ANATOMY

Table of Contents
1. Structure and Function of the Skeleton....................................................................................2
Axial Skeleton.............................................................................................................................3
Appendicular Skeleton.................................................................................................................3
Bone Types..................................................................................................................................3
Structure of the Skeleton.............................................................................................................4
Structure of Bone Tissue and Its Function..................................................................................5
Function of Bone Tissue..............................................................................................................6
2. Structure of Joints and Their Classification.............................................................................7
Structural Classification...............................................................................................................7
Functional Classification.............................................................................................................7
Movements at Joints....................................................................................................................8
3. Gross Structure and Function of the Muscular System............................................................9
Muscle Tissue..............................................................................................................................9
Muscle Structure........................................................................................................................10
Main Functions..........................................................................................................................10
4. Contraction and Relaxation of Muscles According To Sliding Filament Theory..................10
Resting State..............................................................................................................................10
Initiation of Contraction............................................................................................................11
Release of Calcium Ion..............................................................................................................11
Cross-Bridge Formation............................................................................................................11
Power Stroke and Sliding Filaments..........................................................................................11
Relaxation..................................................................................................................................11
5. Muscle Contraction and Moments at Joints...........................................................................11
Agonist and Antagonist Muscles...............................................................................................12
Synergistic Muscles...................................................................................................................12
Isometric and Eccentric Contractions........................................................................................12
Multi-joint Muscles...................................................................................................................12
Joint Stability and Control.........................................................................................................12
6. Action Of Antagonist Muscle Pairs........................................................................................12
Biceps (Agonist)........................................................................................................................12
Triceps (Antagonist)..................................................................................................................13
7. The Action of Joint and Muscles during Complex Activity..................................................13
Walking......................................................................................................................................13
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Lifting........................................................................................................................................13
Throwing....................................................................................................................................14
References......................................................................................................................................15
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1. Structure and Function of the Skeleton

The anatomy of the human skeleton composed of bones, joints, muscles, and other
connective tissues is a masterpiece that supports, protects, enable us to move and store minerals
for human body (Zhang, Liu and Zhang, 2021). It is composed of 206 bones in adults, which can
be broadly categorised into two main types: Axial and Appendicular skeleton.

Figure 1: Structure of Skeleton(Zhang, Liu and Zhang, 2021)

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Axial Skeleton

Skull: The skull is made up of 22 bones, including the cranial bones that protect the brain and
facial bones that form the structure of the face (Hood et al., 2019)

Vertebral Column: The vertebral column, also known as the spine or backbone, is composed of
33 vertebrae (24 presacral vertebrae and 9 fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx). It provides
support for the body and protects the spinal cord.

Rib Cage: The rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum (breastbone). It protects the
vital organs of the thoracic cavity, such as the heart and lungs

Appendicular Skeleton

 Upper Limbs: The functioning of the hands is depended upon each bone of the upper limb.
The humerus is obstructed by the radius and ulna at its wrist part with carpals, the
metacarpals and ultimately the phalanges in the palm part (Mahdy, 2019).
 Lower Limbs: Two limbs heading downwards i.e., femur, tibia and fibula (leg bones),
tarsals (ankle bones), metatarsals (foot bone) and lastly little phalanges (toe bones) compose
the skeletal system to form a complete human being.
 Pelvic Girdle: The pelvic girdle represented by the hip bones consists of ilium, ischium, and
pubis. These bones not only serve for the attachment of the lower extremities but also serve
as an anchor for the axial skeleton.

Bone Types

 Long Bones: These bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft with heads at both
ends. Examples include the femur, humerus, and phalanges. Long bones provide support,
leverage, and mobility.
 Short Bones: Short bones are roughly equal in length and width and primarily provide
support and stability with limited movement. Examples include the carpals (wrist bones) and
tarsals (ankle bones) (Mukund and Subramaniam, 2020a).
 Flat Bones: These bones are thin, flattened, and often curved, providing protection and a
broad surface for muscle attachment. Examples include the skull bones, ribs, and scapulae.
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 Irregular Bones: Irregular bones have complex shapes that don't fit into the other categories.
They often fulfill specific functions, such as providing protection or serving as attachment
points for muscles. Examples include the vertebrae and facial bones.
 Sesamoid Bones: These are small, round bones embedded within tendons, primarily around
joints. The patella (kneecap) is the largest sesamoid bone in the body.

Structure of the Skeleton

The structure of the skeleton is intricately related to its functions, as each component of
the skeleton is specialised to perform specific roles necessary for the bodies overall health and
functionality (Zhang, Liu and Zhang, 2021).

