THE INTRODUCTION AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM IN HALABA ZONE

FROM 17th Century TO 2000

MA THESIS

TARIKU BEDORE

APRIL, 2023
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA
The Introduction and Expansion of Islam in Halaba Zone from 17th century to
2000

A Thesis Submitted to the School of History and Heritage Management,

Postgraduate Program Directorate

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in

History

MA Thesis

By
Tariku Bedore Amado

April, 2023
Haramaya University, Haramaya
 HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE

I hereby certify that I have read and evaluated the Thesis entitled “The introduction and expansion
Islam in Halaba Zone from 17th century to 2000. Prepared under my guidance by Tariku Bedore
Amado. It is recommended that it be submitted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.
1. _____________________ _______________ _______________
Major Advisor Signature Date
2. _____________________ _______________ _______________
Co-Advisor Signature Date
As a member of the Board members of the Final M.A thesis Open Defense Examination, I certify
that I have read and evaluated this thesis prepared by Tariku Bedore, and examined the candidate. I
recommended that this be accepted as fulfilling thesis requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
in History and Heritage Management.

1. _____________________ _______________ _______________

Name of Chairman Signature Date
2. _____________________ _______________ _______________
Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date
3. _____________________ _______________ _______________
Name of External Examiner Signature Date
Final approval and acceptance of the Thesis are contingent upon the submission of the final copy of
the thesis to the Council of the Post Graduate Program (CPGP) through the Department Graduate
Committee (DGC) of the candidate's major department.

ii
 STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

First, I declare that this thesis is my work and that all sources of material used for the thesis have
been acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for an
MA Degree at Haramaya University and it is deposited at the University library to be made available
to borrowers under the rules of Haramaya University. This thesis is my work I have followed
technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis, and compilation
of this work. Any scholarly matter that is included in the thesis has been given recognition through
citation.

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Art in
History and Heritage Management at Haramaya University. I also declare that this thesis has not
been submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma, or
certificate.

A thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate and complete
acknowledgment of the source is made. Permission for extended quotations from or reproduction of
this thesis in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the school when, in his or her judgment,
the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship. In all other instances, however,
permission must be obtained from the author of the thesis.

Name: _____________________

Date: _____________________

School: ____________________

Signature: ____________________

iii
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The researcher Tariku Bedore was born on May 18, 1987 in Mirab Bedawacho Woreda in Hadiya
Zone in Southern Ethiopia from his father Bedore Amado Dintamo and his mother Goro Ugicha. He
attended primary education in Weraboya Kebele and his Secondary and preparatory School at
Durame in Kambata Tambaro Zone. He joined Arba Minch University in 2004 EC and graduated
with a BA degree in History and Heritage Management in 2006. Then after four years of his
graduation, he joined Woliyta Sodo University to study for Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching
(PGDT) and graduated in 2008.

He was employed in 2007, EC before he studied PGDT at Woliyta Sodo University. He was
employed as a Civic and Ethical Education teacher for the first time at Koto High School in 2007.
He was assigned to Denama General Secondary and Preparatory Schools in Mirab Bedawacho in
Southern Ethiopia in Hadiya Zone. Then he taught for 4 years at Denama High School, and later he
joined Haramaya University in 2011 EC for MA program in History and Heritage Management, with
the sponsorship of Mirab Bedawacho, Woreda Educational Office.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I gratefully acknowledge the Mirab Bedawacho Woreda Education Office next to God
for sponsoring me to attend my MA program at Haramaya University. This thesis would not be in its
current form and quality without the support of my major advisor, Dr. Temam Haji Adem. His
unfailing support and encouragement, starting from its initial stage to the final steps of my study,
deserves special thanks. Furthermore, his advice and good knowledge on Islam have been vital to
this thesis.

My co-adviser, Dr. Mohammed Hassen has also been invaluable on both an academic and personal
level, and I give great thanks to him. I would like to express my gratitude to all my informants for
taking the time to communicate with me during data collection and my fieldwork. I must not forget
the role of my family, relatives, and friends who have provided me with the necessary financial and
moral support. Among these, my deepest gratitude goes to my mother, Goro Ugicha, for her parental
encouragement of my mother. I am also want to give special thanks to the rest of my relatives,
especially my elder brother Markos Bedore, for his material and moral support beginning from his
undergraduate training at Arba Minch University to this moment. Everything I have achieved and
everything I, am today would not have been possible without the sacrifices they have made for me.

My heartfelt thanks also goes to some of my close friends and colleagues, particularly Amrhula,
Teleha, Mohammed, Ashenafi Nuriye, Solomon Tekele and Mohmmed Nur-Leramo, for their
sympathetic, intellectual and moral support during the data collection and during the work of this
thesis. Finally, yet importantly, I also thank my field assistants, particularly Amrula Teleha, for his
invaluable support during the fieldwork.

v
 KEY TO TRANSLITERATION SYSTEMS

I .The seven sounds of the Ethiopia alphabet are represented as follows:

1st order-----በ-------------Bä

2nd order-----ቡ -----------Bu

3rd order-----ቢ---------- Bi

4th order-----ባ------------Ba

5th order-----ቤ------------Bé

6th order-----ብ------------Be

7th order-----ቦ------------Bo

II. Palatalized sounds are represented as follows.

ሸ = ša

ቸ = ča

ኘ = ňa

ጀ = Jä

III.Glottalized sounds are represented as follows

ቀ = qä ጨ = cä

ጠ = Tä ጰ = Pä

IV.For words having the sound of the sixth alphabet at the end,

Hagär (country)

Mämher (teacher)

vi
 PREFACE

This study is conducted in Halaba Zone in the Southern Nations Nationalities Peoples Regional State
(SNNPRS) in Ethiopia. This is a historical research titled “The Introduction and Expansion of Islam
in Halaba Zone from 17thcentaury to 2000”. Islam has been playing significant role for the socio-
economic and political development of the country. Historical writing on the social and religious
history of different areas in Ethiopia is not studied in detail. Among these areas, one is the former
Muslim states of Halaba which was located in the Southern Nations and Nationalities. However,
insufficient scholarly works have so far been produced and disclosed the role of Islam legacy and the
Muslim of our country. Thus the primary purpose of the study is to investigate a history of Islam in
Halaba Zone. To achieve this goal the necessary data were generated from both primary and
secondary sources: both published and unpublished material such as books, journals proceedings
MA thesis, PhD dissertation and reports have been carefully examined and interpreted in logical
manner. In order to produce this thesis I consulted many collected archival materials from different
mosques, Islamic education centers and from many historical Islamic Shrines centers which are
found in the Halaba Zone such as Sheikh Abeinas, Abicho Nura-alah and the Aljebarti Archival
center in Halaba Kulito town and the public library of Halaba people. However, the major source
material for the history of Islam in the Halaba Zone is the oral tradition collected from local elders of
the Halaba people particularly Sheikhs.

To understand the society discussion were made on better changes, traditional religion and cultural
activities of the people before the introduction and expansion of Islam in the area. Methodologically,
ok analysis and interpretation of sources, the study attempted to reconstruct the history of Islam in
the Halaba Zone. This research is organized in to five chapters. The first chapter discusses about the
general background of the study area. The second chapter is deals with the introductions and
expansions of Islam in Halaba Zone and the role of the different Muslim Sheikhs in the introduction
and expansion of Islam among the Halaba people. Chapter three is devoted to the Socio-cultural and
economic features of the Halaba people. Chapter four of this thesis deals with the Halaba people and
their relations with other Muslims, and with the Christians and their neighboring‟s, ethnic, groups
and their interactions in Southern Ethiopia. Chapter five is the final chapter of this thesis which deals
with the position of Islam from the reign of Menelik to the period of the Derg government.

vii
 GLOSSARY

Abegaz: The traditional title given by Halaba people to those who have oratory skills.
Awuraja: The Administrative division below the province.
Balabbats: Ruler selected from locals to communicate with the government.
Berbere Red pepper that produced by Halaba people.
Ato: A civil title given to ordinary people equivalent to Mr. in English.
Boki-Murichu : The head of a particular clan at a village level in Halaba.
Chat : An addictive stimulant plant grown mostly in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Dajjazmach: High-level military rank of Ethiopian imperial regimes.
Da’wa: It means preacher (of Islam).
Dirree: Plateau, village (in Afan Oromo Language).
Ethiopia Tikdem: The slogan by the Derg to mean Ethiopia First.
Fandanano : The traditional religion of the Hadiya People.
Fitawrari : A Commander of the vanguard or a Military title below Dajjazmach.
Garad : Traditional title given among the Halaba people to the leaders based
on his socio-political competence.
Gelgela-Gobana: The 15th day night in which the full moon appear.
Giste Fato: Halaba Women prayer for the good development of society on Sunday.
Gogot : The Islamic solidarity established by Halaba, Silte, and others. .
Kebele : Lowest administrative units in a given woreda.
Mangesa : The beginning of the Halaba New Year in January.
Margiba : Thursday prayer once in a week at the Shrine site of Nura-alah Ahmed.
Melkegna : The local administrator during the period of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Mini-Murichu : The head of the family council in the Halaba community.
Naftegna : Solders sufferers who bear gun.
Ogate: The general assembly of the Halaba people.
Ogate Halla : The shade of the great tree under which the Halaba community assembled.

viii
Serra: The Holiday of Halaba people during new year.
Tekelay Gizat : Governorate General.
Ulla Halaba : The land that the Halaba people live on today.
Womma : The traditional title is given to the king of the Halaba community.
Woreda: The Administrative unit below the Awraja.
Yaka : The Youth dancing in Halaba community.

ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABRAVATION

EOC The Ethiopian orthodox church

EPRDF Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
K.A.T Kambata, Alaba and Tembaro
IES Institute of the Ethiopian Studies
PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council
SIM Sudan Interior missionary

SNNPRS Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State

x
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR iii

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

KEY TO TRANSLITERATION SYSTEMS vi

PREFACE vii

GLOSSARY viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABRAVATION x

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

LIST OF FIGURES xv

ABSTRACT xvi

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. General Background of the Study Area 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem 2

1.3. Objectives of the Study 3

1.3.1 General Objective 3
1.3.2. The Specific objectives 3

xi
1.4. Research Questions 3

1. 5. Scope of the study 4

1. 6. Significance of the Study 4

1.7. Limitations of the Study 4

1.8. Research Methodology and Design 5

1.8.1. Research Design 5
1.8.2. Research Methodology 6

1.9. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation 6

CHAPTER TWO 8

2. THE INTRODUCTION AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM IN HALABA 8

2.1. Geographical and Historical Background of the Study Area 8

2.2. The Origin of Halaba People and their Movement from Harar and other parts of Ethiopia to
the Present Settlement of Ulla Halaba 13

2.3. The Traditional Religion of Halaba 17

2.4. Re-Introduction of Islam and its Consolidation in Halaba 21

2.4.1. King Aliko of Halaba and the the Role of Merchants in the Consolidation of Islam in middle
of 17th century 24

2.4.2. Halaba Relations with Jimma traders and others and their Contribution to the Expansion of
Islam 27

2.4.3.The Role of Sheikh Wolle and Sheikh Abeinas in the Expansion of Islam in the 19th c 29
2.4.4. The Contribution of Islamic Shrines in Halaba in the Revival of Islam in 19th century 31
2.4. 5. The Role of Dirre Sheikh Hussein for the Consolidation of Islam in Halaba 32

2.4.6.The Shrine of Abicho Nura-alah Ahmed in Halaba and its Contribution to the Islam
Expansion 34

2.4.7. Indigenous Islamic Education Centers in Halaba 36

xii
2.4.8. Muslims Culture in Halaba Society 39

CHAPTER THREE 41

3. SOCIO - ECONOMIC AND THE CULTURAL FEATURES OF THE

HALABA PEOPLE 41

3.1.Traditional Administration System of Halaba people and its Institution 41

3.1.1.Holiyday, Funeral and Marriage practices in Halaba 45
3.1.2.The Halaba Seera Holiy-day and its Celebrations 45
3.1.3. Funeral and Mourning Ceremony in Halaba Community 47
3.1. 4. Marriage Culture in Halaba Community 48
3.2.4. Economic History of the Halaba people 50

CHAPTER FOUR 52

4. HALABA RELATION WITH CHRISTIANS AND ETHNIC

INTERACTION OF THEIR NEIGHBORS 52

4.1. The Muslims and Christians Interaction in Halaba 52

4.2. General Overview of the Ethnic Interactions of Halaba people with others 53
4.2.1, The Interaction between the Halaba and Siltie 55

4.2.2. The Interaction between the Halaba and Harari People 59

4.2.3. The Interaction between the Halaba and Hadiya 61

4.4. The Interaction between the Halaba and the Arsi Oromo 62

CHAPTER FIVE 64

5. ISLAM FROM THE TIME OF MENELIK II TO THE DERG PERIOD 64

5. 1. Islam during the period of Menelik II 64

5.2. The Reign of Haile Selassie and Islam in the Halaba Zone 66

5.3.Musilm Halaba people during the Derg period 67

xiii
CONCLUSION 70

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

MANUSCRIPTS 73

LIST OF KEY INFORMANTS 81

APPENDIXES 87

xiv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Page
Figure 1. The Map of the study Area 11
Figure 2. Majlis Ceremonies at Shrine of Sheikh Abeinas on Motokoma 31
Figure 3. Abicho Nura-alah Ahmed Shrine in Halaba Zone 36
Figure 4. The Garad Nur mosque in Kulito Town 39
Figure 5. Halaba Seera Holiy-day Celebration 46
Figure 6. The Cultural Hat of the Halaba People 59

xv
 ABSTRACT

This thesis presents the introduction and expansion of Islam in the Halaba Zone from the 17 th
century to 2000. Islam in Ethiopia in general and Halaba, in particular, has not been studied in
detail. The available literature on the history of Islam in the Halaba Zone gives some insight into a
limited set of historical themes. Therefore, the basic objective of this thesis is to reconstruct the
introduction and expansion of Islam in the Halaba Zone. As far as this thesis is concerned, the data
was collected through qualitative methods. The collected data essentially covers the history of Islam
in the Halaba Zone from seventeenth century to 2000. The result of data analysis has come up with
some main findings. These findings demonstrate that the introduction and spread of Islam in the
Halaba were carried out by Halaba ancestors, migrant Sheikhs from Saudi Arabia, and Islamic
religious teachers from different Muslim communities of Ethiopia. The study employs a qualitative
approach of data collection and analysis by combing both thematic and chronological approaches.
Accordingly both primary and secondary sources are used for these studies.
However, interview of informants and secondary literature have been carefully examined and
interpreted in order to reconstruct the Islam introduction and expansion of Islam in Halaba. The
thesis asses’ issues related to the socio-cultural and economic activity of the Halaba people and its
role for the community. The thesis is also examined the ethnic interaction of Halaba with their
neighbors and the commonly shared customs, interaction which each other and Islamic history and
socio cultural relations with each other. The thesis also described the conditions of the Muslims of
the area under different regime of Ethiopia from Menelik to the Derg period. The findings of the
study include the major factor for the introduction and expansion of Islam in Halaba and the
changes and continuity that occurred on the life of Muslims of the study area from17th century to
2000.

xvi
 CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. General Background of the Study Area

Halaba Zone is a Zone found in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples‟ Regional State. It
is one of the 14 Zones and 4 Special Zones that constituted the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples Regional State administrative structure (SNNPRS). Halaba got its present Zonal status in
2010.1 Halaba Zone is structured into three Woredas and Kulito city administration. Currently,
Halaba Zone has three Woredas these are: Wera, Atote and Wera Dijo. Halaba Zone has also 84
kebeles of which five of them are in town and 79 of them are rural kebeles.2 The Administrative
center of the Halaba Zone is Kulito town which is located at a distance of 245 kms south of Addis
Ababa through Butajira, 315 kms through Shashemane and 87 kms, from Hawassa the former
regional capital of Southern Ethiopia (SNNPRS).3 The term Halaba stands both for the people and
the place where the people predominately lived for about centuries. Halaba people speak the
Halabissa language. It belongs to the East Highland Cushitic-speaking people of southern Ethiopian
nations and nationalities which include languages like Sidama, Hadiya, Gedio, Kambata, Tembaro,
and Marako.4 The Halaba people are an agricultural population who live in the Halaba Zone and in
different areas of Southern Ethiopia and other parts of Ethiopia. According to Halaba elders and
scholarly studies, the term "Halaba" is derived from two historical terms "Halabe" and "Halabata."5
The first historical term states that the people of Halaba live near the "Halabe" mountainous region.
It is a mountain which is found between the boundary of the Sidama and Bale, where the Halaba
people settled before they arrived at today‟s Halaba land. The second historical term is "Halaba"
which implies “fresh milk, “and in Halabissa, language it means "Ibaa Azuta".6

1
Epherm Zeleke, The History and Culture of the Halaba People. . (Halaba Kulito: Rbot Printing, 2007),
pp.21-40.
2
Southern Nation Nationalities and People Regional State, Bureau of Finance and Economic
Development, Office Profile, 20012 E.C.
3
Central Statistical Authority, “The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: Results at Country
level. Vol. I. Statistical report, Addis Ababa, 1994.
4
AyeleTerekegn, A Profile of the Nations and Nationalities and Peoples of the Southern Ethiopian
Region. (Hawassa: Hawassa University, 2017), pp. 82-89.
5
Informants: Ato , Mohammednur Leramo, Nur-Aḥmed Ibrahim, Mustefa Kedir, Hussein Ibrahim.
6
Zena Ayele, Culture and Ethno- History of Halaba. (Hawassa: Hawassa, University, 2014), p.76.
 2

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Adherents of Islam in Ethiopia belong to diverse population groups who have been from various
cultures, and languages all over the world. The introduction and expansion of Islam in to Ethiopia
has a long history and rich in both oral and written sources. It is no more but an integral part of any
true history of Ethiopia.7 During the past four decades, the Ethiopian polity has gone through rapid
process of socio-political changes. A heightened rights consciousness among the country‟s
marginalized communities is part and parcel of this change. The recognition of the rights of
Ethiopian Muslims goes back to the 1974 revolution.8 In Ethiopia, a few scholars conducted their
study on the history of the introduction and expansion of Islam in southern Ethiopia particularly in
Halaba Zone and this necessitated another study to be conducted in Ethiopia.9
In my study area, the introduction and expansion of Islam has rich oral sources which are useful for
the study of Islam on which written sources are lacking. In my study area, there is a scanty material
that deals with Islam in Halaba Zone. There are also few unpublished studies on Islam in Halaba that
were conducted by Amrulah Teleha, Zena Ayele, Mohammed Taddesse, and . 10 In my study area,
the authors like Ephrem Zeleke, Amrulah Teleha, Zena Ayele and Mohammed Taddesse, and others
made some attempts to study the socio-cultural history, the origin and history of the Halaba people,
history of Kulito town.11

Nevertheless, there has been no detailed study on Islam in Halaba Zone. As already indicated in
the introductory part of my study Halaba people are one of the earliest nation who adhered to Islam
from the beginning of their ancestral period to the present day of Halaba people. Therefore,
adequate study is not conducted on Islam among the Halaba ethnic group. Islam became a socio-
cultural medium of the identity of the Halaba people beginning from the medieval period to now.12
But these historical events of the introduction and expansion of Islam were not studied by
historians especially by Islamic scholars. The scholarly works on Islam of Halaba are limited in

7
Dereje Feyissa, Muslims Renegotiating Marginality in Contemporary Ethiopia. (Duke University:
Duke University press, 2014), .pp.1-2
8
Ibid.
9
Hussein Ahmed, “The historiography of Islam in Ethiopia”. Journal of Islamic studies. (Oxford
University press, vol.3, no. 1 1992), pp.90-94.
10
Ibid.
11
Ulrich Braukamper, “Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia:” Collected Essays (Munster,
Hamburg & London: Lit Verlag, 2002), p.784.
12
Informants: Ato Shemisu Nurye, Ato Alemu Gemada, Ato Bekele Galato.
 3

number and it is already fragmented.13 Thus the study of Islam did not get due attentions on
historians. So my study was reconstructed the overall history of the introduction and expansion of
Islam in the Halaba Zone from the beginnings of the 17th century to 2000. Accordingly, this thesis
attempted to fill in the existing gaps in the history of the Islam in my study area.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The overall objective of this thesis is to study the introduction and expansion of Islam in the Halaba
Zone from the 17th century to 2000.

