mama Bird got mad at Stellaluna and
the baby birds. They got into trouble like Curious George.

Mr. Lin: That’s right! The baby birds in Stellaluna were a lot like the monkey
Curious George. They wanted to know about everything, and they
got into trouble. That’s why they’re called curious.

Many of Mr. Lin's students had partial knowledge of the word curious. When he
prompted them to remember previous encounters with curious, they were able to
construct connections with the word as it was used in another, better known text.
This allowed them to infer meaning and make sense of the word curious in refer¬
ence to the baby birds in Stellaluna. Mr. Lin's instruction provided the children with
important modeling that will help them learn to use Mine Your Memory as a clari¬
fying strategy.
First-grade teacher Ms. Morris taught her young students to use structure to fig¬
ure out word meaning. In the following snapshot, she uses a book about farm ani-
Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children 137

mats to teach the first graders to identify structural clues in compound words. This
practice prepares the children for the clarifying strategy Study the Structure.

Ms. Morris’s Class

Ms. Morris: Today I'm going to read a story I think you'll enjoy. Look at the picture on
the front of the book. Does anyone want to predict what the story will be
about?

Eric: It’s about cows.

Dina: It's about animals. I see a chicken and a pig and...

Farrah: It’s about a farm.

Ms. Morris: You’re right! The story is about a farm and the animals that live there. Now
I want you to look at this building on the farm. Can anyone guess what the
building is called?

Chris: The farmer’s house?

Ms. Morris: Yes! It’s called a farmhouse. You put the words farm and house together
and you get farmhouse. Do you see the two little words inside the big
word farmhouse? (The children nod.) Let’s see if you can figure this out.
Here is the yard where the animals are playing. It’s next to the building
where the animals live. Can anyone guess what it’s called? (No response)
138 Young Children and English Language Learners

This building is called a barn, right? This is the barn and this is the yard.
Now can you figure it out?

Melissa: It’s a barnyard!

Ms. Morris: Great, Melissa; you're right! Now follow along in your books as I read the
story. (Ms. Morris reads the story, stopping to model clarifying strategies.)

The barn was full of sunlight Hmm.,.1 wonder what the word sunlighf
means.

Owen: It’s light from the sun.

Ms. Morris: That’s right! You found the little words hiding inside the big word sunlighf.
Good job! (She returns to the story.)

Young children can begin to identify word parts or use simple context clues with
carefully designed strategy instruction. For example, Ms. Morris composed brief
texts to introduce the concept of context clues to the children, which will help
them later when they learn the clarifying strategy Consider the Context. The fol¬
lowing snapshot demonstrates Ms. Morris' instructional methods.

Ms. Morris’s Class

Ms. Morris: I’m going to read a part of a story to you. I want you to listen carefully and
see if you can figure out what the word delicious means. Are you ready?
(The children nod.)

Ms. Morris: (Reads aloud) The food was delicious. The boys liked it so much they ate
every bite and asked for more.
Now can anyone tell me what delicious means?
Matthew: I know! It’s good to eat.

Ms. Morris: That’s right, Matthew! How did you figure it out?

Matthew: I...I...I just knew it.

Ms. Morris: Let’s see if we can help Matthew figure this out. Listen to the story again
(rereads the text). Now, does anyone have any idea why Mdtthew knew
delicious means good to eat?

Melissa: Because they liked it and ate it all up?

Ms. Morris: Good! Matthew and Melissa helped us understand that the story explains
exactly what delicious means. You are great word detectives!

CLARIFYING CUE CARD FOR KIDS

The following Clarifying Cue Card for Kids (Calling All Word Detectives; see p. 143)
is a simplified version of the Clarifying Cue Card (see p. 38) for use with younger
Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children 139

children. The Clarifying Cue Card for Kids

works well with children in the primary
grades and with struggling upper-grade
readers. Teachers use the cue card as a scaf¬
CALLING ALL WORD DETECTIVES
fold, coaching children to look at the word,
Alert! Tricky words have been spotted In this classroom.

to look around the word, and to look inside We need your help!

\
the word (similar to the clarifying strategies DIRECTIONS FOR DETECTIVES: SEARCH FOR CLUES

Clue #1 Look at the word.

Mine Your Memory, Study the Structure, ^ Have you see It or heard it before?

and Consider the Context, respectively) to Clue #2 Look around the word.
4?/ Can you tell what It means when you look at the rest of the
figure out word meaning. The final clue, sentence or the paragraph?

Think about it!, is included so that children , Clue #3 Look inside the word.
jm Can you tell what it means by looking for word parts that you

will consider carefully whether their infer¬ already know?

ence about word meaning makes sense or Clue #4 Think about It!
Does the word make sense? If not. ask another detective
for help.
whether they need to ask for help (akin to
the clarifying strategies Ask an Expert and
Place a Post-It).
The following snapshot took place in a second-grade classroom. The teacher,
Mrs. Baker, used a combination of procedural tools (e.g., Clarifying Cue Card for
Kids) and conditional tools (e.g., Stop Sign) to help her students make sense of unfa¬
miliar words encountered in the book The Day the Goose Got Loose (Lindbergh,
1990).
Mrs. Baker began by reading the text aloud to the children and then handed
out a page containing a few lines from the book:

When the goose got loose she caused a riot.

Nobody ever thought she'd try it!
There wasn't any more peace and quiet.
The day the goose got loose. (Lindbergh, 1990)
140 Young Children and English Language Learners

Mrs. Baker gave each child a stop sign and explained and modeled the Stop Sign
activity (described further in Chapter 2). She pointed to the Clarifying Cue Card
for Kids (Calling All Word Detectives; see p. 143) posted on the classroom wall and
reminded the children that they would be using clarifying strategies to make sense
of words they didn't know.

Mrs. Baker’s Class

Mrs. Baker: Now that we’ve read the book and talked about it, we’re going to be
word detectives and look for words we don’t understand. Whenever you
hear a word you don’t know, lift up your stop sign. Then, I’ll stop reading
and we can talk about the mystery word. First, I’ll show you. Watch and
see what 1 do when 1 come to a hard word.

When the goose got loose she caused a riot.

(She lifts up her stop sign when she reads the word riot. The children lift
up their stops signs after her.)
Hmm...riof, that’s a hard word. 1 wonder what it means. Has anyone
ever heard this word before?

Mira: 1 heard about the riots in the war.

Russell: Yeah, it was on TV and my dad saw it.

Mrs. Baker: You’re right! There were riots during the war in Iraq. Do you think that riots
are a good thing?

Children: No!

Wali: My mom said it’s bad to mess up things and stuff.

Mrs. Baker: Okay, so a riot causes a lof of trouble. (Points to the Clarifying Cue Card
for Kids poster on the wall) Can anyone tell me which clue we used to
clarify fhe word riot?

Miguel: Clue #1?

Mrs. Baker: Right! Clue #1 reminds us to look at the word, to see if we’ve seen it or
heard it before. You did a great job of remembering the word riot.
(Returns to text) Do you think people were happy when the goose
caused a riot?

Children: No!

Mrs. Baker: Now, I’m going to continue reading. It’s your turn to listen for tricky words
and to hold up your stop signs. Do you think you can do it? (The children
nod enthusiastically.)
Okay, let’s get started.

Nobody ever thought she’d try it! There wasn't any more peace....

(Stop signs go up when Mrs. Baker reads the word peace.)

Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children 141

Good work, word detectives! You found a very hard word! Let's see if
we can figure it out. Try Clue #1: Look at the word. Has anyone seen or
heard this word before?

Stephanie: I’ve heard it before. My mom is always saying she wants some peace and
quiet. She doesn’t like it when my brother and me fight and make a lot of
noise.

Brian: Peace is like not fighting.

Mrs. Baker: Great! You’ve got it! Peace is when everyone gets along and we don’t
hear sounds of fighting. (Returns to text) Hmm... So, when the book says
there was a riot and there wasn’t any more peace and quiet, we can tell
that the goose caused a lot of trouble.
Now, here a hard question: Which clues did we use this time?

Sara: The first one; I remembered what my mom said.

Mrs. Baker: Right, Sara did a good job of remembering that she heard the word
before. (Points to the poster) Did anyone use any other clues? (No
response from the children) How about Clue #2? Did we look at the rest
of the words in the sentence, like quiet to get an idea of what peace
means? (Children nod) Good work, word detectives! Let’s continue!

At this early stage of instruction, Mrs. Baker focuses on the development of

word consciousness, an essential component of word-learning proficiency (Scott &
Nagy, 2004). She encourages the children to monitor their comprehension carefully
as she reads aloud. When the children raise their stop signs, she initiates a clarify¬
ing discussion, thus helping the children construct word meaning. As the chil¬
dren's metacognitive skills develop, Mrs. Baker will focus more attention on the
Clarifying Cue Card for Kids, asking the children to identify the strategy that pro¬
vides the best clues.
The snapshot from Mrs. Baker's classroom demonstrates that Mine Your Mem¬
ory is a particularly powerful clarifying strategy, typically the first strategy to be
independently controlled by young readers. The other clarifying strategies, such as
Consider the Context, are more difficult for the children to understand and imple¬
ment. Although Mrs. Baker's students link the combination of words peace and
quiet in the text, they rely on Mine Your Memory (Sara's recollection of what her
mom said) rather than using Consider the Context as a separate strategy. Mrs.
Baker reinforces the use of context by returning to the text and pointing out that
there was no peace because the goose caused a lot of trouble and, in fact, causes a
riot! These second-grade children are demonstrating emerging control of the clari¬
fying strategies, necessary to the development of independent word-learning skills.
Just as older children need a multifaceted approach to vocabulary instruction,
young children benefit from an approach that addresses the three dimensions of
vocabulary knowledge. Children learn to use clarifying strategies (procedural
knowledge) as teachers model the use of the Clarifying Cue Card for Kids. Chil-
142 Young Children and English Language Learners

dren learn to monitor their own word learning and to regulate strategy use (condi¬
tional knowledge) through instruction based on the Stop Sign for Unknown Words
activity. Finally teachers help children learn words (declarative knowledge)
through repeated read-alouds. All of these methods are taught as teachers read
aloud high-interest books with a great number of challenging words. Over time this
instruction accelerates children's vocabulary acquisition. Children learn up to
three words per day from repeated read-alouds (Biemiller, 2004) and develop
essential word-learning strategies that will help them become independent word
learners as their decoding skills emerge.
Name: Date:

CALLING ALL WORD DETECTIVES

Alert! Tricky words have been spotted in this classroom.

We need your help!

DIRECTIONS FOR DETECTIVES: SEARCH FOR CLUES

Clue #1 Look at the word.

Have you see it or heard it before?

Clue #2 Look around the word.

Can you tell what it means when you look at the rest of the
sentence or the paragraph?

Clue #3 Look inside the word.

Can you tell what it means by looking for word parts that you
already know?

Clue #4 Think about it!

Does the word make sense? If not, ask another detective
for help.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 143
■*
 Chapter 10
■ $■ ‘‘V&rti- k i w-'-fe.- yr*1^ ^

Vocabulary Instruction
for English Language Learners

It was a bright fall morning when I visited East Park Elementary to observe read¬
ing groups for English language learners. The principal suggested that I observe
twin sisters Seena and Raya, the least proficient readers in the third grade. She
explained that the girls' immigrant parents worked long hours and were rarely
available to supervise their homework or to participate in school-related activities.
According to the principal, Seena’s and Raya's English vocabulary was very lim¬
ited despite the fact that they had been born in the United States and had attended
this school since kindergarten.
The following snapshot took place in Seena's classroom as her teacher Ms.
Ruiz conducted a guided reading group for English language learners. The children
were reading a leveled text (at an emergent reading level) about barnyard animals.
The following snapshot is an excerpt of the reading lesson, focusing on an inter¬
change between Ms. Ruiz and Seena.

