1.

Affixation
Affixation is a process that involves affixes. An affix is a bound morpheme which cannot
function on its own unless attached to an independent morpheme (a base/root word). Affixation
therefore is a process of addition of a letter/group of letters (an affix) with a particular meaning
to the beginning or end of a word to make a new word.
Types of Affixes
There are four types of affixes – prefix, infix, suffix, and circumfix. All of them are derivational
affixes.
a. Prefixation is the process of adding a bound morpheme to the beginning or initial part of
a free morpheme. There are many types of prefix e.g. e-book, e-document, e-mail.
i. Negative Prefix: This includes un-, non-, dis-, a-, il- etc.
ii. Reversative Prefixes: These indicate the reverse of an action and they include de- as
in decode, defrost; un- as in untie, dis- as in disable etc.
iii. Pejorative prefix: This indicates something done wrongly e.g. mis- as in
misinterpret, pseudo- as in pseudo-intellectual, mal- as in maladjustment.
iv. Degree Prefix: This indicates size or degree from narrowest to the widest and from
lowest to the highest e.g. ach-, over-, ultra-, super-, hyper-, under-, mini-, sub- etc.
v. Prefixes of attitude to issues e.g. anti-, pro-, counter-, co-.
vi. Prefixes of location: These indicate location within or without e.g. sub-, under-,
trans-, inter-, intra-.
vii. Prefixes of time or order indicate time and order such as before, after, former, pre-,
post-, ex- etc.
viii. Number Prefixes e.g. mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly(polyglot) – used in describing
certain phenomenon.
ix. Conversion Prefixes change the word class of the word to which they are added e.g.
en- + danger yeilds endanger, en- + slave gives enslave.

b. Infixes: An infix is an affix that is attached inside its base. Infixes are rare in English
language but there are some examples found in the plural forms of some words e.g.
cupful – cupsful, spoonful – spoonsful, passerby – passersby. The “s” is an infix.

c. Circumfixes consist of a prefix and a suffix that together produce a derived or inflected
form. Circumfixes are rare in English e.g. en- and -en as in en-light-en, em-bold-en.

d. Suffixation: this is the process of adding a bound morpheme to the base of a word at end.
Some suffixes change the word class of the root of the word to which they are added,
while the others do not.
 Gang+-ster = gangster N to N
Act+-or = actor V to N
Kitchen+-ette = Kitchenette N to N
Strenght=-en = Strenghten V to V

2. COMPOUNDING

This is the process of creating compound lexemes or process when two or more free morphemes
are joined together to create a new word. It is based on combining lexical elements/words/stems.
Most compound nouns are formed by nouns modified by other nouns.
Compound lexemes can be written
i. Hyphenated e.g. rattle-snake
ii. Solid (one word) e.g. headache, earthquake
iii. Separate (two words) sightseeing, back formation.

3. BACK FORMATION
This is a process of forming new words by removing actual or supposed affixes from another
word. It is a shortened word e.g. edit created from a longer word editor. Back formation is coined
by James Murray in 1889. It is the opposite of derivation. It can be viewed as a subtype of
clipping e.gs. include
Babysitter – babysit
Donation – donate
Moonlighter – moonlight; someone who holds a second job (usually after hours)
Gambler – gamble
Backformation may change the words class or meaning.

4. CLIPPING
This is a process of shortening or reducing a word without changing the meaning of the word e.g.
ad, gator, exam, gym, flu, lab, math, sitcom. Clipping can occur at the initial part of a word,
middle or at the end.
e.g. initial - (alli) gator
middle – (in) flu (enza)
end – gas (oline).
 5. BLENDING
A process whereby parts of two or more words are combined to create a new word whose
meaning is often a combination of the original words e.g.
Advertisement + entertainment = advertainment
Breakfast + lunch = brunch
Motor + hotel = motel
Telephone + marathon = telethon
Cybernetic + organism = cyborg

6. REDUPLICATION
Is a process whereby the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is
duplicated exactly or with a slight change e.gs.
Hanky-panky
Razzle-dazzle
Willy-nilly
Boogie-woogie
Goody-goody

7. ABBREVIATION
This is a process of forming a new word by shortening the word or phrase. Initalism is a type of
abbreviation formed from the initial letters of a word or phrase. This type of word formation is a
carry-over into spoken language. E.g.
Written abbreviation – dec, dept, Dr., Mrs., Jnr, days of the week etc.
Spoken abbreviation – A.M, HIV, VIP.
Abbreviation is related to clipping and blending.

8. ACRONYMS
This is an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word.
NESA, ASAP, SAP, NAFDAC
There are two types
 i. Those pronounced as sequences of letters are referred to as alphabetisms e.g. EU
(European Union), OAU, NFL (National Football League). They are usually shown in
capital letters, without space or periods between them.
ii. Those that are pronounced as words e.g. PIN, AIDS etc.

9. EPONYMS
This involves the formation of a new word from the name of a real or fictitious person e.g.
Boycott – Charles C. Boycott
Cardigan – James Thomas Brundel (The 7th Earl of Cardigan)
Jacuzzi – Candido Jacuzzi
Malapropism – Mrs. Malaprop
Mesmerize – Franz Anton Mesmer
Nocotine – Jean Nicot
Pasteurization – Louis Pasteur
Sadistic – Marquis de Sade
Volcano – Vulcan
There are historical, geographical, literary, mythological and scientific eponyms.

10. COINAGES
These are words created either deliberately or accidentally without using other words. i.e. formed
from nothing e.g. nylon, zipper, girldom, astronautees, marketeer, bejeaned, retribalize,
circumstellar etc. Sometimes, coinages start as brand names for everyday items. They are often
referred to as neologism.

11. NONCE
These are new expressions formed through any number of word formation processes with the
resulting word meeting a lexical need that is not expected to happen again. These are words
created to fit into a particular single occasion e.g.
Stand-off-ish; Touch-me-not-ishness; Devil-may-care attitude
 12. BORROWING
This is a process whereby languages borrow from each other. Any language that is not into
borrowing becomes dead. English language borrowed a lot of words from other languages e.g.
Kindergarten – German
Alcohol – Arabic
Zebra – Russian
Yatch – Dutch
Magic – Persia etc.