1.3.2. The Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this research are:-

1. To analyze the traditional religion before the introduction and Consolidation of Islam in Halaba.
2. To discuss how and when Islam was introduced and spread in Halaba land and the contribution of
Sheikh Hussein family and other saints to the expansion of Islam among the Halaba.
3. Examine the position of Muslim Halaba and the political changes during the past three regimes of
the Ethiopia.
4. Identify the inter-religious relations of Halaba people with other ethnic groups in the region
5. Examine the ethnic interactions of Halaba with others and Christian-Muslim relations in Halaba
community.

1.4. Research Questions

1. What were the traditional religions practiced by the Halaba people before their conversion to
Islam?
2. How and when Islam was introduced and expanded into the Halaba society and why did the
Halaba culture mainly manifest Islamic culture?
3. Why did the majority of Halaba people begin to follow the Islam rather than other religions?
4. How does the presence of the Islamic shrine of the Sheikh Hussein family and other saints
contributed to the conversion of Halaba people to Islam?

13
Informants: Ato Amina Nurala, Ato Desta Baraka, Ato Mohmmed Bute.
 4

5. What were the relations that the Halaba people established with Silte, Harari, Hadiya, and Arsi
and the position of Islam during the last three successive governments of Ethiopia?

1. 5. Scope of the study

Of the total of the Halaba people, 98% of them are followers of Islam. The introduction and the
expansion of Islam in the Halaba Zone began in the 17th century to 2000.14 It is the benchmark of this
thesis. The focus here is on the issues of the introduction and expansion of Islam among the Halaba
people and the contributions of Muslim Sheikhs in the introduction and expansion of Islam in the
Halaba Zone. This research also focuses on Islam and the socio-economic, cultural history of Halaba
people. It also focuses on the roles of Muslim Halaba since the time of Menelik to that of the Derg
period. Moreover, it focuses on Halaba Muslims and Christians relationship and their interactions
with the neighboring people of Ethiopia. The time of study starts from the 17th century when Islam
was introduced to Halaba and it ends at 2000.15

1. 6. Significance of the Study

This study may have various significances for many individuals and institutions. Similarly, these
studies may be useful as an additional input for those who wanted to study on Islam for culture and
tourism offices and other institutions that are interested on Islam in Halaba people. However, this
study also can be used as an additional input in Islam's religious developments in Halaba and for
other Ethiopian communities. Furthermore; this study will fill in the historical knowledge gaps on
Islam in Halaba and other Ethiopian societies. The findings of this work would also serve as the base
for future researchers on the Muslims history of Ethiopia. The findings of this work will also serve
as a source of information for future researchers on Islam in the Halaba Zone and it added something
to the existing knowledge of the Islamic history of Ethiopia.

1.7. Limitations of the Study

This study has some limitations. This study was conducted at a time when the entire situation of
world's attitude turned towards the COVD 19 or Corona virus. It had a serious impact on the

14
Informant: Sheikh Hussein Kebato, Ato Mohmmed Bute.
15
Zena Ayele, p.18. Informant: Ato Mukamil Mohammed.
 5

collection of data and it hinders the interaction of people and the research data collection was
interrupted to some extent. As a result of this and other related problems, the researcher was unable
to travel to remote areas of the Halaba Zone to collect relevant sources. Due to this and other
problems the information was not successfully collected as I wished. Despised these problems, I
have finished some obstacles with the help of God. The other problem has to do with the lack of
access to some written sources on Islam that could trace the introduction and expansion of Islam
among the Halaba people. The other limitations were financial and time constraints which hindered
in one way or another quality of this thesis. The other problem was the fact that I am a Christian
Halaba made my informants suspicious of my study on Islam. However, I had led the material
wisely and I have focused on the extensive library research and modest field research was
undertaken to avoid such problems. But I interviewed them skillfully by contacting those matured
and liberal Muslim Sheikhs of Halaba.

1.8. Research Methodology and Design

1.8.1. Research Design

The qualitative research design is the most popular and widely used in history. It is because the
objectives intended to be achieved in this study did not require measuring individual responses in
quantitative research designs. This study was also conducted based on the systematic collection of
data from different sources. The extensive library-based works were done to collect data from
published and unpublished documents like BA essays, MA thesis, Ph.D dissertation, books, articles,
manuscripts; magazines that deal with the Islamic history of Halaba people, and others that were
important to my research were used. These data came from the different informants from Halaba
Kulito town, Halaba Zone Culture and Tourism Bureau, Haramaya University (HU), Worabe
University (WU), Wolayita Sodo University (WSU), Wachamo University (WU), and also from the
Public Library of Halaba people. The collection of secondary literature helped the researcher to
analyze the study. It also helped the researcher to obtain sufficient background knowledge on the
theme of the study. The attempt to collect archival documents from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies
(IES) remained futile because the documentation section was shifting its materials to a new building
and it was not accessible to researchers at the time. The researcher was not able to visit IES due to
 6

the outbreak of Coronavirus pandemic in the country. Nonetheless, the researcher systematically
employed some documents which are related to the theme of the study.

1.8.2. Research Methodology

This thesis is written based on information collected from both primary and secondary sources. Oral
information is important for historians. Hence, the oral data was gathered from Halaba religious
leaders and from local elders who are knowledgeable on the Islam and its culture, oral traditions of
the Halaba peoples. These and religious magazines were important sources for this study. These
documents were found at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in Addis Ababa University,
Southern (SNNPR) State Islamic Affairs Office, and Halaba Zone Culture and Tourism Bureau. This
research was also greatly based on information obtained from archival and other primary sources.
Thus, the available archival sources has been collected and analyzed from, Welde Meskel Tariku‟s
Memorial Archival Research Center.
The primary source like administrative files travel accounts, photographs, maps, eyewitness,
accounts and artifacts were used in this research paper. The Halaba Culture and Tourism center
(Halaba Serra office). From this center, the most useful materials for the investigation are the
proceedings of the yearly symposium on Halaba history, culture, and language. The investigation
also consulted the draft cultural policy of Ethiopia and the profile history of the Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and Peoples of Ethiopia (SNNPRS). The profile history gave me a brief history of the
SNNPRS and the 56 and above ethnic group‟s history in Southern Ethiopia. The extensive library-
based research was be done to gather information from both published and unpublished sources such
as thesis, dissertations, books, articles, manuscripts and the magazines that are found in Addis Ababa
University and at Haramaya University libraries and Halaba Zone Culture and Tourism Bureau and
Public library of Halaba.

1.9. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data collected from both primary and secondary sources were carefully selected, cross-checked,
and interpreted in the writing of the thesis. The data was, cross-checked which enabled the
researcher to overcome some of the gaps. Thus, the use of oral sources and a variety of written
materials made by different individuals and Universities was important for the study of the
introduction and expansion of Islam in the Halaba Zone. The collected data were analyzed by using
 7

the qualitative method of data analysis. After collecting the appropriate amount of data an effort was
made to organize, analyze and interpret it soundly. While doing this the following important steps
were followed. Data reduction is vital and credible data was filtered out from among the bulks of
information collected and data displayed in the thesis. The other is the data which hold similar or
coherent information were arranged and categorized together to make analysis and interpretation
easier and simple. Therefore, the data was arranged in to various themes and chronological order in
the writing of this thesis and then final findings wrote.
 8

CHAPTER TWO

2. THE INTRODUCTION AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM IN HALABA

2.1. Geographical and Historical Background of the Study Area

Ethiopia is a country were people with diverse, religions, cultures, history, languages, and ethnic
groups live. Currently, it follows a federal government structure. The federal structure comprises
eleven regional states and two city administrations.16 The former Southern Nations, Nationalities,
and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) constitute the newly formed regional states of Sidama and
South Western Ethiopia Regions. Currently however, today, the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS), is a State which is comprised of the eleven constituents of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE).17 The region is known for its amazing multi-
ethnic groups which consist of more than 56 ethnic groups with their distinct religions, languages,
cultures, history and other social identities living together in their community. However, these
regional states have diverse people with their own distinct cultural practices, languages, religion,
history, and heritages co-existing together for many years.18

The Halaba people are one of the Ethiopian peoples who are it categorized as Cushitic languages
speaking people of the Ethiopia who settled in present-day Southern Ethiopia or Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS). Also, Halaba is one of the ethnic group who
live in the (SNNPRS) regional state with their own unique culture and history. The Halaba People
have shared various cultural practices and lifestyles with various other peoples of Ethiopia.19 In
former period Halaba was part of Shewa Tekelay Gizat around in 1939 during the emperor‟s period
and it was also a part of the Arsi Tekeley Gizat administered from Assela from 1944-1954. Since
May 1971 Halaba became a part of the administrative center in the Haykochina Butajira Awuraja of
Shewa province in Zeway. Then the administrative center was re-structured under Kambatana
Hadiya Awraja and its administrative center was Hossana during the Derg regime since 1974.
During the Derg period, in 1974 the administrative center of Halaba was shifted from Kambatana
16
Donald Levine, Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. (Chicago: Chicago
University Press, 2000), p.153.
17
Zena Ayele, pp.76-80.
18
Awoke Amzaye, Mosaic Culture and People of South Nation, Nationalities and People Regional State,
(Hawassa: Hawassa University, 2007), p.70.
19
Rebato Kedir, “History and Culture of the Halaba People.”(Unpublished, B.A, Essay in History Dilla
University, 2006), pp.40-60.
 9

and Hadiya Awraja in to Zeway.20 Then, later Halaba got the status of Awuraja in 1978-80 with its
center at Siraro and stayed there until the downfall of the Derg regime.

After the downfall of the Derg regime, it became part of the Kambata, Halaba, and Tembaro Zone
(K.A.T) in 1991 Halaba was got the status of special Woreda since 1993.21 It got its present Zonal
status in 2010. The Halaba Zone is one of the 14 Zones and 4 Special Zones that is a constituent of
the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) administrative structure.
Today the Halaba Zone is structured into three Woredas and Kulito city administration.22 The
Administrative center of Halaba Zone is Kulito town which is located at a distance of the 245 kms
South of Addis Ababa and it is located of distance of 315 kms through Addis Ababa Shashamene
road while it is shares 87 kms, from Hawassa the former regional capital of (SNNPRS). Halaba Zone
shares borders with other Zones of Southern Ethiopia such as the Siltie Zone in the North, Hadiya
Zone in the North West and South, Kambata -Tembaro Zone in the South West Zone, Oromia
Regional State in the East, and Lake Shalla in the North East. It relatively stretches between 70 16 ”
22” to 70 33‟ 49” North latitudes and 380 04‟ 22” to 380 13‟ 05” East longitude.23 The Halaba Zone
is found in the Woina-Dega climatic Zone with the mean annual temperature ranging between 23-25
and the mean annual rainfall between 700-900 mm.