 Support and Framework: The structural skeleton serves as a framework that keeps the
body upright against gravity, thus enabling it to stay in its form and posture.
 Protection: A lot of bones in the skeleton are loaded with a protective function, which
means they survive dangerous things towards the vitally important inner organs. Take, for
example, the skull, which guards the brain; rib cage, guarding the heart and lungs; or
vertebral column, a shield for the spinal cord.
 Movement: Bones, also coupled with muscles, joints, and ligaments, serve as the
supporting structures that enable movement (Mahdy, 2019). Human bones, muscles,
joints, tendons, and ligaments provide the framework that enables movement in human
bodies.
 Mineral Storage: Bones are calcareous systems and thus act as depositories for minerals,
mainly calcium and phosphorus, useful for movement of different organs such as
muscles, nerves, and blood.
 Blood Cell Production: Red bone marrow cells, which are located in the socket of
certain bones, especially the elongated bones and flat bones, are the sites of
hematopoiesis, or the production of cells that make red blood cells (erythrocytes), white
blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes) (Mukund and Subramaniam,
2020a). This feature is crucial in ensuring that there is a strong immune system and the
efficient carrying of oxygen.
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 Leverage and Mechanical Advantage: Bones are responsible for mechanical strength
so their formation leads to some mechanical advantages during the movement. To
illustrate, the long bones of the limbs act like a lever whose ends it also holds in its hands.

Structure of Bone Tissue and Its Function

The bone tissues not only cushion the impact of the body when it is in motion but also
support the functions of different organs (Perić Kačarević et al., 2020). While its structure does
not come everywhere, it is, surely, composed of several key parts, all of them bring together
proper functioning.

Bone Cells

 Osteoblasts: They are bone producing cells and they are responsible for the synthesis and
deposition of the organic matrix of bone tissue and collagen is the main component (Ansari,
2019).
 Osteocytes: Osteocytes are mature bone tissues which are responsible for the maintenance of
bone tissue and regulating the concentration of minerals in body and also activate bone
remodeling.
 Osteoclasts: The osteoclasts are the important cells that are involved in maintaining the
dynamic equilibrium, which is known as the bone remodeling and mineral metabolism.

Extracellular Matrix
 Organic Matrix: The organic matrix of bone tissue consists primarily of collagen fibers,
primarily type I collagen, which provides flexibility and tensile strength to bone tissue. This
collagen matrix gives bone its characteristic toughness and resilience (de Buffrénil and
Quilhac, 2021).
 Inorganic Matrix (Mineral Phase): The inorganic matrix of bone tissue is predominantly
composed of hydroxyapatite crystals, which are calcium phosphate mineral salts. These
crystals provide bone tissue with hardness and compressive strength, making bones rigid and
able to withstand mechanical stress.
Bone Structure:
 Compact Bone: Also known as cortical bone, compact bone forms the hard, dense outer
layer of bones (Zhu et al., 2021). It provides strength, support, and protection to the
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underlying bone tissue and contains tightly packed osteons (or Haversian systems), which
are cylindrical structures composed of concentric layers of mineralised matrix surrounding a
central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.
 Spongy Bone: Also called cancellous or trabecular bone, spongy bone forms the inner, less
dense portion of bones. It consists of a network of trabeculae, which are interconnected bony
struts that provide structural support while reducing the weight of bones (Mahdy, 2019).

Figure 2: Types of Bones (de Buffrénil and Quilhac, 2021)

Function of Bone Tissue

• Support and Protection: The construction of the bone meshes provides the body with
height, magical protection and at the same time with accurate body automation.
• Mineral Storage: Bone tissue supplies certain elements, including Ca2+ and PO43-, which
play backbone roles in diverse physiological mechanisms that include skeletal muscle
contraction, nerve transmission, and blood clotting (Leppik et al., 2020).
• Blood Cell Production: A specialised procedure carried out in determined bones called bone
marrow is the primary place where red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are
formed.
• Mechanical Function: The organisation of bone tissue is intended to serve for the best
possible resistance to the mechanical stresses and strains that are going on during daily
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activities. The distinguishing feature is the substance of the material and its structural
arrangement (Kołodziejska, Stępień and Kolmas, 2021).

2. Structure of Joints and Their Classification

Joints can be divided into groups related to the anatomy of the part of the skeleton and joints’
activity.