Seena’s Reading Lesson

Ms. Ruiz: Boys and girls, here's the book we’re going to read today. It’s called Barn¬
yard Animals. Do you remember what we worked on last time? Seena?

Seena: Um...I forget.

Ms. Ruiz: We worked on chunking—reading whole chunks of words that we know.

Okay? (Children nod.) Now, Seena, you go first. Start reading on page 1.
Remember to look at the pictures if you need a clue.

Seena: (Reads haltingly) Many animals live in the bar...n...yar...d (reads the word
with an obvious lack of comprehension). There are ten ch... (looks at the
picture) chickens. There are ducks, too. The big white g...g... (Seena stops,
unable to read the word goose. She checks the picture but can’t find a
clue for the unfamiliar word.)

Ms. Ruiz: Sound it out. You've got the first?letter. Now, what sound do two os make?
Remember? (No response) It’s a long /u/ sound. So you have the chunk,
/gu/... Now, what’s the last sound in the word?

Seena: /s/?

145
146 Young Children and English Language Learners

Ms. Ruiz: Good! Now put the sounds together. What word does /g/.../u/.../s/ make?
(No response) It rhymes with moose: /g/.../us/. Can you say it?

Seena: (Without comprehension) /g/.../us/?

Ms. Ruiz: That's it! (Turns the page and points to a picture of a goose) Goose!

Seena: Oh, goose! I get it! (Turns back to the line on the previous page and reads)
The big white goose was in the barn.

The effects of vocabulary limitations on Seena's reading performance were evi¬

dent throughout this lesson. Although she was able to decode most of the
phonemes, she did not appear to associate many of the sounds with meaningful
words. Ms. Ruiz tried to help but limited her support to graphophonic cues, direct¬
ing the children to sound out the unfamiliar words. When Seena tried to sound out
the word goose, she could not check if she had decoded it correctly because she did
not recognize the word. Seena's lack of vocabulary knowledge precluded self-mon¬
itoring and limited the utility of the graphophonic cues. This resulted in a frus¬
trating and unsuccessful reading experience.
A few minutes later I entered Raya's classroom and found that her teacher, Ms.
Valdez, was using the same leveled book in a guided reading lesson with her Eng¬
lish language learners. Meeting briefly with me before the lesson, Ms. Valdez
explained that she designed instruction to address the vocabulary limitations that
complicated the children's efforts to learn to read. She noted that English language
learners are often somewhat familiar with common English words but lack the
automatic lexical access needed to support reading. In order to address this prob¬
lem, Ms. Valdez used the Picture Prediction activity to preview vocabulary and to
help the children connect the sounds that they decoded with meaningful words.
The following is a snapshot of the reading lesson, focusing on Raya's instruction.

Raya’s Reading Lesson

Ms. Valdez: Boys and girls, today we’re going to read a book about barnyard ani¬
mals (shows the children the picture on the cover of the book). Look,
here’s a picture of a barnyard on the cover of the book. Do you know
where we could find a barnyard?

Juana: At a farm?

Ms. Valdez: Right! Now, what kinds of animals live in a barnyard?

Mateo: Cows?

Ms. Valdez: Yes, there are some cows in the picture. (Points to the picture) What other
kinds of animals do you see in the barnyard?

Juana: Ducks?
Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners 147

Ms. Valdez: Yes, there s a duck right here! (Turns the page) What other kinds of ani¬
mals do you see? Raya?

Raya: Turkeys and chickens, and...I don’t know.

Ms. Valdez: Look (points to the picture), this bird is bigger than a chicken and smaller
than a turkey. Can you remember what it's called? Try Mine Your Mem¬
ory.

Raya: I can't remember.

Ms. Valdez: Do you remember the book we read called The Day the Goose Got
Loose?

Raya: Oh yeah! I remember now. Goose!

Ms. Valdez: Good! Now let’s look at the pictures and see if we’ve forgotten anything.
What’s this? Mateo?

Mateo: The farmer?

Ms. Valdez: Right! What’s the machine called that the farmer is sitting on?

Raya: It's a wagon or something. I can’t remember.

Ms. Valdez: Try Mine Your Memory. Do you remember seeing this farm machine in a
book we read last week?

Raya: Oh yeah! It was a book about a little red tractor!

Ms. Valdez: Great! You remembered that it’s a tractor. So, we have a farmer, barn¬
yard, and a tractor, and what kind of the animals are in the barnyard?

Raya: (Points to the picture) A turkey, some chickens, some ducks, a dog, and
a cat...

Ms. Valdez: Right, a turkey, chickens, ducks, a dog, a cat, and a what?

Raya: A goose!

Ms. Valdez: Okay, you've got it! Now let’s read the book.

The careful preparation that Ms. Valdez provided to the English language
learners was effective in supporting their reading. When she previewed the names
of the tractor and the barnyard animals, Ms. Valdez provided the children with
essential vocabulary and background knowledge that they needed to construct
meaning from the book. She provided explicit phonics instruction and guided the
children's attempts to decode familiar words. Ms. Valdez taught the children to use
the clarifying strategy Mine Your Memory when they struggled with difficult
words. This is an important strategy for English language learners to master
because they often lack rapid lexical access to partially known words. Using Mine
Your Memory helps children such as Raya access word knowledge and apply it to
148 Young Children and English Language Learners

reading tasks. Once she accessed the vocabulary, Raya could use graphophonic
cues to monitor her own reading. Vocabulary knowledge was the key to a success¬
ful reading experience.
It is also important to note that Ms. Valdez made use of thematically related
texts to build word knowledge. She helped the children build associations between
words found in a variety of books about farm animals and equipment. The use of
thematically related texts offers multiple exposures to high-utility words, an impor¬
tant component of vocabulary acquisition. Books about a common theme also help
children acquire background knowledge that they need in order to read profi¬
ciently in English.

SPANISH-SPEAKING CHILDREN
Spanish-speaking children are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. school pop¬
ulation. According to demographic data, 79% of English language learners in Amer¬
ican schools speak Spanish as their first language (Kindler, 2002). Many of these
children struggle with difficulties related to learning English, putting them at risk
for academic failure. The goal of instruction for Spanish-speaking children is to
provide content knowledge and mastery of academic English while preserving eth¬
nic pride and competence in the children's native language.
Spanish-speaking children benefit from carefully designed reading instruction
such as that provided by Ms. Valdez in the previous vignette. Helping children
Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners 149

acquire and access key academic vocabulary (the declarative dimension) is one
component of instruction. Additional components include instruction in clarifying
strategies and metacognitive skills, with an emphasis on the use of cognates. Teach¬
ers can encourage pride in children's native culture by exposing the children to
great literature and poetry written in Spanish. Once children learn to enjoy poetry
in Spanish, they can be encouraged to write their own poetry in both languages.
Children are often motivated to learn English vocabulary as they wrestle with the
words needed to express the ideas that they want to share with others.

CLARIFYING STRATEGY INSTRUCTION

Teachers can help Spanish-speaking chil¬
dren acquire vocabulary by teaching them
CLARIFYING CUE CARD
to use clarifying strategies. The Clarifying WITH CATCH A COGNATE;
Cue Card with Catch a Cognate is provided When you find a word you don't understand, try the following strategies:

MINE YOUR MEMORY

in English (see p. 156) and in Spanish for Have you ever seen this word before? Can you remember what It means?

STUDY THE STRUCTURE

use with Spanish-speaking children (see p. Do you know the root or base word? Does the word have a prefix or suffix that
you know? Try to use clues In the word to figure out the meaning.

157). The Study the Structure and Consider CONSIDER THE CONTEXT
Look at the Information in the sentence and the whole paragraph. Can you fig¬
ure out the meaning of the word?
the Context Cue Cards are also provided in SUBSTITUTE A SYNONYM
When you think you know what the word means, try putting a word with a simi¬
Spanish (see pp. 158-159). lar meaning In the sentence. Does It make sense?

Clarifying strategy instruction that If the strategies don't work, try these:

ASK AN EXPERT

includes Catch a Cognate is particularly help¬ Does someone in your group know what the word means? Can you figure It out
together?

ful for Spanish-speaking children. Vocabu¬ PLACE A POST-IT

If you can't figure out the meaning of the word, put a Post-It by the word, and
check with the teacher or look It up In the dictionary later.
lary experts estimate that more than one
If you speak Spanish, try this:

third of adult vocabulary in English is com¬ CATCH A COGNATE

Does the word look or sound like a word you know In Spanish? Try the Spanish

posed of cognates (Nash, 1997). In fact, word's meaning to see If it makes sense.

53.6% of English words have Romance lan¬

guage origins (Hammer, 1979). Children who
speak other Romance languages may also
benefit from cognate instruction; however,
m)ETA CON CLAVES
differences in spelling and pronunciation FARA CLARFIGAR CON A7RAPE UN COGNADO
(Spanish Translation of Clarifying Cue Card with Catch a Cognate)
between English and these other languages
Cuando encuentre una palabra que no entiende, use las estrateglas slgulentes:

(e.g., French) may make this strategy difficult USE SU MEM0R1A

iHa vlsto esta palabra antes? ^Recuerda que slgniflca?

for children to implement effectively. ESTUDIE LA ESTRUCTURA

iSabe la ralz o base? ,/La palabra tlene un prefijo o sufljo que conoce? Use
Teaching Spanish-speaking children to claves reconocldas en la palabra para adlvlnar el signlflcado.

C0NSIDEREELC0NTEXT0

recognize and use cognates as a word-learn¬ Flje en la Informaclon en la oraclon y el parrafo. ^Puede adlvlnar el slgnlfi-
cado?

ing strategy provides them with access to a SUSTITUYA UN SIN6NIM0

SI piensa que sabe el signlflcado de la palabra, trate de poner una palabra
con signlflcado parecido en la oraclon. iTIene sentldo?
broad array of important academic English
SI las estrateglas no le resultan, trate lo siguiente:

words. Children need a great deal of model¬ PREGUNTELE A UN EXPERTO

iAIgulen en su grupo sabra lo que la palabra slgniflca? Trabajando Junto

ing and practice in order to Catch a Cognate ipueden adlvlnar el signlflcado?

PbNGALE UN POST-IT

effectively. The Catch a Cognate Cue Card SI no puede adlvlnar el slgnificado de la palabra. ponga un Post-It junto la
palabra y preguntele a la maestra o busque la palabra en el dlccionarlo.

(in English or in Spanish, see pp. 160-161, ATRAPE UN COGNADO

iLa palabra parece o suena como una palabra que conoce en espaftol? Use el
signlflcado de la palabra en espanol para ver si tlene sentldo,

respectively) and Catch a Cognate Work¬

sheet (see p. 162) can be used for instruction.
150 Young Children and English Language Learners

The following is a snapshot of a sixth-

grade class composed mainly of Spanish¬
speaking students. Mr. Mitchell is teaching CATCH A COGNATE CUE CARD

the children how to use the Catch a Cog¬ Cognates are words that look or sound alike In two languages and mean
nearly the same thing. There are many Spanlsh-Engllsh cognates. When you
learn how to catch cognates, you will understand a lot of new words in Eng-
nate strategy.
When you find an English word you don't understand, follow these steps:

LOOK AND LISTEN

Look at the English word. Does It look like a word you know In Spanish?
Read It aloud. Does It sound like a Spanish word?

Mr. Mitchell’s Class CONSIDER IT

d d d Do you know what the word means in Spanish?

Mr. Mitchell: Today we are going to work on TRY IT

Read the whole sentence, using the Spanish word instead of the word In
English.
cognates. Cognates are words
that look or sound alike in two THINK ABOUT IT
Think about Itl Does the word make sense In the sentence? If It makes sense
It's a cognate!

languages, such as Spanish and

Celebrate! You've caught a cognate and learned a new word!