The Zone is located at 1554 to 2149 meters, but most of the Halaba Zone is found at about 1800
meters above the sea level. The land use pattern shows that out of the total area coverage of the Zone
64116.25 hectares, 44020 hectares are currently cultivated; 4317 hectares are used for grazing,
3644.45 hectares cultivable, 4592-hectare forest cover, and 4737.8 hectares used for others, and the
rest 2805 hectares are uncultivable land.24 The total land surface of the Halaba Zone is 994.66 square
kilo meters. The highest point on the land is 2396 meters above sea level, and the lowest point is
1500 meters above sea level. To mention some of them Bilate river valley, 1700 meters; Goljo, 2000
meters Rukame, 2191 meters; Abokicho- Matokoma, 2396 meters and Lake Shalla 1500 meters
above sea level. Regarding the topographic feature of the Zone, 3% is mountainous, 70% of the total

20
Informants: Ato Shemisu Nurye, Ato Abduraman Keasim, Ato Habib Mundino, Ato Zenebe Alamu.
21
Haile Bubamo, “Some Notes on Fandango Religion in Hadiya (Southwestern Shewa)”. In Paper
Presented to the First Annual Conference of Historical Society of Ethiopian State Religion and Society in Ethiopian
History, (April 30-May 2, Addis Ababa, (1971), p.24.
22
GetinetTeagne, “The History of Kulito Town from its Foundation to Development.” (B.A, Essay in
History, Dilla University, 2005), pp. 44-60.
23
Epherm Zeleke, pp.31-40.
24
Halaba Zone History, Culture & Language Profile (Halaba Kulito, 2010).
 10

area is plain and 27% is sloppy. The mountains which are found in the Zone are Mount Motokoma,
Bubisa, Rukame, Goljo and Kora. The area has two major rivers Bilate, and Dijo is a seasonal river
as a result of which some of the Halaba are agrarians‟ near to the rivers. Most of the Halaba People
have been engaged in mixed farming; land cultivation, animal husbandry, and agriculture. The land
is suitable for the cultivation of almost all types of crops, cereals, vegetables, and fruit. 25 Mixed
agriculture is the main activity. Trade and animal husbandry also play an important role in all Halaba
Zone and more than half of the people are linked with mixed agricultural activity. They have been
well known for the cultivation of the red pepper, maize, teff, and many other cereal crops.26
According to the 1994, population and Housing Census of Ethiopia, Halaba Zone had a total
population that was estimated to be 225,303 from which 110,200 are female and 115,103 male.27
From the total population, 88.7% live in rural areas and 11.3% in urban centers. The religion of
Halaba people is Islam which account for about 98% of the population. The other religion that has
been practiced in Halaba community is Protestantism which accounts for 1%, and Ethiopian
Orthodox, Christianity, and other religions which accounts it 1%, respectively.28

According to some of my informants Halaba people used the Semitic language when they were
living in eastern part of Ethiopia specifically in Harar and its environs before the came into the
present day of Southern Ethiopia called Ulla Halaba (Halaba land).29 Then Halaba speak Halabissa
or Halabi Affo. It belongs to the Eastern highland Cushitic language sub-family together with
Sidama, Hadiya, Gedeo, Kambata, Tembaro, Burji, Marako, and others.30 As far as linguistic
relation is concerned, the Halabissa is closely related to Qebena, Kambata, Tembaro, and Sidama
languages.31 Therefore, due to the cultural influences from Qebena, Kambata, Tembaro and Sidama
peoples languages during their long settlement in their present territory. Their vernacular language
was completely changed from Semitic to Cushitic language family.32 Today Halaba people speak the
Halabissa language which belongs to the East highland Cushitic language sub-family together with

25
Southern Nation Nationalities and People Regional State. (Bureau of Finance and Economic
Development, Office Profile, 2012 E.C).
26
Central Statistical Authority, “The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: (Results at
Country level. Vol. I. Statistical report, Addis Ababa, 1994.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Informants: Shemisu Nurye. Zenabe Alamu Samuel, Kebede
30
Ibid
31
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical Records in Southern Ethiopia:
A Case Study of the Hadiya Sidamo Past.” (Journal of Ethiopian Studies vol11, 2 (1973), pp.29-50.
32
Zena Ayele, p.70. ; Informants: Ato Shiffa Bettana, Ato Mohammed Jabe.
 11

Qebena Kambata, Sidama, Tembaro, Hadiya, and the others Cushitic languages of the Ethiopia.33

Figure 1. The Map of the study Area(source : SNNPR Bureau of Finance and Economic
Development, 2012 E.C.
Historically, north-east Africa is a museum of peoples, so it is a region of religious diversity.
Initially, settled by the Cushitic people who chiefly worshipped traditional religions, it has been
highly influenced in its religious complexion for its proximity to the Middle East, the birthplace for

33
Ayele Terekegn, p.82-74. ; Informants: Ato Hussen Jabe, Ato Jemal Habib and Desta Baraka.
 12

the three great monotheistic religions of the world such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam.34
Ethiopia has been the home of different beliefs and practices since their antiquity. Its location is
where Europe, Asia and Africa meet making Ethiopia to be the scene of intercontinental and
intercultural interactions. This strategic location also placed ancient Ethiopian at the position of
cultural and religious communications with the Indian, Persian, Arab and Mediterranean civilization
of Greek and Rome.35 Ethiopia is one of the Horn of African countries and it is one of the earliest
states of African country and the home for the early human cradle and early African civilization
emerged. It is also a nation with diverse ethnic groups; each with its religious practices, language,
and other cultural practices has been conducted.36
Ethiopia has a diverse range of religious, ethnic, and cultural practices. The major world's religions
are Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Confucianism, Christianity, and Islam. The most well-known
religious that the world had experienced are traditional religion, Christianity, and Islam, which is
common, in Ethiopia practiced for a long period of time.37 Ethiopia has been a museum of many
nations, nationalities, and peoples of different origins since antiquity.38 For centuries, historical
studies of the Ethiopian people was focused on the ruling family's seat of power, with little attention
to Southern Ethiopia, the most parts of the Southwestern Ethiopia, and generally the peripheral areas
of the Ethiopia.
According to oral informants Halaba people came to Ethiopia from the Arabian Peninsula,
particularly from Saud Arabia specifically from Hijaz, Jidda, Yemen, and other Arabian lands in the
last years of the 9th century.39 After they arrived in Ethiopia they lived in the Harar area with the
Harari people for about a half-century, and establishing their own Muslim kingdom with them under
the leadership of the Seyid Abadir, who lived for about many years in Harar beginning from the 13th
century and later his followers lead Halaba .40 According to Halaba's oral informants and scholars,
the term "Halaba" is derived from two historical terms: "Halabe" and "Alabata or Halabata." These
sources state that the people of Halaba live near the "Halabe" mountainous region. It is close to the

34
Trimingham Spencer, Islam in Ethiopia. London and Liverpool: Oxford University Press, 1952. p.107.
35
Girmaye G. Michael, “Religious Setting of Jimma Zone,” MA Thesis (Jimma University, Department
of History and Heritage Management, 2015), p. 10.
36
Tadesse Legesse, Ethno-History of Donga People, (Hawassa: Hawassa, Zaki Printing Press, 2010),
pp.14-18.
37
Girmaye Gebre Mikael, “The Religious Setting in Jimma Zone, pp.21-30.
38
Ibid.
39
Informants: Imam Wulachafo Abino, Garad Diltata Muziye.
40
Informants: Ato Mohammednur Leramo, Ato Muktar Roba.
 13

Sidama and Bale, where their fathers and grandfathers settled before they came into the present day
of (Ulla Halaba) and they live in Ulla Halaba specifically in Kulito and its surroundings areas
today.41 According to the second view the Halaba people, lived in Harar with the Harla and Harari
people and their surroundings before their migration on to Bale, Sidama and Hadiya. They are a
pastoral, people and they breed and milked them their cattle. From that period onwards, the people
were referred to as Halaba.42 My informant emphatically stated that "We are Halaba," our homeland
is Halaba, our language is Halabissa, and our forefathers are Halaba. Our forefather‟s birth place is
in Saudi Arabia before they came to Ethiopia. In Arabic, the term "Halaba" implies "fresh milk," and
in Halabissa, language it means (fresh milk) "Ibaa Azuta." The Halaba elders and other sources
identify the persons as Halaba instead of Aalaba.43 The Halaba Zone is one of the zones found in
Southern Ethiopia. It was the most important Islamic religious learning center in Southern Ethiopia
where followers of Islam are the dominated.
It is one crucial area in the earlier history of Ethiopian, especially with the trading items like slave
trading centers, which came from Woliyta, Gamo Goffa, and Konta, being conversed at accumulated
in Kulito, and exported to other parts of Ethiopia in 19th century. My research center also served as
center of different cash crops producers and trading with crops and received many traders to the
vicinity. The most important cash crops are red pepper and Chat. The other none cash crops like
sorghum, millet, maize, teff, and other cereal crops.44 Have been produced noted by Braukamper
Halaba was a place where there was the highest traffic of caravan route in southern Ethiopia,
with salt being transported from El-Kare in Ogaden through Bale, Kofale, and Wolayita then passing
through Halaba particularly through the present day Kulito town since Menelik as king of Shewa.45

2.2. The Origin of Halaba People and their Movement from Harar and other parts of
Ethiopia to the Present Settlement of Ulla Halaba

Concerning the historical origin of the Halaba people, different scholars come up with various
assumptions based on oral traditions of elderly people and written literature of historians and
anthropologists. But it is possible to get some hints about the Halaba people based on the existing