Structural Classification

Joints are classified into three main types based on their structure:
 Fibrous Joints: These are the immovable hinges of the body which play their part by
allowing very less the motion of the surrounding tissues (Ren et al., 2024). Examples
include: Sutures on the skull.
 Cartilaginous Joints: The joints that consist of the cartilage at the end of the bones is called
such, and the movement depend on it.
 Synovial Joints: These are usually referred to be joints that are the most fundamental and
structurally the most elaborated ones in humans.
 Ball-and-Socket Joint: Examples include the hip and shoulder joints, which allow for
movement in multiple directions (Caetano, Brémond and Schwartz, 2019).
 Hinge Joint: Like the elbow and knee joints, these allow movement in only one plane, like a
door hinge.
 Pivot Joint: Found between the atlas and axis vertebrae in the neck, these joints allow
rotation.
 Gliding Joint: Found between the carpals in the wrist and between the tarsals in the ankle,
allowing for sliding or gliding movements (Bourne, Sinkler and Murphy, 2018).
 Saddle Joint: The joint at the base of the thumb is an example, allowing for movement in
two directions (Kołodziejska, Stępień and Kolmas, 2021).
 Condyloid Joint: These joints, like the metacarpophalangeal joints in the fingers, permit
movement in two planes.

Functional Classification

Joints can also be classified based on their degree of movement, or function:

 Synarthroses: Immovable joints, such as sutures in the skull.
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 Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable joints, like the pubic symphysis.

 Diarthroses: Freely movable joints, such as the knee and shoulder joints.

Figure 3: Types of Joints (Juneja, Munjal and Hubbard, 2018)

Movements at Joints

Here are some common types of joint movements with named examples:

1. Flexion and Extension

 Flexion: This movement decreases the angle between two bones or brings them closer
together. Example: Bending the elbow to bring the forearm towards the upper arm (Juneja,
Munjal and Hubbard, 2018).
 Extension: This movement increases the angle between two bones or straightens them.
Example: Straightening the elbow from a bent position.
2. Abduction and Adduction
 Abduction: This movement involves moving a body part away from the midline of the body
or a limb. Example: Raising the arm sideways away from the body.
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 Adduction: This movement involves bringing a body part back towards the midline or the
limb towards the body (Corcoran and Varacallo, 2022). Example: Lowering the raised arm
back towards the side of the body.
3. Rotation
 Medial Rotation: This movement involves rotating a bone towards the midline of the body.
Example: Rotating the arm inward so that the palm faces backward.
 Lateral Rotation: This movement involves rotating a bone away from the midline of the
body. Example: Rotating the arm outward so that the palm faces forward.
4. Circumduction
 This movement involves a circular motion at the joint, combining flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction. Example: Circumduction of the shoulder joint, as in a pitcher winding up to
throw a ball.
5. Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
 Dorsiflexion: This movement involves bringing the top of the foot closer to the shin. Example:
Lifting the foot towards the shin when taking a step (Juneja and Hubbard, 2018).
 Plantarflexion: This movement involves pointing the foot downward away from the shin.
Example: Standing on tiptoe.
6. Eversion and Inversion
 Eversion: This movement involves turning the sole of the foot outward. Example: Turning the
sole of the foot away from the midline.
 Inversion: This movement involves turning the sole of the foot inward. Example: Turning the
sole of the foot towards the midline (Bourne, Sinkler and Murphy, 2018).

3. Gross Structure and Function of the Muscular System

The muscular system is composed of tissues that have the specialised ability to contract,
generating force and producing movement. Below is the gross structure and main functions:

Muscle Tissue

 The muscular system is primarily composed of three types of muscle tissue:

 Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones by tendons, skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary
movement, such as walking, running, and lifting weights (VanPutte, Regan and Russo, 2022).
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 Smooth Muscle: Found in the walls of internal organs, blood vessels, and the respiratory
system, smooth muscles perform involuntary movements, such as peristalsis in the digestive
tract and regulating blood flow.
 Cardiac Muscle: Found exclusively in the heart, cardiac muscle generates the force needed to
pump blood throughout the body. It has properties of both skeletal and smooth muscles.

Muscle Structure

 Muscles are composed of bundles of muscle fibers, which are long, cylindrical cells containing
multiple nuclei (D’Altri et al., 2020).
 Muscle fibers are organised into fascicles, which are surrounded by connective tissue called
perimysium.
 The entire muscle is surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called epimysium.
 Tendons are dense connective tissue structures that attach muscles to bones, allowing for the
transmission of force and movement.

Main Functions

 Movement: The number one function of the muscular system is to move the body parts.
 Posture and Stability: Muscles help the skeletal system stay supported, which keeps
humans from being out of balance (Baratz et al., 2019).
 Heat Production: Heat is also being created as a result of muscle fibers contraction, which
is a crucial event in maintaining the body temperature.
 Protection and Support: These superbly built muscles are not only for protection but they
also protect the internal organs and structures of the body (D’Altri et al., 2020).
 Control of Body Openings: Smooth muscles control the size of body openings such as the
pupils of the eyes, the diameter of blood vessels, and the airways in the respiratory system,
allowing for regulation of various physiological processes.