English, and mean nearly the

same thing. There are many
Spanish-English cognates in
these books (points to a pile of
textbooks on his desk). When
you learn how to use Catch a TARJETA CON CLAVES: ATRAPE UN COGNADO
(Spanish Translation of Catch a Cocpate Cue Card)
Cognate, you will understand a
lot of new words in English. So, Cognados son palabras que parecen y suenan similar en dos Idiomas y tlenen
un slgnificado muy similar. Hay muchos cognados espanol-tngles, Cuando
aprenda a atrapar cognados, va a entender muchas mas palabras en Ingles.

pay attention! This is really going Cuando vea una palabra en Ingles que no entlende, slga los slgulentes pasos

to help you! MIRE Y ESCUCHE

Mire la palabra en ingles. ^Se ve como una palabra que conoce en espanol?
Lea la palabra en voz alta. /Suena como una palabra que conoce en
Let’s take a look at this Catch espaftol?

a Cognate Cue Card. (Mr. C0NSI0ERE

iSabe lo que la palabra signlflca en espanol?

Mitchell hands out copies of the

cue card and puts a matching Lea la oracion completa usando la palabra en espanol en lugar.de la palabra
en Ingles. Tr

transparency on the overhead

projector.) I want you to follow
along as I read each step on the jCelebre! lAtrapo un cognado y aprendlo una palabra nueva!

cue card (reads the steps from

the cue card).
Now, let’s try an example. (Mr. Mitchell removes the Catch a Cognate
Cue Card transparency, then hands out copies of the Catch a Cognate
Worksheet and puts a matching transparency on the overhead projec¬
tor.) Look at the sentence on the overhead:

Her heart beat rapidly after running to class.

Can anyone help with the first step?

Maria: I look at rapidly and think it looks like rapido en espanol.

Mr. Mitchell: Excellent, Maria! That’s exactly what you need to do. What does rapido
mean in English?

Maria: Fast?
Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners

Mr. Mitchell: Right! Now, I need someone to

Name _Date:

try the word in a sentence to

CATCH A COGNATE WORKSHEET
make sure it makes sense. Lour¬ Many of Ihe words we use In school are similar In Spanish and English. For example, the
word similar Is exactly the same In both languages. Use the Catch a Cognate Cue Card to
des? help you figure out If an unknown word Is a cognate. Here Is an example. Her heart beat
rapidly after running to class.
1 Look and listen. Look at the word rapidly. Does It look like a word you know In Span¬
ish? Does It sound like a Spanish word? Could It be a cognate?
Lourdes: Her heart beat was rapido after Rapidly looks and sounds a lot like the word rdoldo In Spanish.
2. Consider It. Do you know whai the word means In Spanish?
The word rdoldo In Spanish means fast.
running to class. 3. Try it. Read the whole sentence using the Spanish word Instead of the word In English.
Her heart beat was rdoldo after running to class.
4. Think about it. Does the word make sense In a sentence?
Kes, rdoldo makes sense In the sentence, I think It's a cognatel
Mr. Mitchell: Good! Do we know for sure Work with a partner and find each of the English cognates for the Spanish words In paren¬
theses. Follow Ihe steps on llie Caleb a Cognate Cue. Card.
that rapidly is a cognate? 1. The cave paintings were made by prehistoric people, (prehlstdrlco)
2 Discuss the characteristics of the people In the New England colonies.
(characterlstlcos)
Maria? 3. Whai Is the correct abbreviation for the state of California? labrevlatura)
4. Find the congruent shapes, (congruente)
5. Write the definition of each word. (deflnlcldn)
Maria: Ah...I don’t know. With your partner, Identify cognates (or the underlined words using the Catch a Cognate Cue
Card.
1. Explain how the system works.

Mr. Mitchell: Does the word mean more or 2. fnmhlni* these numbers.
3. De.scrlbf the character In the story,
4. What does this symhnl mean?

less the same thing in English 5. Clve biographical Information about yourself.

Write some sentences of your own, using words that are cognates. Give your sentences to a
friend and ask him or her to catch your cognates,
and Spanish?

Maria: Yes.

Mr. Mitchell: Good! You're right! Rapidly

and rapido are cognates because they mean the same thing in both
languages. Now, I’m going to give you some sentences to work on.
Each sentence has an underlined word that might be a cognate. I want
you try to figure out if the word is a cognate and what it means. We’ll do
the first sentence together:

Sparta had a different system of government than Athens.

Okay, who wants to start? Is the word system a cognate?

Antonio: Yeah!

Mr. Mitchell: How do you know?

Antonio: I think it sounds like sistema in Spanish.

Mr. Mitchell: Good! Did everyone notice that it’s easier to hear how the words system
and sistema are alike than it is to see how they are alike? That's because
system is written with y in English and sistema is written with i in Spanish.
But when you say the words, they sound very similar. Okay, Antonio, now
try sistema in the sentence. Does it make sense?

Antonio: Yeah, it makes sense! Sparta had a different sistema del gobierno.

Mr. Mitchell: Great, Antonio! You figured out that system and government both have
cognates in Spanish.

Mariela: Diferente is a cognate, too. The whole sentence is cognates.

Mr. Mitchell: Mariela just pointed out something really important. Cognates are every¬
where! In this sentence alone, we found three of them. If you learn to find
cognates, you’ll understand a lot more English. Does everyone under¬
stand how catching cognates helps you understand the sentence?
152 Young Children and English Language Learners

Students: Yeah!

Mr. Mitchell: It’s really important that you

always check to make sure
that a cognate makes
sense. Sometimes a word is
tricky. It looks like a cog¬
nate, but it doesn’t mean
the same thing in Spanish
and English. So, be sure to
check your work.
Now, I want each of you
to work with a partner on
the rest of the sentences on
your Catch a Cognate Worksheet. Look at the underlined word in each
sentence and decide if it's a cognate. Then try to figure out what the
word means in Spanish and if it makes sense in English. Any questions?
Okay, Let’s get started.

While the children work, Mr. Mitchell circulates around the room, offering
suggestions and answering questions. The explicit instruction and practice that Mr.
Mitchell provides to his Spanish-speaking students teaches them to use important
tools for making sense of unfamiliar words they encounter while reading. Follow¬
ing are guidelines for cognate instruction.

COGNATE CLUES FOR TEACHERS

1. Cognates can be very helpful to Spanish-speaking students who are learning
English. Methods of identifying cognates and using them for comprehension of
English texts must be explicitly taught.

2. Teach students to use the Catch a Cognate Cue Card in initial stages of cognate
instruction. Model each step of catching cognates, and provide many opportu¬
nities for practice. Gradually students will learn to use the Catch a Cognate
strategy independently and effectively while reading English texts.

3. Teach students to look at the English word and try to think of a similar-looking
word in Spanish.

4. Teach them to also read the word aloud and listen for the sound of a similar word
in Spanish. It is important to teach students to listen for the sound of cognates
because the words do not always look alike. It can be tricky to recognize cog¬
nates in text due to differences in how the words are spelled in English and
Spanish. Words spelled with ph in English (an /f/ sound) are spelled with f in
Spanish. For example, photography in English is fotografia in Spanish. English
words that have a short 111 sound spelled with the letter y, such as symbol, have
Spanish cognates that spell the vowel sound with the letter i (simbolo). English
Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners 153

words that end with y, such as primary or allegory, often have Spanish cognates
ending with -zo or -ia (primario, alegoria). Other nouns that end in y in English
have Spanish cognates that end with -dad. For example, electricity in English is
electricidad in Spanish. Adverbs typically end with -ly in English and -mente in
Spanish. For example, exactly in English is exactamente in Spanish.

5. The purpose of the Catch a Cognate strategy is to help children infer the mean¬
ing of English words they encounter while reading. It is not necessary to iden¬
tify the exact translation of a cognate or the correct part of speech. For exam¬
ple, the word rapido sounds similar to rapidly and provides the children with
word meaning, even though the exact translation of rapidly is rapidamente.

The Catch a Cognate Worksheet (see p. 162) provides additional Catch a

Cognate practice for Spanish-speaking children. The cognates in this activity
include vocabulary words that appear frequently in upper elementary and middle
school textbooks, such as prehistoric, definition, combine, describe, symbol, and
biographical.

NATIVE LANGUAGE POETRY

Educating English language learners entails more than teaching them English
words and word-learning strategies. Children must be motivated to learn so that
they will exert the effort necessary for academic success. The inclusion of cultur¬
ally relevant literature in the language arts curriculum is an important factor in
engaging the interest of English language learners. Native language poetry is a par¬
ticularly important tool in the instruction of English language learners. Teachers
can download poems in Spanish and many other languages from the Internet.
Poems are often published in the original language accompanied by English trans¬
lations, allowing all of the children in the class to benefit from instruction. For
example, Latino children can be invited to share poetry by renowned Spanish lan¬
guage poets such as Federico Garcia Lorca. Listening to Spanish poetry exposes
monolingual English-speaking children to the richness of Hispanic culture, while
fostering Latino children's pride in their native culture and language. The follow¬
ing vignette describes Manuel, a troubled Latino youngster who was inspired by
Spanish poetry.

Manuel’s Story

Manuel and his two brothers lived with their father in a tough, low-income neighbor¬
hood. The boys were often in trouble at school, and their father worked long hours and
was rarely available to speak to the teachers or principal about his sons’ behavioral
or learning problems. Manuel was entering fifth grade with a discipline problem and
had been designated as being at risk of academic failure.
The principal placed Manuel in Mrs. Cohen’s class, hoping that the multicultural
curriculum she used would motivate Manuel to take an interest in school. The first day
154 Young Children and English Language Learners

of school did not look promising. Mrs. Cohen welcomed the children to class and
noted that Manuel appeared sullen and withdrawn. Despite her efforts to engage him
in learning activities, Manuel remained uncooperative. He was involved in a fight on
the playground later that week and was suspended.
On the day that Manuel returned, Mrs. Cohen introduced a poetry unit to the chil¬
dren. She passed out a poem written in Spanish and translated into English and invited
the children to follow along in the language of their choice. “Those of you who speak
Spanish are so lucky," she told the children. “You can read some of the most beauti¬
ful poetry ever written. Listen while I read this poem by Federico Garcia Lorca. Even if
you read it in English, be sure to pay attention to the sound of the words in Spanish."
The children read poems by Garcia Lorca and Pablo Neruda along with poetry by
a wide assortment of English language poets. Mrs. Cohen noticed that Manuel seemed
to perk up whenever she read a poem by a Spanish language poet. One day Manuel
appeared in class, lugging a large book around with him. When Mrs. Cohen inquired
about the book, Manuel proudly explained that he had taken several buses from his
home to the public library, where he had checked out a huge anthology of Garcia
Lorca's poems (in Spanish). Whenever he had a free moment, Manuel read the book.
He studied the poems and read them aloud to anyone who would listen. The principal,
other teachers, the custodian, and the cafeteria workers were all treated to his poetry
readings.
Gradually, Manuel emerged from his brittle shell. He began to show an interest in
classroom activities and started writing his own poems. At first he concentrated on
writing in Spanish but found a limited audience for his work. Then he began to exper¬
iment with English poetry and was pleased with the results. Although Manuel contin¬
ued to struggle in many areas of the curriculum, his reading and writing skills soared.
He wrestled with words every day, determined to improve the quality of his poems.
Manuel found a purpose for learning in Garcia Lorca's beautiful poetry.
Vocabulary Instruction for English Language Learners 155

Teachers can motivate children like Manuel by showing respect for their native
culture and encouraging them to model themselves after great Spanish language
poets. Incorporating native language poetry can be an effective method of engag¬
ing student interest and providing a purpose for vocabulary acquisition.

EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

English language learners are confronted with a huge task. They must learn a vast
number of English words while acquiring content knowledge presented in English,
a language they do not understand well. English language learners, particularly
those in the upper elementary grades and middle school, need multifaceted
instruction that accelerates vocabulary acquisition. Effective instruction for Eng¬
lish language learners addresses the three dimensions of vocabulary knowledge,
providing access to clarifying strategies (procedural knowledge), metacognitive
skills (conditional knowledge), and academic English words (declarative knowl¬
edge). Spanish-speaking children derive particular benefit from instruction in the
use of cognates. In addition, the curriculum must convey to English language learn¬
ers that their language and culture are valued.
 CLARIFYING CUE CARD
WITH CATCH A COGNATE
When you find a word you don’t understand, try the following strategies:

MINE YOUR MEMORY

Have you ever seen this word before? Can you remember what it means?

STUDY THE STRUCTURE

Do you know the root or base word? Does the word have a prefix or suffix that
you know? Try to use clues in the word to figure out the meaning.

CONSIDER THE CONTEXT

Look at the information in the sentence and the whole paragraph. Can you fig¬
ure out the meaning of the word?

SUBSTITUTE A SYNONYM
When you think you know what the word means, try putting a word with a simi¬
lar meaning in the sentence. Does it make sense?

If the strategies don’t work, try these:

ASK AN EXPERT
Does someone in your group know what the word means? Can you figure it out
together?

PLACE A POST-IT
If you can’t figure out the meaning of the word, put a Post-It by the word, and
check with the teacher or look it up in the dictionary later.

If you speak Spanish, try this:

CATCH A COGNATE
Does the word look or sound like a word you know in Spanish? Try the Spanish
word’s meaning to see if it makes sense.

From Lubliner, S. (2001). A practical guide to reciprocal teaching (pp. 34, 39).
Bothell, WA: Wright Group/McGraw-Hill; adapted by permission.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

156 by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
 TARJETA CON CLAVES
FARA CLARFICAR CON ATRAPE UN COGNADO
(Spanish Translation of Clarifying Cue Card with Catch a Cognate)

Cuando encuentre una palabra que no entiende, use las estrategias siguientes:

USE SU MEMORIA
^Ha visto esta palabra antes? ^Recuerda que significa?

ESTUDIE LA ESTRUCTURA
cSabe la ralz o base? ^La palabra tiene un prefijo o sufijo que conoce? Use
claves reconocidas en la palabra para adivinar el significado.

CONSIDERE ELCONTEXTO
Fije en la informacion en la oracion y el parrafo. ^Puede adivinar el signifi¬
cado?

SUSTITUYA UN SINONIMO
Si piensa que sabe el significado de la palabra, trate de poner una palabra
con significado parecido en la oracion. ^Tiene sentido?

Si las estrategias no le resultan, trate lo siguiente:

PREGUNTELE A UN EXPERTO
^Alguien en su grupo sabra lo que la palabra significa? Trabajando junto
^pueden adivinar el significado?

PONGALE UN POST-IT
Si no puede adivinar el significado de la palabra, ponga un Post-It junto la
palabra y preguntele a la maestra o busque la palabra en el diccionario.

ATRAPE UN COGNADO
lla palabra parece o suena como una palabra que conoce en espanol? Use el
significado de la palabra en espanol para ver si tiene sentido.

From Lubliner, S. (2001). A practical guide to reciprocal teaching (pp. 34, 39).
Bothell, WA: Wright Group/McGraw-Hill; translated and adapted by permission.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana. 157
TARJETA CON CLAVES: ESfllDIE LA ESTRUCTURA
(Spanish Translation of Study the Structure Cue Card)

Cuando encuentre una palabra que no entiende, use la estrategia siguiente:

ESTUDIE LA ESTRUCTURA
Trate de ayudarse usando la estructura de la palabra (como esta construida).
^Sabe la raiz de la palabra? ^Tiene un prefijo o sufijo que usted conoce? Trate de
usar claves en la palabra para adivinar la palabra.

La base de la palabra
La base se usa para construir varias otras palabras. Cuando encuentre una pal-
abra que no conoce, busque la base de la palabra para ver si le ayuda a adivinar
el significado.

La raiz
Muchas palabras en ingles tienen raices griegas o latinas. La raiz puede ayudarle
a adivinar el significado de la palabra. Fije en la lista de raices griegas y latinas
para ver.

El prefijo
El prefijo se encuentra al principio de la palabra y ayuda a determinar su signifi¬
cado. ^La palabra desconocida tiene un prefijo que usted conoce?

El sufijo
Un sufijo se encuentra al final de la palabra y ayuda a determinar su significado.
^Tiene la palabra un sufijo que usted conoce?

UNA FOTO
Imagine que usted tiene una camera. Tome una foto de la palabra y la oracion
que contiene la palabra para que usted recuerde la palabra cuando la vea otra
vez. Cada vez que vea la palabra sera mas facil recordarla.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
158 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 TARJETA CON CLAVES: CONSIDERE EL CONTEXTO
(Spanish Translation of Consider the Context Cue Card)

Cuando encuentre una palabra que no entiende, use la estrategia siguiente:

CONSIDERE EL CONTEXTO

Lea la oracion. ^Tiene claves sobre el significado de la palabra? Lea el parrafo

entero. ^Ahora puede determinar lo que significa la palabra? jNo se de por ven-
cido! Puede ser que necesite leer mas para obtener mas informacion sobre la
palabra. Use las siguientes claves en el contexto como guias.

Busque claves entre comas.

A veces claves se esconden entre comas. Aqui hay un ejemplo: El extraterrestre,

un habitante de otro planeta, salto de la nave espacial. Note que la definicion de
la palabra extraterrestre esta entre las comas.

Busque claves con explicaciones.

Aqul hay un ejemplo: El curandero estaba preocupado. La gente de la tribu tenia

fe en su habilidad para curarlos. Pero muchas personas se enfermaron y sus
curamientos no funcionaban. Note que la palabra curandero esta explicada en
las oraciones que siguen despues de la palabra.

Busque claves con sentimientos.

Aqul hay un ejemplo: Anoche senti temor. Estaba en casa solo cuando empezd la
tormenta. Se fue la luz. Relampagos chocaban y truenos sacudian la casa. Note
que la palabra temor esta explicada por oraciones que describen un susto.

Busque claves con palabras opuestas como pero, sino, sin embargo y aunque.

Claves en el contexto a veces se esconden. Aqui hay un ejemplo: Estaba muy

cansada, pero no pude dormir por el llanto del bebe. Note que la palabra opuesta
pero senala que una clave esta escondida en la frase que sigue despues de la
palabra opuesta.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 159
 CATCH A COGNATE CUE CARD

Cognates are words that look or sound alike in two languages and mean
nearly the same thing. There are many Spanish-English cognates. When you
learn how to catch cognates, you will understand a lot of new words in Eng¬
lish.

When you find an English word you don’t understand, follow these steps:

LOOK AND LISTEN

Look at the English word. Does it look like a word you know in Spanish?
Read it aloud. Does it sound like a Spanish word?

CONSIDER IT
Do you know what the word means in Spanish?

TRY IT
Read the whole sentence, using the Spanish word instead of the word in
English.

THINK ABOUT IT
Think about it! Does the word make sense in the sentence? If it makes sense
it’s a cognate!

Celebrate! You’ve caught a cognate and learned a new word!

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
160 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
TARJETA CON CLAVES: ATRAPE UN COGNADO
(Spanish Translation of Catch a Cognate Cue Card)

Cognados son palabras que parecen y suenan similar en dos idiomas y tienen
un significado muy similar. Hay muchos cognados espanol-ingles. Cuando
aprenda a atrapar cognados, va a entender muchas mas palabras en ingles.

Cuando vea una palabra en ingles que no entiende, siga los siguientes pasos:

MIRE Y ESCUCHE
Mire la palabra en ingles. ^Se ve como una palabra que conoce en espanol?
Lea la palabra en voz alta. ^Suena como una palabra que conoce en
espanol?

CONSIDERE
^Sabe lo que la palabra significa en espanol?

INTENTE
Lea la oracion completa usando la palabra en espanol en lugar de la palabra
en ingles.

PIENSE
jPiense! ^Tiene sentido la palabra en la oracion? Si tiene sentido, jes un cog-
nado!

jCelebre! jAtrapo un cognado y aprendio una palabra nueva!

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. 161
Name: _Date: _

CATCH A COGNATE WORKSHEET

Marty of the words we use in school are similar in Spanish and English. For example, the
word similar is exactly the same in both languages. Use the Catch a Cognate Cue Card to
help you figure out if an unknown word is a cognate. Here is an example: Her heart beat
rapidly after running to class.

1. Look and listen. Look at the word rapidly. Does it look like a word you know in Span¬
ish? Does it sound like a Spanish word? Could it be a cognate?
Rapidly looks and sounds a lot like the word rapido in Spanish.
2. Consider it. Do you know what the word means in Spanish?
The word rapido in Spanish means fast.
3. Try it. Read the whole sentence using the Spanish word instead of the word in English.
Her heart beat was rapido after running to class.
4. Think about it. Does the word make sense in a sentence?
Yes, rapido makes sense in the sentence. I think it’s a cognate!

Work with a partner and find each of the English cognates for the Spanish words in paren¬
theses. Follow the steps on the Catch a Cognate Cue Card.
1. The cave paintings were made by prehistoric people. (prehistorico)
2. Discuss the characteristics of the people in the New England colonies.
(characteristicos)
3. What is the correct abbreviation for the state of California? (abreviatura)
4. Find the congruent shapes. (congruente)
5. Write the definition of each word. (definicion)

With your partner, identify cognates for the underlined words using the Catch a Cognate Cue
Card.
1. Explain how the system works.
2. Combine these numbers.
3. Describe the character in the story.
4. What does this symbol mean?
5. Give biographical information about yourself.

Write some sentences of your own, using words that are cognates. Give your sentences to a
friend and ask him or her to catch your cognates.

Getting Into Words: Vocabulary Instruction that Strengthens Comprehension

by Shira Lubliner (with Linda Smetana)
162 Copyright © 2005 Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved.
 Part VI

Managing a
Comprehensive Vocabulary
Development Program
» ..V
 Chapter 11

Teaching Vocabulary
Across the Curriculum
and Throughout the School
When I entered Ms. Ryan's fifth-grade class at Bayside Elementary School, Katie
immediately caught my attention. She appeared angry, with her arms crossed over
her chest, and was glaring at the teacher. When Ms. Ryan introduced the lesson
and asked the children to follow along, Katie refused to open her book. Later,
when the children were reading and answering questions on a worksheet, Katie
was disruptive, talking loudly and attempting to distract other children. Ms. Ryan
spoke to her patiently, explaining the need to work quietly, but was unable to per¬
suade Katie to attempt the assignment.
Later that day, I met with Ms. Evans, the school's reading specialist, to discuss
a research study I hoped to conduct at Bayside the following year. I was interested
in hearing more about the students I had observed earlier that day. I described my
visit to Ms. Ryan's class and asked, "What can you tell me about Katie?"
Ms. Evans sighed. "I've known Katie for a long time. She entered Bayside as a
first grader, with no previous preschool or kindergarten experience. Her first-grade
teacher spoke to me early in the year and told me that Katie could not identify any
of the letters or numbers and was unable to write her own name. The teacher was
also concerned about Katie's poor oral language development. Her vocabulary was
limited and her syntax was very underdeveloped for a 6-year-old child. Katie used
phrases such as "Her wants to go."
"What kind of help did Katie get?" I asked.
Ms. Evans told me about the special reading program she had designed to sup¬
port the students considered at risk of academic failure. She explained how she
had tried to help Katie. "We began by referring Katie to the resource teacher to be
tested for learning disabilities. Katie's scores were in the low-normal range, but we
didn't find any evidence of learning disabilities. So, we enrolled her in our reme¬
dial reading program and brought her into the reading room for intensive instruc¬
tion, 5 days per week. We taught her to decode with an explicit phonics program,
and she gradually caught up with the rest of the class. We continued to work with
her for several years. By the end of second grade, Katie was reading decodable
texts, and her reading scores were within the low-average range. I was sure that
the early intervention program had succeeded."
"It sounds like a great program!" I commented. "When did Katie become so
angry and resistant to instruction?"