41
Informants: Ato Desta Beraka, Shukurala Mufit.
42
Ulrich Braukamper, The History of the Hadiya in Southern Ethiopia. (Otto Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden
Press,2012), p.172.
43
Informants: Ato Naseradin Habib, Ato Muzamin Jemal and Ato Hussien Aleango.
44
Informants: Ato Nurahmmad Ibrahim, Ato Mustefa Kedir.
45
Ulrich Braukamper, The History of Hadiya in Southern Ethiopia, pp.172-1780.
 14

oral tradition and trace the origin in light of other written sources by different scholars.46 Oral
information‟s made different claims concerning the origins of Halaba people”.47 According to
Halaba oral traditions Halaba people and their homeland was the Arab land especially the present-
day Saudi Arabia.48 Before the 10th century, the Halaba descendants moved to Libya and after a
limited period of time their settlement in the Tripoli some of their people returned to Hijaz. This
people further traveled south wards from Yemen and they crossed the port of Zeila and reached
Harar.49 The Medieval Muslim Sultanate of Hadiya comprises a population groups like Halaba,
Qebena, Marako, Libido and some other oral traditionalists also supported the idea of scholars like
Braukamper who traced back the Halaba people to Arabia.50
According to Garad Mundino and Jamal Habib, Halaba people share the same historical roots with
other Ethiopian nations like Qebena, Tembaro, Kambata, Sidama, and Marako. They claim that the
ancestors of Halaba people came from South Arabian, particularly from Hijaz, Jidda, Yemen, and
other Arabian lands.51 According to informants Halaba people entered into Ethiopia through two
main directions. They arrived into Ethiopia through the Maghreb regions of African countries such
as Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, and Egypt, and settled in Eritrea the northern part of Ethiopia in 10th
century.52 According to Zena Ayele they migrated to Eritrea from south Yemen, then to Djibouti
through the port of Zeila, and finally arrived at Harar and its environs in 13th century.53
Then after few years later they migrated to the present-day Djibouti, then especially lived in the
district of the Aljebarti, and later clashed with Christian rulers of Ethiopia over the payment of
females for Christian rulers as a tribute for them. In this period Sheikh Seyid Abadir was the leader
of the Halaba people when they lived in Harar and its vicinities in Eastern Ethiopia. 54 According to
some writers in Halaba like Ephrem Zeleke and Zena Ayele the exact period when the Halaba people
came into the present territory is difficult to estimate because there is no written material about their
arrival period. On the other hand some of my informants also have different ideas about the arrival

46
Ibid.
47
Informants: Garad Mundino Nasiru, Ato Jemal Habib, Ato Geramu Teasfaye.
48
Ibid.
49
Ulrich Braukamper, The History of Hadiya in Southern, p.172.
50
Ulrich Braukamper , “The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical Records in Southern Ethiopia: A
Case Study of the Hadiya/Sidamo Past”: Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol.11, No.2, pp.22-51
51
Ulrich Braukamper Ulrich “A Muslim State in Southern Ethiopia. The Journal of African History.” Vol.
22, No. 4. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p.67.
52
Informants: Ato Shemisu Nurye, Ato Muktar Roba.
53
Zena Ayele, p.76.
54
Ibid.
 15

period of the Halaba people to the present territory of Ulla Halaba (Halaba land they live today).55
Ephrem Zeleke states that their origin was linked with the coming of some Arab tribes through the
port of Zaila from the Arabian Peninsula as a business man and reached Harar and its vicinity.56 The
Halaba oral traditionalist also confirmed that the same idea as scholars who mentioned about the
origin of Halaba in their works.57 According to Tadesse Tamirat, the ancestors of Halaba and
Qebena people was from the Semitic people of the Saud Arabia, who came to Ethiopia through the
port of Zeila and settled in the Harar area from 800-1000 A.D.58 Based on few written sources and
records, the Medieval Ethiopian chronicles, and Arabic reports, the origin of the Halaba people
which dated back to the 8th-11th century A.D.59 Then, they gradually moved from the previously
stated territory to that destination after few centuries later, going to cross the Red Sea and arriving in
Harar around the in the early 13th century.
During their stay in the Harar areas, the Halaba proper was primarily concerned with commercial
activity exporting the agricultural products and castrated slaves from Ethiopia, and purchasing
various products from Arab lands such as garments, cloth, weapons, and others. They peacefully co-
exist with neighboring people of Abyssinians for instance Adare, Harla, Argoba and other people, to
persuade them to become Muslims and worship Allah.60 According to Braukamper, Amrulah and
others, Sheikh Seyid Abadir is the legendary figure of the Harari. He arrived in Harar plateau in the
early 13th century, and he met with the Harla, Gaturi and the Argoba people. Some Harari people as
well as the Hadiya, Halaba clans claim descent from Abadir Umar ar-Rida who traced his lineage to
the first caliph, of Abu Beaker.61 According to Wehib Mahmed and my informants, like Gebril and
Lalima, after the death of the former leader of Halaba called Sheikh Seyid Abadir, in Harar, they did
not stay for long period of time and moved to the village of Charchar due to unknown problems.62
Sheikh Seyid Abadir and his son Usman Umar ar-Rida visited them in Charchar around the 13th

55
Epherem Zeleke, p.20, Zena Ayele, p.44.
56
Epherem Zeleke, pp.22-28.
57
Daniel Tafar. The Short History of Local Kings of Halaba People in Ethiopia. Halaba Kulito: Serra
printing, 1999.
58
TaddesseTamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. (Oxford University: Clarendon press,
1972), p.126130.
59
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Co-Relation of Oral Traditional and Historical Records, pp.12 -20.
60
Ribato Kedir, p.67.
61
Ulrich Braukamper, Islamic History and Cultures in Southern Ethiopia. (In Collected Essays.
London: Lit Verlag Munster, 2004), p.174 ; Amrulah Teleha, p.43.
62
Wehib Mahmed, History of Harar Hararis and the Hararis, (Harar: Harar, 2015), p. 214:
Informants: Ato Gebril Seahlu Ato Lalima, Ribato.
 16

century.63 Then they stayed for a short period of time and gradually moved they west and southeast
to the present day Arsi and Bale mountainous territory around the first half of the 13th century.64
According to Braukamper, the region of Gadab, west of Bale Mountain, could be identified as the
Halaba people's living territory.65 However, on the eve of the 14th century, the people of Halaba
migrated to the present-day Sidama land and settled in the Guguma, near to Dollo Manna, and in
Sidama in Shabadino, and Malaga areas.66 During the migration period the economic activity of
Halaba people were depended on pastoralism on cattle breeding. As a result they later migrated to
the pastoral land of Sidama, the districts of the Shaman, Kontsoria, and Kasse.67 Similarly, there is
no exact period of time when the Halaba people came into the present-day territory of Ulla Halaba
(Halaba they live today).68 Oral informants agree that they came in to Ulla Halaba at the end of 14th
century.69 Some of the scholarly works for instance Braukamper stated that the Halaba people came
into their current land of Halaba, in the early 15th century.70
The other main land where Halaba settled and lived was situated near the current Gurage Zone in
districts of the Derage, Enseno, Alage and Mitio.71 For a long period of time the history of Halaba
people was intimately connected with the history of Qebena people. As far as the parentage of most
of their clans and their language are connected with the original unity remains plainly discernible up
to today. Genealogically, Halaba people were comprised of three family groups such as Hassan-
Halaba family, Bucha Halaba family and the Hassan Nasiro family.72 The ethnic background and the
cultural history of the Halaba people are differed very little from the Qebena, and Hadiya of the
East-Gurage group whose language they had also spoken until their time in Tambaro. However,
politically, they were independent people and their own history in Ethiopia. This becomes evident
from the traveler of Antonio Fernandez who studied the small Islamic principality of Halaba at the
beginning of the 17th century. Its ruler Aliko is referred to by the Portuguese traveller and in the oral
traditions as a son of Haji Aliye, the forefather of numerous East Gurage group.73

63
Wehib Mahmed, History of Harar Hararis and the Hararis, (Harar: Harar, 2015), p. 214.
64
Informants: Ato Mohammed Jabe and Ato Hussein Mundino, Ato Jamal Habib.
65
Ulrich Braukamper, Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia, p .29.
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid.
68
Ibid.
69
Informant: Ato Mohammed Jabe.
70
Ulrich Braukamper, Islamic History and Culture in Southern, p.172.
71
Ephrem Zeleke, p.66.
72
Ulrich Braukamper, Islamic History and Culture in Southern, pp.172-178.
73
Ibid.
 17

In general, the Halaba people had numerous historical origins, and they occupied some of the current
lands of the Halaba by the end of the 15th century.74 As a result, the various Halaba peoples occupied
more than the half of the present Halaba territory which is known as Halaba land in the 16th
century.75 In 16th century, several groups of the Halaba people shifted from the main living center of
Ulla Halaba to other areas of the present day of southern Ethiopia regions. They shifted their
settlement as a result of the great Oromo population movement, and the Imam Ahmed war, of
Ethiopia and these were the reasons for their resettlement in other parts of the southern Ethiopia. As
a result of these factors, few clans were migrated into the present-day of the Hadiya and Kambata
Zone. They still live being assimilated with the Hadiya and Kambata people.76
They changed their living center and expanded into Mirab Bedawacho and into the districts of the
Offoda, Jarso, and Sike and in Misrak Bedawacho especially in to the districts of the Qeranso,
Chaefa, Gagela, Jarso, Tilo, and Hanicha. In other parts Hadiya Zone Halaba lives in Hossana and its
surroundings like Wai-Gabeta, Soro, Lemo, Morsuto Gimbcho Shashogo and other districts of the
Hadiya Zone. Halaba lived in other neighboring Zone like in Kambata Zone for instance in Durame,
Keta, Geshara, and similarly Halaba lived in Gurage Zone in Mito, Endebir, Dearge Chea and others
place. In Woliyta they live in Damota, and other places. They live together in harmonious
relationships.77 Among the clans of Halaba that moved into Mirab Bedawacho and Misrak
Bedawacho Woredas were Trombora, Side Kolomine, Wishra, Wosharmine and Azobada.78

2.3. The Traditional Religion of Halaba

Traditional religion is a religion practiced by various traditional religious followers in different

societies and among different ethnic groups. It is performed in different geographical locations of
Africa. Our continent Africa is a vast continent that has encompassed diverse traditional religions,
and ethnic and cultural practices. The traditional religions preceded the universal religions like
Christianity and Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Judaism.
Traditional religion is characterized by traditional beliefs that are common, profoundly habitual