4. Contraction and Relaxation of Muscles According To Sliding Filament Theory

This theory describes the interaction between the actin and myosin filaments within the
muscle fibers. It includes the following steps:
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Resting State

In a relaxed muscle, the actin and myosin filaments overlap but do not interact significantly.
Calcium ions (Ca2+) are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialised structure within
muscle fibers (Wang, Chitano and Seow, 2021).

Initiation of Contraction

When a nerve impulse reaches the neuromuscular junction (where the nerve connects to the
muscle fiber), it triggers the release of acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft. ACh binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane, causing depolarisation and the
generation of an action potential.

Release of Calcium Ion

The action potential stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions (Ca2+)
into the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of the muscle fiber) (Gash et al., 2023). Calcium ions bind to
troponin, a regulatory protein associated with the actin filaments.

Cross-Bridge Formation

Calcium binding to troponin causes a conformational change in the troponin-tropomyosin

complex, exposing binding sites on the actin filaments. Myosin heads (cross-bridges) of the
myosin filaments bind to these exposed binding sites on the actin filaments, forming cross-
bridges.

Power Stroke and Sliding Filaments

Once cross-bridges are formed, myosin heads undergo a conformational change, known as
the power stroke, which pulls the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere (the basic
contractile unit of muscle) (Jalali et al., 2023). This movement of actin filaments past the myosin
filaments results in the shortening of the sarcomere and, consequently, the muscle fiber as a
whole.

Relaxation

When the nerve impulse ceases and calcium ions are actively pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, the binding sites on actin are covered by tropomyosin again, blocking
myosin binding.
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5. Muscle Contraction and Moments at Joints

Muscle contraction plays a very important role in controlled movements of joints by pulling
on bones and providing movements. Following are the examples with names:

Agonist and Antagonist Muscles

Muscles typically work in pairs, with one muscle (the agonist) causing the movement by
contracting, while the other muscle (the antagonist) relaxes to allow the movement to occur
smoothly (Gurchiek et al., 2021).
Example: Biceps and Triceps in the arm.

Synergistic Muscles

 Synergistic muscles assist the agonist muscle in producing a movement by stabilising the joint or
providing additional force (Farris, Birch and Kelly, 2020).
Example: Quadriceps and Hamstrings in the leg.

Isometric and Eccentric Contractions

 Isometric contractions occur when the muscle generates tension without changing its length.
Example: Core muscles during a plank exercise.
 Eccentric contractions occur when the muscle lengthens while under tension (Khandha et al.,
2019).
Example: Lowering a weight during a bicep curl.

Multi-joint Muscles

 Some muscles span multiple joints and can produce movement at more than one joint
simultaneously.
Example: Deltoid muscle in the shoulder.

Joint Stability and Control

 Muscles not only generate movement but also provide stability and control at joints to prevent
injury and maintain proper alignment(VanPutte, Regan and Russo, 2022).
Example: Rotator cuff muscles in the shoulder.
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6. Action Of Antagonist Muscle Pairs

Biceps (Agonist)

 When individual perform a bicep curl, the biceps brachii muscle contracts concentrically.
 The biceps shorten, pulling the forearm towards the upper arm (Latash, 2023).
 This action is responsible for elbow flexion, allowing you to lift the weight towards your
shoulder.

Triceps (Antagonist)

 Simultaneously, the triceps brachii muscle relaxes to allow the biceps to contract effectively.
 The triceps lengthen (undergo eccentric contraction) as the elbow flexes during the curl
(Kołodziejska, Stępień and Kolmas, 2021).
 While the biceps contract to lift the weight, the triceps act as the antagonist, opposing the
movement and allowing controlled descent of the weight. In easier terms, when one muscle
relaxes, the other contracts bringing about muscle movements

Figure 4: Action of Antagonist Muscle Pairs

7. The Action of Joint and Muscles during Complex Activity

Here is how muscles and joints together are responsible for carrying out complex everyday
activity

Walking

 Preparation: Muscles stabilise and support.

 Swing Phase: Hip flexors lift the leg, calf muscles push off (Mahdy, 2019).
 Stance Phase: Muscles control descent, calf muscles help push off.
 Propulsion: Glutes, hamstrings, and calf muscles propel forward.
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Lifting

 Setup: Core muscles stabilise.

 Lifting: Quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, or deltoids, trapezius, triceps lift.
 Stabilisation: Core muscles maintain spine stability (Mukund and Subramaniam, 2020b).

Throwing

 Preparation: Muscles stabilise and generate power.

 Cocking Phase: Deltoid, rotator cuff muscles prepare.
 Acceleration: Pectoralis major, deltoid, triceps, and biceps accelerate.
 Release and Follow-Through: Triceps, deltoid, and brachialis complete the motion.
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