165
166 Managing a Comprehensive Vocabulary Development Program

Ms. Evans explained that she had had little contact with Katie in the third grade
because Katie did not qualify for any special services in that grade. But when Katie
entered fourth grade, her performance dropped precipitously. According to Ms.
Evans, Katie simply "crashed" in fourth grade. She struggled to complete assign¬
ments and failed comprehension tests. Ms. Evans explained further, "The fourth-
grade teacher was concerned and asked me to test Katie to see if I could determine
what was wrong. I called Katie to the reading room and asked her to read a story
from the fourth-grade basal reader. She read the story accurately but with little
expression. When I asked her a question about the main idea of the story, Katie ran
her finger across the page, struggling to make sense of the words. At last she
located a familiar word and came up with an answer, but it had nothing to do with
the question I had asked. I realized that she did not understand anything she read.
I wanted to help Katie, but my time was reserved for struggling first and second
graders. I guess her teacher did not know what to do with her, and Katie fell fur¬
ther and further behind the class. By the end of the school year, Katie was so resist¬
ant to reading that she would not even try to complete text-based assignments. She
also started getting into a lot of trouble."
"Why do you think Katie 'crashed' in fourth grade?" I asked.
Ms. Evans thought for a while and then responded. "I think Katie had serious
vocabulary deficits when she started first grade. But I was focused on teaching her
to read, and I did not realize that limited vocabulary was such an important prob¬
lem. I taught her how to decode, and she made a lot of progress in reading. It didn't
occur to me that she could only read the controlled-vocabulary books used in the
primary grades."
"So you're saying that Katie only learned to read very easy books? I asked.
Ms. Evans nodded. "In the upper elementary grades, children have to read text¬
books and novels with a lot of very difficult words. It's obvious to me now that the
intervention did not solve Katie's reading problem because we did not teach her
the vocabulary she needed to comprehend upper-grade books. So, now Katie is fail¬
ing every subject and has a discipline problem, too. We've scheduled a student
study team meeting next week to try to come up with a plan to help her. Do you
have any suggestions?"
Ms. Evans and I talked at length about Katie and came up with some ideas that
we thought would help. Ms. Evans met with Katie's mother, the fifth-grade teacher,
and the resource specialist. The student study team discussed Katie's low reading
comprehension and vocabulary test scores and agreed that vocabulary limitations
were an important factor in Katie's reading problems. An intervention was
designed and implemented.

HELPING KATIE
Katie was immersed in reading. Her mother agreed to restrict Katie's television
viewing and to encourage her to read the high-interest leveled texts provided by
the school. Ms. Ryan, Katie's teacher, monitored Katie's independent reading, ask-
Vocabulary Across the Curriculum and Throughout the School 167

ing Katie to retell the stories and to keep track of her retelling scores on a progress
chart. Katie was paired with a high-achieving student for reading activities con¬
ducted in class and went to the resource room for extra help with her social stud¬
ies assignments.
Ms. Evans changed her schedule so that she could meet regularly with Katie and
several other struggling upper-elementary students. She taught the children to use
the clarifying strategies (see Chapter 2) and helped them learn to monitor their own
word learning (see Chapters 4-6). The fifth-grade teacher explicitly taught high-util¬
ity words that the children needed to know and engaged the children in word games
and activities. The resource teacher, Ms. Evans, and Ms. Ryan kept in frequent con¬
tact with Katie's mother and closely monitored Katie's progress. Katie's behavior
and attitude toward learning began to improve, and Katie put more effort into her
school work. Her mother and teachers hoped that the intervention would also result
in substantial improvement in her academic performance.
I returned to Bayview the following year to begin preparations for a research
study based on my vocabulary intervention. I knew that there were many strug¬
gling readers like Katie at Bayside. The school was located in a low-income urban
community. Few of the families could afford to send their children to preschool, so
kindergarten or first grade was often the children's first structured educational
experience. Many of the disadvantaged children, like Katie, entered school with
vocabulary limitations that interfered with reading. Despite a carefully designed
early intervention program, many serious reading problems emerged in the upper
elementary grades. The principal and Ms. Evans recognized the need for improved
instruction and supported my suggestion that we conduct a vocabulary interven¬
tion at Bayside.
The fifth-grade teachers and I met a few weeks later to discuss the interven¬
tion. I discussed recent research findings with them, explaining that disadvantaged
children often enter school with substantial vocabulary limitations that grow wider
each year. I pointed out that children need powerful vocabulary instruction that is
designed to foster deep word-level knowledge in order to positively affect their
reading comprehension. We also discussed word-learning strategies and the impor¬
tance of teaching children to monitor their own comprehension.

THE BAYSIDE STUDY

We began the study by administering a series of pretests designed to provide base¬

line information about the children's vocabulary and reading comprehension. We
asked the teachers to provide normal instruction for a period of 12 weeks and then
administered interim vocabulary and reading comprehension tests. We planned to
compare the results of the first 12 weeks of normal instruction (the control period)
with the results of 12 weeks of comprehensive vocabulary development instruction
(the experimental period). We also compared the children's achievement with that
of children in a much higher-performing school.
168 Managing a Comprehensive Vocabulary Development Program

At the end of the first 12-week period, I met with the fifth-grade teachers and
introduced the comprehensive vocabulary development program. I conducted sev¬
eral training sessions, instructing the teachers how to implement the program and
providing them with instructional materials (the lesson plans, worksheets, and cue
cards addressing the three dimensions of vocabulary knowledge contained in this
book). Then I visited the fifth-grade classrooms and modeled clarifying strategy les¬
sons with the students.

A Model Lesson
My first model lesson took place on a Wednesday morning in Ms. Ryan's class. I
began with the Clarifying Cue Card (see p. 38), carefully modeling each strategy
with a text selection and thinking aloud so that the children could follow my rea¬
soning. I showed the children examples of Mine Your Memory, Study the Structure,
and Consider the Context clues and demonstrated the use of Substitute a Synonym
to ensure that the understanding of word meaning is correct. I placed a trans¬
parency containing a paragraph from the children's social studies book on the over¬
head and read the following sentence: The new land was wild and unexplored. I
pointed to the underlined word, unexplored, and showed the children how they
could clarify it using the strategies on their Clarifying Cue Card. We agreed that a
combination of Mine Your Memory (remember the word explore from previous
social studies lessons) and Study the Structure (identify the negative prefix un-)
were the most helpful strategies and provided good information about word mean¬
ing. I uncovered the next paragraph from the social studies textbook on the trans¬
parency and read the following sentence: The colonists were mystified by many Native
American customs. I pointed to the underlined word, mystified. "Now you try it! Use
your clarifying strategies to make sense of the word!" I said, smiling at the children.
Thirty-one pairs of eyes gazed back at me attentively, but no one tried to clarify the
word.
"Hmm," I thought to myself, "This is not going well." Although the children
were well behaved and engaged when I provided direct instruction, they did not
respond when I asked them to implement the strategies themselves. "The instruc¬
tion must have been inadequate," I decided. "I released responsibility too soon."
So, I taught the process again, carefully modeling each step. I read another sen¬
tence from the paragraph on the transparency and asked the children to identify a
challenging word. I underlined the word the children identified and asked them to
select a strategy that would help us make sense of the word. With my help, the
children successfully clarified the word and substituted a synonym. Now, I was
sure they would be able to carry out the process themselves.
I asked the children to open their social studies book to the page we had been
discussing. "I want you to read the next paragraph in the book, and do the same
thing I just showed you. Find a difficult word and use your clarifying strategies to
help you figure out what it means. Work together and talk about the words. Does
everyone understand? Okay, get started!"
Vocabulary Across the Curriculum and Throughout the School 169

Only a few children began to read the text. The rest stared blankly at me,
clearly baffled by my instructions. Finally Diego, a boy seated at the first table
group, raised his hand. “Why don't you just tell us the words we don't know? Then
we can look them up like we always do."
My heart sank! I thought to myself, "This is going to be a challenge!" I realized
that the children were accustomed to traditional vocabulary instruction based on
explicit instruction and dictionary assignments. The children expected to be told
words to look up and learn, rather than to learn to implement independent word
learning strategies. It was clear that teaching these children the latter would entail
major changes in the teachers' instructional practices.

Changing Instructional Practices

Later that afternoon I met with the three fifth-grade teachers, Ms. Ryan, Ms. Sulli¬
van, and Ms. Judd, and the school reading specialist, Ms. Evans, to discuss the
vocabulary development program that we were beginning to implement. Ms. Ryan,
Ms. Sullivan, and Ms. Judd trudged into the meeting, tired after a long day of teach¬
ing. Despite their exhaustion, the teachers were resolute in their determination to
learn new methods of vocabulary instruction that could help their students. We
discussed the children's passive behavior and the difficulty I had engaging them in
word-learning activities. The teachers explained that most of the children came
from very poor homes and had little exposure to reading before entering school.
Few students had attended preschool, and many spoke languages other than Eng¬
lish at home. Ms. Evans, the reading specialist, explained that many years of poor
academic performance had worn the children down. As she put it, "They've just
stopped trying." According to Ms. Evans, many of the teachers in this Title I school
responded to their demoralized students by taking responsibility for the children's
learning upon themselves. The children knew that if they sat back and waited, the
teachers would preteach the vocabulary, point out important ideas in the text, and
tell them what they needed to remember. Their passivity was reinforced year after
year by well-meaning teachers. By the time they entered fifth grade, the children
had grown so dependent that it was nearly impossible to engage them in inde¬
pendent literacy activities.
The teachers and I acknowledged that it was going to be difficult to change
ingrained learning habits, but we were determined to teach the children to take a
more active role in the learning process. Vocabulary scores for most of the children
were below the basic level, so we agreed that it was vital that the children read
more, learn many words, and become independent word learners. Ms. Evans and
I carefully reviewed the vocabulary materials (the Tools of Success) that I had
developed and selected tools designed to teach each dimension of vocabulary
knowledge. I organized the tools, providing the teachers with a sequence of
instructional activities for the 12-week intervention. The teachers implemented the
comprehensive vocabulary development program, providing vocabulary instruc¬
tion during the 40-minute social studies period, two to three times per week.
170 Managing a Comprehensive Vocabulary Development Program

Results of the Study

I returned to Bayside Elementary School a few weeks after the vocabulary program
began and found many changes in the fifth-grade classes. The teachers were fol¬
lowing the vocabulary development program and were gradually overcoming the
children's resistance to active engagement with texts. The teachers insisted that the
children monitor their own comprehension, implement strategies, and make sense
of words for themselves. According to the teachers, allowing the children to imple¬
ment vocabulary activities in collaborative groups was a key factor in the success
of the program. The children enjoyed working together, increasing their persist¬
ence in carrying out assigned tasks. The teachers reported that the students were
beginning to respond to the new methods.
Weeks went by and Ms. Ryan, Ms. Sullivan, and Ms. Judd persevered despite
the children's resistance and the many demands imposed upon teachers in under-
performing schools. They felt rewarded by signs that the vocabulary instruction
was helping the children become better readers. At the end of 12 weeks of instruc¬
tion, posttests were administered. The results demonstrated significant growth in
the children's reading comprehension and vocabulary following the vocabulary
intervention. Before the study, the children's scores had been compared with those
of children in a higher-performing school. There were large, significant differences
in scores that grew larger during the control period. Results of the final compari¬
son of reading comprehension and vocabulary scores revealed small, insignificant
differences between the Bayside children and the comparison group, suggesting a
narrowing of the achievement gap. (For study data and statistical analysis, see
Lubliner & Smetana, 2004.)
The results of the study were very encouraging. The teachers and I were par¬
ticularly pleased that the children made significant gains in reading comprehen-
sion, an outcome that has rarely been documented in vocabulary studies (Beck et
al., 2002; Nagy, 1985, 1988). We concluded that effective vocabulary instruction
made a big difference at Bayside. The teachers were proud of their accomplish¬
ments and felt that the children were on the right track. The Bayside fifth graders
were on their way to becoming independent word learners.