74
Ibid.
75
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Co-Relation of Oral Traditional and Historical”, pp.178-190.
76
Ibid.
77
Amrulah Teleha, p.66.
78
Epherem Zeleke, .p.70.
 18

inheritances that Africa has preserved for millennia.79 Ethiopia has been designated as the home of
traditional religion due to its diverse ethnic and cultural practices.80

There are so many different traditional religious beliefs and cultural practices which have been
widely performed in southern Ethiopia before and after the introduction and expansion of Islam and
protestant religion in the southern Ethiopia.81 There are numerous traditional beliefs and practices
which were widely practiced in ancient and todays southern Ethiopia before they stated to profess
Christianity and Islam, in the region. They are still practiced in a few areas of our region. 82 There
are few people who depended on natural phenomena as worshiping agents, such as the moon, the
sky, mountains, rivers, and animals as traditional religious of worshiping agents.83 However, after
Islam was introduced into the Halaba community, some Halaba people were still adhere to their
neighbors' traditional religion of Hadiya called Fandananno.84

The followers of Fandananno traditional religion are called Fandanncho. Similarly, the Fandananno
traditional religion was introduced among the Halaba people when Halaba people lived peacefully
with the Hadiya people.85 Islam is decline in after the end of the 17th century and in19th century by
different manmade and natural disasters. Fandananno is one of the most important syncretic
practices among Muslim Halaba before the beginnings of re-Islamization among the Halaba people
at the end of 17th century and on the eve of the 19th century.86 The traditional religion Fandananno is
a cultural system that determines more or fewer ways of life, but it was first acknowledged as a
religion and remained in existence as such until the end of the twentieth century. 87 Therefore, this
religion had a long history with the life history of Hadiya people. However, one must be aware of the
fact that they are strongly tied. Based on the facts of the oral traditions there were only a few
followers. During the period of Islam religious decline, in Halaba community by different reason

79
Markine Maja, Autobiography and the History of Kale Hiwot Church. (Addis Ababa: SIM Printing,
2008),p.20.
80
Girmaye Gebre Mikael, pp.21-26.
81
Temesegn Wolde, Ye Fandano Emnatina Tarik. (The History of the Fandano and its Religion),
Unpublished manuscript), 1991, pp.21-30.
82
Amrulah Teleha, The History of Halaba people, 2004, p.48.
83
Woldemikael Manebo,YeTembaro Behersib Behil enaTarik. (The Culture and History of Tembaro
Nationality) ,Zaki Printing Press, Hawassa,2007), p.80
84
Temesgen Wolde, p.42.
85
Alebachew Kemiso and Samuel Handamo, Ye Hadiya Hizbe Tarik ena Bahel . (Addis Ababa, 2002),
pp.200-202, 204-206:
86
Ulrich Braukamper, “Aspect of Religious Syncretism in Southern Ethiopia”. Journal of Religion in
Africa, Vol.22, No. 3, 1992. pp.202-203.
87
Markine Maja, p.41.
 19

there were many traditional religion followers in Halaba.88 The other thing that should be underlined
is that the Halaba people gradually familiarized with this traditional religion of Hadiya Fandananno
through marriage links between Hadiya and Halaba people.89 Today, they are neighboring peoples
and both of them have developed unbreakable cultural and religious ties in their communities.90
Then Fandaano followers believe in a potent, which live in the sky to which they called Maganu.
For the Fanadaano followers the word Maganu represents both the creator and the physical sky.91
During prayers of Fandaano traditional religion they sung and dedicated to Jara, the most revered
spirit of Fandanno. Jara was a spirit that is thought to need some regular sacrifices and songs to
protect the Fandanno community.92 According to Braukamper, during the Islam introduction and
before the beginning of the re-Islamization process in various parts of the Halaba community in the
19th century there was a small number of Halaba who followed the traditional religion of Hadiya
called Fandananno.93

This means that the Hadiya traditional religion was adopted by the Halaba people at a time when
Islam was declined in Halaba at the end of 17th century and on the eve of the 19th century. Later the
re-Islamization takes place by Muslim Sheikhs and traders in Halaba. In Halaba Zone there were a
small number of Fandananno traditional religious followers which are found in all Communities
from the end of the 17th century and in eve of 19th century.94 According to my informants the main
reason for worshiping root of Fandanano and decline of Islam were two dominant factors for the
Halaba people.95 The first one is internal factors that contributed to the decline of Islam in Halaba
was the movement of their ethnic group into different geographical areas of Ethiopia in search of the
large agricultural and grazing lands for their cattle. Since, they are pastoralist people Muslim
teachers did not settle permanently in one area.96 According to my informants the external factors
that contributed to the decline of Islam religion in Halaba land included conflict and pressure on
grazing land from the neighboring ethnic groups such as Hadiya, Arsi Oromo, and Kambata.

88
Rebato Kedir, p.49.
89
Temesegn Wolde, pp.21-30.
90
Informants: Ato, Mohmmed Shiffa, Ato Nasiru Mushke Ato Imam, Gemda.
91
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Correlation of Oral Traditions and, pp.28-51.
92
Ulrich Braukamper “Islamic Principality in South East Ethiopia Between13th and 16 th Century,”
(Ethiopianist Notes, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1977), pp.29-50.
93
Ibid.
94
Temesegn Wolde, pp.21-30.
95
Informants: Ato Abduraman Keasim.
96
Informant: Ato Dildatta Muzney.
 20

Similarly the other informants explained that the Ahamed Geragn war and Oromo population
movements was the other external factors that contributed to the decline of Islam in Halaba.97 The
other thing that should rise under the first phenomenon that resulted in the decline of Islam in
the Halaba community was historical events happened in the 19th century Ethiopia.98 This was the
Amhara despotic leaders' rule was one of the responsible factor for the decline of Islam.99 They
destroyed mosques and burned out the Quran, the holy book of Islam. They also introduced the
Neftegna-gabbar system, which had a considerable and highly pronounced effect on the economic,
socio-cultural, and political lives of the Halaba society.100 The Neftegna-gabbar system devastated
the economy of Halaba and it became entirely controlled and monopolized by settler groups in the
main, rather than the indigenous Halaba people. However, the urban settlers later adopted to
assimilate some of those who wished to integrate by changing their names and professing Orthodox
Christianity rather than Islam.101

The state-sponsored Orthodox Church facilitated the expansion process spearheaded by the imperial
regime and they were destroying Islamic mosques in Halaba.102 Then, the traditional Halaba names
Habib into Alamu Dorritte into Alema-Work Wajjo into Zamadkhun were changed into Amharic
and baptism names and others that were resented by the people. Consequently, Amharic became the
lingua franca, state-backed Orthodox Christianity became the only legitimate religion in the empire,
and all forms of Amhara culture were imposed on the Halaba peoples who were “Amharized” to get
some privileges.103 The second factor was that the 19th -century problem that were responsible for
the decline of Islam in Halaba was the devastation of their cattle by disease and decline of their
income. These reasons led to changing their attitude to the economy and how they returned to earlier
life and they did not remember their religion because they were demoralized by the devastation of
their cattle by diseases.104 The people of Halaba also differentiated the cattle disease in two phases of

97
Informants: Ato Muzamin Jemal, Ato Ali Bamud .Sheikh Hussein Kebato.
98
Ambaye Ogato, Dynamic Synergy of Descent, History and Tradition in the Process of Sidama Ethnic
Identification in Southern Ethiopia, (Marthin Luther University, 2012), p.77.
99
Abosse Abdu, “The people of Halaba and History of Islamic Introduction and Expansion in Southern
Ethiopia.” (Unpublished, BA, Essay in History Wolayita Sodo University, 2004), p.70.
100
GetinetTeagne, 2005, p.40.
101
Markos Tekele,”State-Society Relations and Traditional Modes of Governance in Ethiopia: A Case
Study of Sidama” (Ph.D. Dissertation in History, Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University, 2014), p.78.
102
Tamiru Abamo, Church and Development Movement (Bete Kristiyanna Yelemat Enqesqase) .Addis
Ababa, 1984), p.44.
103
Amrulah Teleha, The History of Halaba , p.40.
104
Ulrich Braukamper, “Indigenous Views on the Italian Occupation in Southern Ethiopia,pp.163-183
 21

the render pest time the first Sombe and the second Kataba as the period of cattle disease.105 The
intrusion of Lemo and Soro Hadiya into this territory divided Halaba and led to the emergence of
Qebena.106 During that problematic period of cattle disease, war with their neighboring peoples, and
border conflict with the neighboring people made them to abandon Islam.107 Therefore, all these
problems did not give ample time for the worshipping and teaching of the any religious dogma
among the Halaba people according to oral informants and written sources.108

2.4. Re - Introduction of Islam and its Consolidation in Halaba

Our continent, Africa, is vast continent and home to numerous religions, ethnic groups, and different
cultural practices.109 Ethiopia is one of the Horn of Africa countries where there was rich diversity,
center of early Africans civilization where state formation, emerged as well as center for the human
cradled. It is also a nation which is a home to different ethnic groups, each with its language,
religion, traditional values, and different way of lives in general.110 The diversity of ethnic and
linguistic groups in Ethiopia is the product of socio-economic, political, religious and historical
processes that influenced the creation of the modern Ethiopian state.111
For centuries, historical studies of Ethiopia focused on the center of the political power of the ruling
family and paid little attention to the peripheral areas.112 According to Hussein Ahmed, the
relationship between Ethiopia and Arabia can be traced back to the period before the arrival of
Islam, which can be expected even long before the introduction of Islam, through trade and political
relations. According Seyoum Marga, Islam's introduction in the Ethiopian region has been a very
long history and some Islamic scholars state that the introduction of Islam had connections with the
arrival of the first Muslim refugees who escaped the persecution from the Qureish of Mecca during
the seventh century and when relationship between Ethiopia and Arabia started to be strong.113 The
Islamic scholars believe that the arrival of the first Muslim refugees fleeing the persecution of the

105
Ibid.
106
Informants: Ato Zabib Yesufi , Ato Nurjaba Adulqadir.
107
Informants:Ato Shiffa Betana, Ato Ibrahim Ahmed.
108
Ibid.
109
Girmaye Gebre, p.41.
110
Tadesse Legesse, pp.20-30.
111
AyeleTerekegn, p. 82.
112
Ibid.
113
Seyoum Marga, “An archeological Survey of Islamic Shrines in Jimma Zone. “M.A Thesis. (Addis
Ababa University, 2012), p.44.
 22