A Schoolwide Effort to Improve

Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
Ms. Evans and fifth-grade teachers met with me again to review the results of the
study and to discuss plans for the future. Although very pleased with their stu¬
dents' progress, the teachers were discouraged by the prospect of having to save so
many struggling readers each year.
Ms. Ryan commented, "I think that the only way we can prevent kids from
'crashing' in the upper elementary grades is to make sure they learn a lot more
vocabulary in the lower grades. I know that it's really important to teach reading
and that the lower-grade teachers are under a lot of pressure. But I feel like all they
care about is decoding skills. They don't seem to realize how important it is to
Vocabulary Across the Curriculum and Throughout the School 171

teach vocabulary. So, the kids learn to read, but they don't learn the words they
need to understand what they are reading. By the time the kids get to fourth or
fifth grade it's too late."
"I don't think it's too late." I told Ms. Ryan. "You did a great job this year, and
the children really benefited from the vocabulary program. But you're right that it
would be a lot easier and more effective if the primary teachers did their share of
vocabulary instruction. It's going to take a schoolwide effort to solve Bayside's
achievement problems. You'll need carefully planned vocabulary instruction year
after year to bring these kids to a point that they can read and comprehend upper-
grade textbooks."
The fifth-grade teachers shared the results of the vocabulary study with their
colleagues. They explained that vocabulary deficits were not being addressed in
the primary grades, contributing to upper-grade reading failure. The faculty agreed
that a schoolwide effort to strengthen children's vocabulary development was
needed. Figure 11.1 shows an instructional scope and sequence chart that can be
used as a framework for a schoolwide vocabulary development program.
A schoolwide vocabulary development program requires teachers and admin¬
istrators to work together to ensure that children acquire the vocabulary that they
need. Each year, teachers build on the foundation of prior year's instruction. They
 Instructional Scope and Sequence for Implementing the Tools of Success

Conditional knowledge
Procedural knowledge (self-monitoring Declarative knowledge
Grade (clarifying strategies) and self-regulation) (in-depth word knowledge)

Kindergarten Beginning use of Mine Your Memory Answering simple prompts such as Repeated read-aloud of high-
“Do you know that word? and interest stories
“Flow do you know?” Use of new words in classroom
discourse

First grade Beginning use of Mine Your Memory Self-monitoring with Stop Sign Repeated read-aloud of high-
Beginning use of Study the Struc¬ when text is read aloud in large interest stories
ture and Consider the Context groups Use of new words in classroom
discourse
Use of Picture Prediction before
reading

Second grade Use of clarifying strategies based Self-monitoring with Stop Sign Repeated read-aloud of high-
on Clarifying Cue Card for Kids when text is read aloud in large interest stories
groups Use of new words in classroom
discourse
Use of Picture Prediction before
reading

Third grade Use of clarifying strategies based Self-monitoring with Stop Sign Repeated read-aloud of high-
on the Clarifyinq Cue Card for when text is read aloud in large interest stories
Kids groups Use of new words in classroom
Use of Stoplight Vocabulary discourse
Use of Picture Prediction before
reading
Beginning use of graphic organiz¬
ers such as semantic maps for
important vocabulary words

Fourth grade Use of clarifying strategies based Self-monitoring with Stop Sign Read-aloud of books with rich
on the Clarifying Cue Card during independent reading vocabulary
Emphasis on Study the Structure Use of Stoplight Vocabulary Use of new words jn classroom
discourse
Beginning use of Title Prediction
and Sorting
Use of graphic organizers for
important vocabulary words:
Semantic Maps, Feature
Analysis Charts, Word Scales
Use of Mental Imagery

Fifth to eighth Use of clarifying strategies based Seif-monitoring with Stoplight Read-aloud of books with rich
grades on the Clarifying Cue Card Vocabulary vocabulary
Emphasis on Consider the Con¬ Use of the Zone of Comprehen¬ Use of new words in classroom
text, especially Be a Super sion discourse
Sleuth and activities based on Self-regulation (selecting and Use of Title Prediction and Sorting
signal words implementing clarifying strategies Use of graphic organizers for
during independent reading) important vocabulary words:
Use of the Clarifying Strategy Semantic Maps, Feature
Decision Tree Analysis Charts, Word Scales
Use of Mental Imagery
Use of Word Study Journal
Use of Getting Into Words with
Poetry

Figure 11.1. Suggested instructional scope and sequence for implementing the Tools of Success from kindergarten through
eighth grade. (Actual scope and sequence varies based on a teacher’s assessment of the students’ specific needs.)
Vocabulary Across the Curriculum and Throughout the School 173

reinforce the Tools of Success and teach children more words and increasingly
sophisticated methods of word learning. Implementing a schoolwide vocabulary
development program pays off in a variety of ways. Children emerge from passive
dependence on teachers and take responsibility for their own word learning. Their
vocabulary acquisition accelerates as they use clarifying strategies in independent
reading. Over time, a schoolwide vocabulary development program can narrow the
achievement gap, contributing to the success of all children.

FINAL THOUGHTS
Schools demand a great deal from teachers, asking them to nurture, test, teach, and
prepare children for success in a rapidly changing world. The pressure on teach¬
ers grows ever greater as our knowledge base expands. Technology has changed the
way we process information and evolves with lightening speed. The medium of
communication, however, remains the same as it has been throughout the millen¬
nia: We communicate with words. We use words to read, write, listen, and speak
with one another. Words are the vehicle we use to entertain, to inform, and to
express our needs.
Children need to learn a vast number of words and rely on teachers to provide
them with the means to acquire these essential tools of communication. Teaching
children to get into words is much more than teaching test-taking skills. When chil¬
dren get into words, they acquire the building blocks of knowledge, allowing them
to share meaningful ideas. Providing children with rich vocabulary and independ¬
ent word-learning skills prepares them for success in higher education and gives
them the ability to receive and share information in an everchanging world.
§1
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%
 Appendix A

Glossary

affix A word part that is added to the beginning conceptual load The number and complexity
(prefix) or end (suffix) of a base word or root to of the concepts presented in a text. Texts that
create a new word. See also prefix, suffix, present several new concepts with new accom¬
artificially designed text A contrived text panying vocabulary have a higher conceptual
designed to support the acquisition of a specific load than texts that only present one new con¬
strategy or to provide practice of a specific strat¬ cept at a time. Texts that contain many unfamil¬
egy- iar and difficult to decode words also have a
authentic text A text created by an author for high conceptual load.
the purpose of informing, entertaining, persuad¬ cognate A word that has the same linguistic
ing, and so forth. Authentic texts may include root or origin as a target word and that may
trade books, newspapers, primary source docu¬ share some similarities in spelling, pronuncia¬
ments, essays, and informational texts, tion, and meaning with the target word,
basal reader The student book found in a basal comprehension The process of constructing
reading program that includes a teacher's man¬ meaning from text; includes focusing on rele¬
ual, workbooks, and assessments. These pro¬ vant information and integrating it with what
grams are developed around a scope and one already knows. Comprehension is an active
sequence designed to meet state or national process in which readers set purposes for read¬
standards. ing, actively process the text, and apply fix-up
base word A word to which prefixes and/or suf¬ strategies when understanding breaks down,
fixes may be added to create a new word; unlike conditional knowledge Knowledge of when to
roots, base words can stand alone as words use strategies to regulate word learning,
without affixes. considerate text Text that supplies enough
background knowledge Knowledge and expe¬ information to the reader to facilitate compre¬
riences a student has connected to a subject, hension and learning from reading. (Text that is
bound morpheme See morpheme, too considerate presents so much textual guid¬
challenging text Text that is difficult for the ance that the reader does not need to apply
reader to understand because it contains many strategies to determine the meaning of
new vocabulary words, requires specific back¬ unknown words. Overly considerate texts may
ground knowledge, presents unfamiliar con¬ define words in the page margins or through the
cepts or content, and/or has complex sentence use of parentheses and appositives.)
and paragraph structures, context Words, phrases or passages that come
clarify To make clearer by explaining in greater before and after a particular word or passage
detail; clarifying words is the process of deter¬ that help to explain a target word or passage,
mining word meaning though memory, struc¬ contextual support Text written in such a

ture, or context. manner that a reader can use the context to

cloze passage A short text with missing words determine the meaning of unknown words,
(indicated by blanks). Students fill in the blanks controlled vocabulary text Text (often a series
with words that determine the meaning of the of texts) with a limited set of words that are
text. The purpose of using cloze passages is to repeated throughout.
sensitize students to nuances of word meaning cue card A card or a poster with information to
so that they develop control over expressive prompt student use of strategies. A cue card is

vocabulary. more extensive than a flash card.

179
180 Appendix A

declarative knowledge Knowledge of which high frequency When used with reference to
words one need to know, words or roots, denotes those that are most
decoding The process of sounding out a word common in connected text. High-frequency
by translating the graphemes, or letters, into words include if, an, the, for, when, after, is, and
phonemes, or speech sounds. To decode the me. High-frequency roots include tri, graph, and
word man one would say Iml /a/ Ini. Decoding tele.
can also take place using larger linguistic units high utility When used with reference to words
such as syllables. or roots, denotes those that are frequent and
derivational suffix A suffix that changes a useful to know.
word from one part of speech to another. For incidental word learning Word learning that
example, adding -ly to the adjective quick creates takes place during reading without conscious
the adverb quickly. effort, intention, or instruction,
explicit instruction Instruction that is independent word learning Word learning
expressed in a clear and obvious manner, leav¬ that occurs through the use of strategies that a
ing no doubt as to the intended meaning or student can carry out on his or her own, with¬
process to be followed. out outside assistance. Independent word learn¬
expressive vocabulary An individual's speak¬ ing occurs without prompting, guidance, or
ing vocabulary; words used by an individual to assistance from the teacher,
express ideas, thoughts, and feelings, infer To make a conclusion about meaning on
false cognate Words in two languages, such as the basis of information given and reasoning,
Spanish and English, that have similar spelling inflectional suffix A suffix that indicates verb
and pronunciation yet have different meanings. tense, adjective or adverb comparison, or noun
For example asistir and assist are false cognates. plurality or possession (e.g., -ed, -ing, -es, -'s).
Asistir means to attend; assist means to help. The intentional word learning Purposeful word
word in Spanish for to assist is ayudar. learning through the conscious application of
fluency The ability to read accurately with effective strategies, including determining word
appropriate speed and phrasing, knowledge and using reparative strategies until
free morpheme See morpheme, the word meaning is determined,
frustration level The level at which an individual level of word learning One's knowledge of
cannot effectively read or comprehend text. The understanding of words; this level progresses
text may be too difficult due to the number of along a word-learning continuum from no
words that the reader does not recognize, the knowledge, to partial concept and receptive
number of words whose meaning is not known to word knowledge, to full concept and expressive
the reader, or the number of words whose con¬ word knowledge. Also called stage of word
cepts and meanings are not grasped by the reader, learning.
graphic organizer A visual structure for repre¬ leveled text Text, often books, stories, or arti¬
senting the ideas in a text. Frequently used cles, designed to be read by individuals with
graphic organizers include Venn diagrams, specific reading skills and strategies. Leveled
webs, story maps, arrays, and grids, text may include specifically designed text or
graphophonic Pertaining to the knowledge and text that has been determined to be able to be
recognition of letters and their sound-spelling read by individuals with specific reading skills,
relationships. Learners who have graphophonic literacy Ability to read and write,
knowledge can blend sounds represented by let¬ manipulate To move around, change, or
ters into words, can segment separate words exchange.
into their appropriate sounds, and can spell the metacognition Knowledge and self-regulation
target words. of one's own thinking and learning processes
guided practice Part of a lesson in which the that enables a person to regulate deliberate
teacher provides opportunities for students to efforts for effective reading and studying,
apply or practice the material under the monitor Check behaviors and/or understand¬
teacher's supervision. ings during the learning process.
Glossary 181

morpheme The smallest unit of meaning in scaffolding Necessary support for learners pro¬
language; free morphemes (e.g., cat, elephant) vided through materials, instructional model¬
are words and can stand alone; bound mor¬ ing, and practice.
phemes (e.g., inter-, bio, -ing), are affixes or roots self-monitoring Ability to check one's learning
that must be attached to other word parts to or reading, including monitoring of word
form words. knowledge and comprehension during the read¬
morphological support Used to describe a text ing process. Self-monitoring includes being
containing many words whose meanings can be aware of one's own comprehension and aware
constructed through the identification of base of when it breaks down so that one can take
words, roots, and affixes, reparative action. See also self-regulation,
morphology Study of the structure of words, self-regulation Ability to monitor one's learning
including word parts such as compounds, base and to implement the appropriate strategies or
words, roots, and affixes, sequence of strategies to achieve cognitive goals
phoneme A single speech sound (e.g., Iml). or to respond to a breakdown in comprehension.
Some phonemes are represented in writing by Self-monitoring and self-regulation are sequen¬
more than one letter (e.g., the single sound /ch/ tial metacognitive tasks. Lirst the child self-mon¬
is represented by the letters ch). Some itors and determines that there is an unknown
phonemes may be represented in writing sev¬ word in the text. Then the child self-regulates,
eral different ways (e.g., Ikl can be spelled as k, selecting the best strategy or strategies to make
c, ck, or -que). sense of the word and to restore comprehension
prefix An affix that is added before a base word of the text. See also self-monitoring,
or root to create a new word. In English, pre¬ semantic Relating to the meaning of or differ¬
fixes are often of Greek (e.g., chem-, poly-) or ences between meanings of words or phrases,
Latin (e.g., pro-, ex-) origin. See also affix, stage of word learning See level of word learn¬
procedural knowledge Knowledge of how to ing.
use vocabulary acquisition strategies intention¬ strategies When used with reference to read¬
ally during reading. ing, plans, processes, and behaviors that are
proficient reader A reader who is able to read used to achieve effective reading,
and comprehend grade-appropriate text. Profi¬ structural analysis A method for determining
cient readers apply strategies for effective read¬ the meaning and pronunciation of word through
ing and are able to monitor their reading and an examination of the meaning units of the
make changes according to the nature of the text word. Often this process includes looking for
and their purposes for reading, affixes and base words or roots within the target
reading failure Inability to read at a level nec¬ word. Lor example, the word quickly can be bro¬
essary in order to accomplish one's tasks and ken into the base word quick and the suffix -ly.
goals. The term encompasses an inability to struggling reader A reader who is not able to
read anything at all as well as competent decod¬ read and comprehend grade-appropriate text;
ing accompanied by lack of ability to compre¬ usually a struggling reader lacks the strategies
hend what is meant. Reading failure can also for effective reading and is reading at least one
mean inability to read age- or grade-level texts grade level behind his or her peers,
despite ability to comprehend much easier suffix An affix that is added after a base word

texts. or root to create a new word. In English, suf¬

receptive vocabulary An individual's listening fixes are often of Anglo-Saxon (e.g., -dom, -ish,
vocabulary; words that an individual under¬ -ness), Greek (e.g., -logy), or Latin (e.g., -or, -ous,

stands and comprehends, -tion) origin. Sometimes words can have more
root A unit of meaning, usually of Greek or than one suffix (e.g., carelessness, fundamentally).
Latin origin, to which prefixes and/or suffixes See also affix.
are added to create a new word; roots are not synonym A word whose meaning is the same
usually complete words. See also base word; or about the same as the target word in the par¬

bound morpheme. ticular context.

182 Appendix A

syntax The system governing the underlying word-learning continuum A continuum com¬
structure of phrases and sentences, including prising several stages of word knowledge, from
the ordering of and relationship between words not knowing a word, to partial understanding,
and punctuation in phrases and sentences. to complete conceptual understanding.
target word A known or unknown word to be
studied.
vocabulary Words, as single units or in phrases
or sentences, that carry meaning. Writers chose BIBLIOGRAPHY
a particular vocabulary to convey specific mean¬
ings. See also expressive vocabulary; receptive Ganske, K. (2000). Word journeys. New York: The
vocabulary. Guilford Press.
word family Words that share the same base or Henry, M.K. (2003). Unlocking literacy: Efffective
root. For example biology, biodiversity, biologist, decoding and spelling instruction. Baltimore: Paul
biological, and biodegradable share the root bio, H. Brookes Publishing Co.
which means life. The words rerun, runner, and Moats, L.C. (2000). Speech to print: Language essen¬
running share the base word run. tials for teachers. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes
word knowledge One's conceptual understand¬ Publishing Co.
ing of a word. Radniski, T., & Padak, N. (2004). Effective reading
word parts Structural parts of a word, such as strategies (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
base words or roots, affixes, syllables, or chunks Pearson.
of words. Reutzel, R., & Cooter, R. (2003). Strategies for read¬
word structure How word parts are placed ing assessment and instruction (2nd ed.). Upper
together to form a word. Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
 Appendix B

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194
Index

Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables.

Abstract words, 99 Cloze activities

Addition signal words, 311, 56 defined, 179
Affixes, 22-24, 40, 41, 179 Expressive Vocabulary Cloze, 106-107, 112
see also Prefixes; Suffixes Signal Words Cloze, 32, 35, 52, 54, 55
All in the Family exercise, 22, 39 Cognates
Appositives, see Comma clues clues for teachers, 152-153
Artificially designed text, 179 defined, 179
Ask an Expert strategy, 21 false cognates, 180
on Clarifying Cue Card, 37, 38, 156 teaching vignette, 150-152
on Spanish translation of Clarifying Cue Card with see also Catch a Cognate strategy
Catch a Cognate, 157 Cognitive strategies
Atrape un Cognado (Catch a Cognate), 161 influence on reading comprehension, 7
At-risk students, see Disadvantaged students metacognitive skills, 71-72, 180
Attitude Adjustment exercise, 42 see also Clarifying strategies
Authentic text, 179 Comma clues, 30, 35, 50, 58
Comparison signal words, 3It, 32, 53, 57
Comprehensive vocabulary development, 12-14, 13f
Background knowledge Conceptual load
defined, 179 defined, 179
importance of, 30, 117 evaluating in texts, 99, 10If
influence on reading comprehension, 9f, 10 Conditional knowledge
preteaching, 30 as basis for vocabulary instruction, 9, 13f
see also Context defined, 14, 179
Base words, 22, 23, 179 scope and sequence of instruction, 172f
Be a Context Detective exercise, 30, 49 Consider the Context strategy
Be a Root Detective exercise, 28, 47 Be a Context Detective activity, 30, 49
Be a Super Sleuth exercise, 30, 50-51 Be a Super Sleuth activity, 30, 50-51
Blanks, filling in, see Cloze activities in Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree, 94
Books, see Textbooks cue cards, 35, 58
exercises, 49, 50-51
Spanish translation, 159
Calling All Word Detectives activity, 138-142, 143 teaching vignettes, 29-30, 64, 82
Catch a Cognate strategy with young children, 138, 141
clues for teachers, 152-153 see also Signal words
cue cards, 156, 160 Considerate text, 67, 179
described, 149-150 Considere el Contexto (Consider the Context), 159
Spanish translation, 157, 161 Context
teaching vignette, 150-152 Calling All Word Detectives activity, 138-142, 143
worksheet, 162 clues for young children, 138, 141
Cause-and-effect signal words, 3It, 32-33, 55, 57 defined, 179
Challenging text, 67, 179 proximity of clues, 30, 49, 100
Choosing words for teaching, 97-98 usefulness of, 29
Chunking, 145 see also Consider the Context strategy; Signal words
Clarifying Cue Card Contextual support
overview, 19-20 defined, 179
sample card, 38 evaluating in texts, 100, 101 f
teaching vignettes, 62-67, 82, 89-91, 168-169 proximity of clues, 30, 49, 100
Clarifying Cue Card for Kids, 138-142, 143 Controlled vocabulary, 135, 179
Clarifying Cue Card with Catch a Cognate, 156, 157 Cultural issues, 153-155
Spanish translation, 157
Clarifying strategies
with English language learners, 147-148, 149-152 Decision trees, 92-93, 94
instructional framework, 61 Declarative knowledge
scope and sequence of instruction, 15, 16, 172f as basis for vocabulary instruction, 9, 13f
and self-regulation, 89-93 defined, 14, 180
with young children, 138-142 scope and sequence of instruction, 172f
Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree, 92-93, 94 Definition signal words, 3It, 56
196 Index

Definitions High-frequency words

looking up, 10-11, 12 defined, 180
proximity of clues, 30, 49, 100 negative prefixes, 22-24
Derivational suffixes, 180 roots, 27
Dictionaries, use of, 10-11 signal words, 31, 311
Disadvantaged students in textbooks, 99
case examples, 153-155, 165-167 High-utility words
vocabulary deficits of, 8, 133-134 defined, 180
in read-aloud programs, 134
in textbooks, 99
Early intervention, case example, 165-167 Hispanics, see Spanish-speaking children
Elementary grades, see Young children; specific grades
English language learners
instructional needs of, 148-149, 155 Imagery, use of, 8, 105-106
reading comprehension of, 9f, 10 Immigrant children, see English language learners;
teaching vignettes, 145-148 Spanish-speaking children
see also Spanish-speaking children Incidental learning, 8-9, 72, 180
Estudie la Estructura (Study the Structure), 158 Independent learning, 19, 180
Example signal words, 3If, 56 Inflectional suffixes, 180
Explanation clues, 30, 35, 50, 58 Instructional framework
Explicit instruction for clarifying strategies, 13f 61
children's independence and, 19 for comprehensive vocabulary development, 12-14,
defined, 180 13 f
instructional activities, 103-108 foundational beliefs, 8-9
of signal words, 31, 33 Tools of Success, 14-16
time associated with, 98 traditional vocabulary instruction, 10-12, 169
Expressive Vocabulary Cloze activity, 106-107, 112 see also Vocabulary instruction
Intentional learning, 9, 72-73, 180

Feature analysis, 114-116, 125, 126

Feeling clues, 30, 35, 50, 58 Journals, use of
Fifth grade overview, 103, 105
Be a Root Detective activity, 28, 47 student form, 111
instructional strategies, 172f teaching vignette, 104
Picture Prediction Response Chart, 119-122, 121 f transparency master, 110
selecting vocabulary words, 98, 101
semantic feature analysis, 116, 126
teaching vignettes, 16, 80-84, 104, 120-122, 153-154 Kindergarten
First grade instructional strategies, 172f
instructional strategies, 172f teaching vignette, 136
teaching vignette, 137-138 see also Young children
see also Young children
Fluency
defined, 180 Latin roots, 26-27, 43
emphasis on, 73, 135 Latinos, see Spanish-speaking children
Fourth grade Learning
instructional strategies, 172f as continuum, 77-78, 78f, 182
selecting vocabulary words, 98 incidental learning, 8-9, 72, 180
semantic maps, 113-114, 114f independent learning, 19, 180
teaching vignettes, 21-22, 29-30, 33-35, 36 intentional learning, 9, 72-73, 180
word scales, 116, 127 rates of, 7-8, 20, 142
words with negative prefixes, 41 strategies for young children, 135-138
Frequency, see High-frequency words; Word frequency time spent per word, 98
zones of understanding, 77-79, 78f, 85
Leveled text, 180
Garcia Lorca, Federico, poetry of, 153, 154 Linear arrays, 116, 127, 128
Grade-level instructional sequence, 172f Lower grades, see Young children; specific grades
Graphic organizers Low-income students, see Disadvantaged students
defined, 180
Picture Prediction, 117-122, 121f, 129, 130
semantic feature analysis, 114-116, 125, 126 Maps, semantic, 113-114, 114f
semantic maps, 113-114, 114f Memory
Title Prediction and Sorting, 122-124, 123f clues for young children, 141
word scales, 116, 127, 128 memorization of words, 11
Graphophonemic cues, 145-146, 147-148, 180 see also Mine Your Memory strategy
Greek roots, 26-27, 44 Mental imagery, use of, 8, 105-106
Green-light words, 78, 78f Metacognition
Group exercises, 84, 170 defined, 72, 180
Guided practice, 61, 180 reading and, 71-72
Index
197