Qureish of Mecca in the seventh century played a great role in the spread of Islam to Ethiopia. 114 In
addition to these immigrants, Islam was introduced into the Ethiopian region through important
commercial gateways like Dahlak and Zeila. According to Hussein Ahmed, "the increasing influence
of Islam on the Red Sea and the decline of Aksum as a naval and commercial power in the Horn of
Africa brought two parallel developments that affected one another."115 As a result, the penetration
of Islam into the Ethiopian region preceded the collapse of Aksumite state".116
Several mechanisms facilitated the early penetration of Islam into the Ethiopian land, especially in
the coastal areas: trade, conquest, and by direct preaching particularly by Muslim Sheikhs, as well as
marriage bonds between Muslim Arab immigrants with Ethiopians, which are the good examples
penetration of Islam religion into Ethiopia.117 According to Teshome Amenu, the introduction of
Islam into the southern Ethiopia was first linked and inspired by medieval Muslim states such as
Hadiya, Bale, Ifat, Sharka and other medieval Muslim states of Ethiopia. It was inspired by those
medieval Muslim states and merchants from medieval Muslim states and lived for a long period of
time with them and formed the present day Muslim state of southern Ethiopia.118 Then Halaba
Muslim sultanate had also strong sediment and appears to have commonly lived under the medieval
Muslim sultanate of Hadiya. Similarly these Muslim-ruled states were formerly formed under
Hadiya Muslim sultanate around the Awash valley on the southeastern periphery in 13th century.119
A few Islamic written sources indicated that Islam introduced into the present day southern Ethiopia
by medieval Muslim state of Hadiya, Bale, Ifat and Sharka.120 There were also several Muslim
religious adherents from among the diverse southern Ethiopia people that were adherent of Islam
religion, begun with a medieval Muslim state and later it introduced through the direct perching by
Muslim Sheikhs, Muslim merchants, and other Muslim traders. Therefore, some of the southern

114
Ibid.
115
Hussein Ahmed, “Islam and Islamic Discourse in Ethiopia (1973-1993).” In Proceedings of the 12th
International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Vol 1. (Michigan Lawrensville: Red Sea Press,1994), p.775.
116
Ibid.
117
Bahru, Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1991. 2nd ed. (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa
University Press, 2001),p.40.
118
Teshome Amenu, “The Rise and Expansion of Islam in Bale of Ethiopia: Socio-Cultural and Political
Factors and Inter- Religious Relations”. (MA Thesis, in History, Laerer Academy: Bergen, Norway, 2008 p.42.
119
Ulrich Braukamper, “Indigenous Views on the Italian Occupation in Southern Ethiopia:” A Post-
Colonial Approach. International Journal of Ethiopian and Eritrean Studies. (Gottingen: University of Hamburg,
120
Lapiso G.Dilebo, The Long History of Ethiopian People and State. (Addis Ababa Addis: Ababa Addis
University press, 1980), pp.149--164.
 23

Ethiopian Muslim adherents were, Halaba, Siltie, Gurage, Qebena and Marako.121 There are
different views on the introduction of Islam Halaba people for the first time in the history of Halaba.
According to oral traditionalist Islam religion was introduced into Halaba land for the first time by
the Muslim Sheikhs of the Halaba people and other trader Muslims.122 Those popular Muslim
Sheikhs of the Halaba people were Sheikh Seyid Abidar, Sheikh Side, and Sheikh Hassan.123 They
were considered as the pioneers Sheikhs of the Halaba people in the history of the introduction of
Islam into Halaba people and they are also taken as the forefathers of the entire Halaba people.
Historically, Islam religion was introduced into Halaba people and its culture into Halaba people
during those Sheikhs periods and by their teachings.124
According to my oral informants there is no exact period about the time when Islam was introduced
into the Halaba people. In similar way the majority of my informants did not agreed to each other on
the period when Islam was introduced into the Halaba people. They claimed that Islam was
introduced into Halaba people particularly during the period of Sheikh Sayid Abadir, Side Hassan
in13th century. According to Chala Abdurrahman the Halaba people had already practiced Islam
th
religion in 13 centuries when they lived in Harar and its vicinity. This indicated that the arrival of a
holy man from Saudi Arabia named Sheikh Sayid Abadir, who was converted a number of local
tribes into Islam. Before he came into Harar Harari people were followers of Islam and the Halaba
people were present, particularly around the 13th century.125 During this period there were other
Muslim Sheikhs whose were introduced Islam to the Halaba people for instance it was introduced by
famous Muslim ancestors Sheikhs called Sheikhs Sheikh Sayid Abadir, and his followers Sheikh
Side, and Sheikh Hassan.126 As already indicated above Oromo population movement and
expansion, the Aḥmed Gragn wars and the pastoral way Halaba required their movement from one
place to other as well as they had no permanent center to worship their religion properly. Therefore,
all those lead to the decline of Islam religion among Halaba community. As a result, in many old
Hadiya groups, were influenced by the traditional local beliefs and traditional religion. According to
the people‟s oral tradition and some written sources, the Halaba society is historically considered to

121
Mohammad Tedesse, Hazo, Political History of the People in Gedebano, Gutazer, Weleene and
Agemay localities of the Guraghe land -Ethiopia: (Addis Ababa : Addis Ababa University press, 2002),pp.23-34.
122
Ibid.
123
Ibid.
124
Informant: Ato Zena Ayele.
125
Chala Abdurrahman, “Harari-Oromo inter-ethnic interaction in the city of Harar 1887-1991”. (M.A
thesis, in Bahir Dear History University, 2010), p.41.
126
Ibid.
 24

be part of the old Hadiya entity as one Muslim sultanate in the south. They were reported to be
Muslims as early as 14th century.
According to scholarly studies on the Halaba people by, Braukamper, Zena Ayele, Amrulah Teleha
and Islam was introduced into the Halaba in the begging‟s of 17th century.127 According to Zena
Ayele different Muslim teachers came into Halaba land in17th century in order to consolidate Islam
further. There are other Muslim sheikhs who came from the former Islamized society of Ethiopia
from the different parts of our country for instance Bale, Ifat, Harar, and Wollo. In the same way, the
other Muslim merchants are came from Arsi, Siltie and Jimma.128 Then the majority of Halaba
people began to become Muslims in the17th century.129 On the other hand famous scholar like
Braukamper explained that in the early period of 17th century, Halaba became a small Muslim
principality in southern Ethiopia.130 Similarly, informants also emphasized that Halaba became
Muslims since 17th century.131 The oral historians and some written sources confirmed that most of
the Halaba people officially declared Islam as their own religion in the 17 th century. The seventeenth
century is a historic period in Halaba people‟s history since the majority of Halaba people became
converted into their ancestor‟s religion.132

2.4.1. King Aliko of Halaba and the Role of Merchants in the Consolidation of
Islam in middle of 17th century

Around the middle of the 17th century, Ulla Halaba possessed an Islamic principality as the
Portuguese traveler Antonio Fernandez narrated to his followers. King Aliko was an Islamic leader
of Halaba people who contributed to the expansion of Islam among the Halaba. He was also opposed
the Christian missionaries who came to his principality. When they arrived in Halaba community
Halaba people were already adherents of the Islam.133 According to my informants and Braukamper
in middle of 17th century, king Aliko of Halaba, who was himself a Muslim promised to teach Islam

127
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Islamization of Arsi Oromo,” The proceeding of 8th International
Conference of Ethiopian Studies. (Edited by Taddesse Beyene, Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University press, vol
1984), p.42.p.171; Amrulah Teleha, p.147; Zena Ayele, p.21.
128
Ibid.
129
Informants: Ato Habib Mundino, Sheikh, Hussein Kebato; Epherm Zeleke,” pp.21-40.
130
Ulrich Braukamper, Peoples and Cultures of Southern Ethiopia. In Collected Essays: Hamburg,
2002. pp.171-210.
131
Informants: Ato, Hussein Mundino, Ato Abdurrahman Keasim.
132
Ulrich Braukamper, “Islamic principalities in Southeast Ethiopia.”p.24.
133
Ulrich Braukamper, The History of Hadiya in Southern, p.173.
 25

to other Halaba people.134 So, he greatly contributed to further spread Islam into major areas of
Halaba land in the middle of the 17th century.135 According to Halaba oral traditions, Haji Aliye is
assumed to be the Great grandfather of Halaba king Aliko and he was also a grandfather for many
East Gurage Muslim groups, of people for instance Halaba, Qebena, Siltie, Libdo and Marako.136
Haji Aliye perched to the East Gurage Muslim groups who became adherents of the Islam. King
Aliko allowed Muslim preachers to enter Halaba land freely without any restrictions to perch the
Halaba community. During the period of king Aliko a small number of Halaba people practiced the
Fandananno traditional religion of Hadiya people.
As a result he used a force to convert them into their ancestral religion Islam, which had been
weakened by during the 16th centuries.137 Religion scholars agree that every religion had been
spread into different communities by their agents, whether religious or non-religious, who later
conveyed the attitude of a given community through face-to-face teaching or direct contact with
those non-religious people. The religious scholars classified some of these diffuser or agents such as
Muslim merchants, Muslim Sheikhs, and others who gradually became Muslims.138 Similarly, some
important Islamic religious scholars or agents came into the Halaba land that inspired the expansion
of Islam at different times for instance Sheikh Seyid Abidar, Sheikh Side, and Sheikh Hassan,
Sheikh Hussein, and Sheikh Nesrelah. The Muslim merchants who came from Harar to Halaba land
in the middle of the 17th century including Sheikh Nesrelah, Sheikh Berkele, Sheikh Ali and Sheikh
Side Kebir, and others who thought Islam to the Halaba people in the middle of the 17th century.
These sheikhs perched Islam during the period of king Aliko of Halaba. However, those Muslim
teachers who first came to Halaba community from different Muslim centers to preach the Halaba
people in the first Muslims teachers‟ wave in the middle of the 17th century.139
Historically, the written sources indicated that those indigenous Islamic teachers begun to teach the
Halaba people by the end of 17th century which is the second wave of Muslim preachers. Those
Muslim teachers who came to Halaba land and thought Islam during the second wave of Muslim
preachers arriving by the end of the 17th century were indigenous preachers who were converted to
Islam by Muslim missionaries who came from other area.