Mine Your Memory strategy Procedural knowledge

in Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree, 94 as basis for vocabulary instruction, 9, 13f
cue cards, 38, 157 defined, 13, 181
with English language learners, 147-148 scope and sequence of instruction, 172f
overview, 20-21
Spanish translation, 157
Reading
teaching vignettes, 21, 23-24, 64, 82
with young children, 136-137, 141 children's views of, 73
Modeling emphasis on fluency, 73, 135
read-aloud programs, 134-135
research study at elementary school, 168-169
reading failure, defined, 181
Stop Sign activity, 73-76
relationship to vocabulary, 8, 9-10, 9f 166, 170-171
as teaching strategy, 61
self-regulation and, 7
teaching vignettes, 62-67
as series of pictures, 71, 74, 105
Monitoring, see Self-monitoring
speed of, 79
Morphological support
Red-light words, 77, 78f
defined, 181
Regulation, see Self-regulation
evaluating, 100, lOlf
Repeated read-aloud programs, 134-135
Motivating children, 4-5
Research study, at elementary school, 167-170
Romance languages, 149
see also Spanish-speaking children
National Reading Panel report, 8
Root Webs activity, 24-26, 25f 26f
Native language poetry, 153-154
Roots
Negative prefixes
Be a Root Detective exercise, 28, 47
Attitude Adjustment exercise, 24, 42
defined, 181
frequency of, 22
Greek roots, 26-27, 44
teaching vignette, 23-24
high-frequency roots, 27
word lists, 41
Latin roots, 26-27, 43
Neruda, Pablo, poetry of, 154
Non-English speakers, see English language learners;
Spanish-speaking children Scaffolding, 61, 181
Notes, see Place a Post-It strategy Schoolwide programs, 170-171, 172f 173
Second grade
instructional strategies, 172f
Opposition clues teaching vignettes, 97, 140-141
Consider the Context strategy, 35, 58 Self-monitoring
signal words, 3It, 32 defined, 181
Stop for Signal Words activity, 57 grade-level instructional sequence, 172f
in metacognition, 72
as recommended strategy, 8
Phonics instruction, 145-146, 147-148 teaching vignette, 73-76
Picture Prediction activities Self-regulation
with English language learners, 146-147 clarifying strategies for, 89-93
overview, 116-118, 119 defined, 181
in read-aloud programs, 134 grade-level instructional sequence, 172f
sample worksheet, 129 influence on reading comprehension, 7
teaching vignettes, 118-119, 120-122 internalizing, 71
Picture Prediction Response Chart, 121/j 130 in metacognition, 72
Place a Post-It strategy as recommended strategy, 8, 9
in Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree, 94 Semantic feature analysis, 114-116, 125, 126
cue card, 37, 38 Semantic maps, 113-114, 114f
Spanish translation, 157 Sentences, using words in, 11
Poetry see also Substitute a Synonym
native language poetry, 153-154 Sequence signal words, 31-32, 3If, 52, 56
to stimulate imagination, 106 Signal words
teaching vignette, 3-4 cause-and-effect signal words, 3If, 32-33, 55
writing, as instructional method, 107-108 cloze activity, 32, 54
Post-it notes, see Place a Post-It strategy compare-and-contrast words, 3It, 32
Practice, guiding, 61, 180 high-frequency words, 31, 3It
Prediction exercises, see Word prediction sequence signal words, 31-32, 3If, 52, 56
Stop for Signal Words activity, 33-35, 56-57
Prefixes
defined, 181 Sixth grade
negative prefixes, 22, 23-24, 41, 42 root lists, 27
teaching vignettes, 23-24, 89-91, 92-93
prefix chart, 40
words with negative prefixes, 41
in Root Webs activity, 24, 25, 25f
Skipping words, caution against, 37, 72
Prereading activities
Picture Prediction, 117-118, 134, 146-147 Snapshot exercise, 28, 48
providing background knowledge, 30 Socioeconomic factors
influence on reading comprehension, % 10
in read-aloud programs, 134
Primary grades, see Young children; specific grades see also Disadvantaged students
198 Index

Sorting words, 97-98, 122-124, 123f Traffic signs

Spanish-speaking children symbolism of, 71
clarifying strategies, 149-152 see also Stop Sign activity
cognates, 152-153
instructional needs of, 148-149 Venn diagrams, 32, 53
native language poetry, 153-154 Vocabulary instruction
teaching vignettes, 150-152, 153-154 comprehensive vocabulary development approach,
see also English language learners 12-16, 13f
Speed limit, for reading, 79 importance of, 170-171, 173
Stop for Signal Words activity influence on reading, 8, 9-10, 9f 166, 170-171
overview, 33, 35 motivating children, 4-5
teaching vignette, 33-34 schoolwide programs, 170-171, 172/j 173
worksheet, 56-57 teaching vignette, 97
with young children, 140-141 traditional approaches, 10-12
Stop Sign activity, 73-76 see also Instructional framework
Stoplight Vocabulary activity Vocabulary words
blank worksheets, 87, 88 choosing, 97-98
overview, 79-80 evaluating in texts, 99-101, 101, lOlf, 102f 103
sample worksheets, 85, 86 prereading activities, 30, 117-118, 134, 146-147
teaching vignette, 80-84 rate of learning, 7-8, 20, 142
Structural clues, see Study the Structure strategy sorting into tiers, 97-98
Study the Structure strategy time spent per word, 98
affixes, 22-24, 30, 40, 41, 42
All in the Family activity, 22, 39 Word consciousness, development of, 141
Be a Root Detective activity, 28, 47 Word families
on Clarifying Cue Card, 38 All in the Family exercise, 22, 39
in Clarifying Strategy Decision Tree, 94 defined, 182
cue cards, 28-29, 48 Word frequency
Latin and Greek root lists, 26-27, 43, 44 evaluating in texts, 99, 10If
negative prefixes, 22, 23-24, 41, 42 guides, 26
Root Webs activity, 24-26, 25f, 26f see also High-frequency words
Spanish translation, 157, 158 Word knowledge, defined, 77, 182
teaching vignettes, 21-22, 23-24, 104 Word prediction
Word Tree activity, 27-28, 45-46 examples, 116-117, 118-119, 120-121
with young children, 137-138 Picture Prediction, 117-122, 121 f 129
Substitute a Synonym strategy Title Prediction and Sorting, 122-124, 123f
cue card, 38 Word scales, 116, 127, 128
Five Steps worksheet, 59-60 Word scrambles/searches, 11-12
overview, 35-36 Word study journals
Spanish translation, 157 overview, 103, 105
teaching vignettes, 36, 82 student form, 111
Suffixes teaching vignette, 104, 110
defined, 180, 181 transparency master, 110
in Root Webs activity, 25, 25f 26f Word Tree activity, 27-28, 45-46
Symbolism, of traffic signs, 71 Word utility
Synonyms evaluating in texts, 99, 10If
defined, 181 high-utility words, 99, 134, 180
see also Substitute a Synonym strategy Word webs
Root Webs activity, 24-26, 25f 26f
semantic maps, 113-114, 114f
Tarjetas con claves (cue cards], 157, 158, 159, 161 Word-learning continuum, 77-78, 78f, 182
Teaching methods, see Instructional framework; Vocabu¬ Words
lary instruction as units of thought, 72
Television, influence of, 4, 105-106 see also Signal words; Vocabulary words
Textbooks Writing poetry, 107-108
controlled vocabulary in, 135
evaluating vocabulary in, 99-101, 101, lOlt, 102f 103 Yellow-light words, 77, 78f
evaluation form, 109 Young children
problems with, 67 Clarifying Cue Card for Kids, 138-142, 143
types of text, 67, 179, 180 from disadvantaged backgrounds, 133-134
Third grade Picture Prediction activity, 118-119
instructional strategies, 172f repeated read-aloud programs, 134-135
semantic feature analysis, 115-116 teaching vignettes, 136-138, 140-141
teaching vignettes, 12, 62-67, 73-76, 118-119 word-learning strategies, 135-138
Tiers, sorting words into, 97-98
Title Prediction and Sorting, 122-124, 123f Zone of understanding, 77-79, 78f 85
 B ood vocabulary skills are essential to children's literacy
development and help make reading and writing excit¬
3 1143 00741 9550
"Every teacher in elementary
classrooms will find this book essential
for teaching a variety of vocabulary
ing. That's why elementary and middle school teachers strategies leading to improved
need Getting Into Words—to improve students' independent word comprehension. Students will love
the variety of creative activities."
learning skills and strengthen their comprehension so that they'll
—Marcia Henry, Ph.D.,
tackle their schoolwork with confidence. Educators will learn how to author of Unlocking Literacy

teach effective vocabulary acquisition strategies and metacognitive

skills such as self-monitoring and self-regulation, and they'll discover "Chock full of practical, kid-friendly,
easy to use vocabulary strategies. . .
how to select and teach important words that children need to This is a valuable and timely resource
know. Getting into Words will help teachers motivate students with that every teacher will want to own.
It will be referred to and used
a wide range of fun, engaging activities (some with Spanish transla¬
over and over again."
tions) that go beyond traditional methods such as memorizing word —Rhona Wanetick, M.L.S.,
teacher with 17 years
lists. With the photocopiable activity worksheets, students will learn of classroom experience
the following essential skills and others:
• using independent word learning strategies (Clarifying Cue Card) "A practical and comfortable way
• manipulating roots and affixes (Word Trees) to teach essential vocabulary skills. .
a 'must' for every beginning and
• inferring word meaning from context (Consider the Context Cue
seasoned teacher."
Card) —Dennis M. Caldwell,
elementary school administrator,
• monitoring word knowledge (Stoplight Vocabulary Sheets) former West Virginia Reading
• recording word learning (Word Study Journals) Association President

"An excellent combination of

Educators will find strategies for teaching vocabulary to younger
practical teaching experiences and
children and English language learners and helping students current research . . . creative and
implement vocabulary strategies spontaneously during reading. comprehensive. An important
resource for all teachers."
They'll also benefit from vignettes of student-teacher interactions
—Sharolyn D. Pollard-Durodola, Ed.D.,
and guidance on managing a schoolwide vocabulary development Texas A&M University

program. This practical, easy-to-use book—based on the latest-

research on vocabulary acquisition and instruction—really helps "Link(s) the rationale of research
to the needs of students in the
children "get into words" so that they'll be confident, motivated classroom ... I highly recommend
readers prepared to succeed in school. Getting Into Words as an excellent
teaching resource."
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Shira Lubliner, Ed.D., is Assistant Professor, Teacher Education -^Jana Perkins,
Department, California State University, Hayward. ESL teacher in a California
public high school

ISBN l-5S?bb-76T-b
90000
• P A U L • H •
mm
PUBLISHING C9
www.brookespublishing.com 9 781557 667892