134
Informants: Ato Amrulah Teleha, Hussein Kebato; Ulrich Braukamper, p.178.
135
Informants: Ato Zabiba Hailu, Imam, Gemda Abdila.
136
Informants: Ato Muzamin Jemal, Ato Ali Bamud .
137
Informants: Sheik Hussein Kebato, Ato Shifa Hassen.
138
Markos Tekele, p.78.
139
Mehamaed Tedesse, p.78.
 26

During this period, those Muslim teachers inhabited most parts of the Halaba land. For instance,
between the middle and end of the 17th century, most parts of the Halaba society especially in the
vicinity of Kulito, Mitio, Alam Tena, Lenda, Abokicho, Guba, Makala, Choroko, and other nearby
localities Muslim preachers settled.140 According to Ephrem Zeleke the northern medieval Muslim
states of Ethiopia served as a source of Muslim preachers who contributed to the introduction and
expansion of Islam religion in the Halaba Zone. These medieval Muslim states were Hadiya, Ifat,
Shewa, Bale, Sharkha, and other medieval Muslim states in Ethiopia.141 Beginning from the
medieval period of Ethiopia Halaba community became one of the trading and economic centers for
many merchants of Ethiopians who received numerous Muslim caravan traders to the area from
different locations of Ethiopia. Similarly, these, traders came from different areas to purchase the
agricultural products of Halaba people. For instance, from those agricultural products different
Muslim merchants are bought red pepper, and Chat, Teff.142 On the other hand Halaba is located on
the main caravan routes from east to west, north to south and it also laid on the Addis Ababa to Arba
Minch road.143 The region‟s much importance in trade and it was connecting all the traders‟ in
today‟s administrative center of Halaba in Kulito town. It also served as a rest place for farmers and
caravan traders who came from various areas such as from Sidama, Hadiya, Wolayita, Dawaro,
Konta, and Gamo-Gofa. The Jabarti traders, who came from the northern Ethiopia, played a
significant role in the spread of Islam in Halaba, from end of the 17th century to the end of 18th
century.
But the names of those traders Jabarti traders were not mentioned until now although and near to
Jabarti traders' settlements and Halaba Jabarti School were found in Kulito town.144 These Jabarti
played a great role and their legacy is seen in Halaba today.145 Nevertheless, it is interesting to point
out that the Halaba Zone in general and Kulito town, in particular, had long years of contact with
Muslim communities before the majority of Halaba people converted in to the Islam religion in 19th

140
Ibid.
141
Epherem Zeleke, p.44.
142
Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Halaba Zone Socio Economic
Development its Statistical Abstract, 2012.
143
Alemayehu Lirenso, “The Function of Periodic Markets in Kambata and Hadiya Awuraja” (Seminar
Paper Addis Ababa University, 1983), p.16.
144
Ibid.
145
Ambaye Ogato “A History of the Development of Non-garrison Towns in Sidama with Particular
Reference to ErbaTown. (Unpublished BA senior essay, in History, Addis Ababa University, 2000), p.44.
 27

century. Scholars suggest that during the expansion, of Islam in Halaba people experienced many
socio-economic changes. They settled in the Halaba Kulito between the 19th and 20th centuries.146

2.4.2. Halaba Relations with Jimma traders and others and their Contribution
to the Expansion of Islam

According to Kapteijns the expansion Islam was associated with trading centers within the Christian
communities frequented by Muslim merchants. These communities conducted their trade under royal
protection. The expanding and flourishing Muslim communities were decentralized in their
character.147 The earlier coastal communities are thought to have been Arab or another non-African
origin, and those who" increasingly developed their Muslim characteristics, and they also propagated
Islam among the predominantly nomadic peoples in the lowlands areas who were their immediate
neighbors" over time.148 The first Muslims arrived in Ethiopia as individuals or families rather than
in large, organized groups. According to Henok Tsegaye, the Muslim traders came from northern
and southwestern Ethiopian to parts of Halaba during the 19th century long-distance trade period.
Henok Tsegaye stated that during the earlier period of the introduction of Islam in Halaba
community there were two groups of Muslim teachers indigenous and others who were are Arabs
origin. However, the Red Sea trade revived at the beginning of the 18th century, along which Islam
was gradually expanding. Similarly, trade also flourished along the horn of African's sea ports in
Kenya, for instance in Mombasa.149 My informants and written sources explain that one of the
Muslim traders who came Halaba land during the end of the 18th century were Umar Salim who
came from Arabia.150

Umar Salim nick named by the Halaba people as Umar Kambata. The other was Sheikh Salih and
both of them traded in Salt, Red pepper, and Coffee.151 They had also played a role in the processes
of Islam expansion in the towns like Kulito, Guba, Beshano, Yaye, Badane, Abokicho, Aleam Tena,

146
Rebato Kedir, p.49.
147
Kapteijns, Leiwus, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. The History of Islam in Africa. (Athens: Ohio
University Press, 2000), p.70.
148
TaddesseTamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. (Oxford University: Clarendon press,
1972), pp.126-130.
149
Henok Tsegaye, “The Growth and Influence of Islam in Ethiopia from 1989 to 2000,” (Salvation
gate ministry, 200), pp. 1-20.
150
Ibid.
151
Informants: Ato Nasiru Mushke and Imam, Gemda.
 28

and other centers of the Halaba land by the beginnings of 19th century.152 On the other hand during
the early period of the Amhara conquest and its political system the territorial expansion of Amhara
furthermore helped for the establishment of a new market center in Halaba, and the Kulito market
center is a good example in Halaba community. This town is the oldest one in Halaba Zone.153
According to Halaba oral informants the establishment of Kulito market as trading center precedes
Amhara conquest. Others informants say it was established during the period of Amhara conquest
especially during the second half of the 19th century.

According to Mehamaed Teddesse, local markets gradually attracted different groups of merchants
from different geographical areas of Ethiopia. From those local market centers of the Halaba
community; Kulito was the biggest market center depending on its location and the availability of
certain items, in addition to local political conditions of the ruling political system.154 The Muslim
merchants were merchants for whom business interests were shared by Muslim traders from
northern part of Ethiopia and the local clan leaders of Halaba people were also participated. They
also adopted Islam and later it encouraged Islam to spread into the Halaba community.155 As long as
the Muslim traders offered gifts, to the Halaba people leaders they protected and welcomed them.

However, at this stage in their relationship, the Muslim traders did not find the time to attend market
and preach because the ground was not sufficiently prepared and later they adopted the trader‟s
religion of Islam and their culture later. This marked a significant milestone in the spread of Islam in
the Halaba Zone.156 In the earlier period many Muslim merchants came into Halaba, particularly
from the Arsi, Bale, Dodola and other places of northern Ethiopia, and played an important role in
the expansion of Islam into Halaba during the period of long distance trading activities, as well as
during the Islam expansion in Halaba land.157 From those long distance traders the most important
traders were the Jabarti traders who established good relationship with the Halaba people and settled
in Halaba community. After trying to settle in Halaba society, the Jabarti traders appear to have
taken the responsibility of teaching Islam and providing religious education for the Halaba people.

152
Ibid
153
Ibid.
154
Mehamaed Tedesse, pp.60-70.
155
Ibid.
156
Ibid.
157
Reato, Kedir, p.60.
 29

A good example of the Jabarti traders' legacies for the Halaba people is the Jabarti School, which
had been named by the Halaba people, after the Jabarti traders settled there.158

The trading link of the exchange of coffee from Jimma to the Halaba and the coming of Jimma
Oromo traders to Halaba Kulito for Red pepper, Teff, Maize, and other trading goods facilitated the
expansion of Islam.159 Generally, this trading link and the slaves who received from Woliyta, Gamo,
Konta, and other places brought the market center of Halaba in Kulito which were later exported to
Jimma and other market centers of Ethiopia. The traders of Jimma and others of the Red pepper from
Halaba Kulito market center which they exported to the many market centers of Ethiopia and it
promoted the expansion of Islam in Halaba. Through their trading, activity the Gibe states of Jimma
had a considerable role on the spread of Islam, particularly between 1820 and 1870 in Halaba. 160

2.4.3. The Role of Sheikh Wolle and Sheikh Abeinas in the Expansion of Islam
in the 19th century

Any religion has an agent who facilitated the expansion of Islam as discussed above. Generally,
when we look at the introduction and expansion of Islam in Ethiopia the role of merchants and
sheikhs was great.161 The popular facilitator of the expansion of Islam into my study area particularly
in Halaba Zone was by Muslim Sheikhs like Sheikh Hussien, Sheikh Wolle, Sheikh Abeinas, Sheik
Ali, Sheikh Wadiraz, and others in the Halaba community.162 From among these Sheikh Wolle and
Sheikh Abeinas who played a great role in the expansion processes of Islam in Halaba Zone.163
Sheikh Wolle is a well-known Muslim figure in Halaba community who came from Ifat particularly,
from the district of the eastern escarpment of the Shewa highlands to the territory of Halaba. He
visited Halaba Muslim and he thought them and stayed for a short period of time in Halaba.164
According to Shifa Bonsamo, Sheikh Wolle began his teaching Halaba in around, 1850.165 In short,

158
Ibid.
159
Yonas Seifu, “A Historical Survey of Jimma Town (1936-1974)” (MA Thesis, Addis Ababa,
History, 2002), p.67.
160
Mehamaed Tedesse, p .100.
161
Haggai Erlich, Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Ethiopia: the Message of Religions. The Fifth
annual Levtzion Lecture. Jerusalem, 2013,p.44.
162
Ulrich Braukamper, Die Kambata: Geschichte und Gesellschaft, (Wiesbaden, 1983), pp.41-52.
163
Informants: Ato Habib Mundino, Sheikh, Ato Hussein Kebato; Epherm Zeleke, pp.21-40.
164
Melaku Kebede, “Culture and History of Halaba People in Southern Ethiopia.” (BA. Essay in
History, Wolayita Sodo University, 2010),pp.8-19.
165
Shifa Bonsamo, “The Ancestral Religion of Halaba and Kambata People in Southern Ethiopia”
(Unpublished, BA. Essay in History, in Wachamo University, 2011), pp.1-39.
 30

he contributed more to the re-Islamization of Halaba in the 19th century.166 Therefore, Sheikh Wolle
played a great role in his short period of stay in Halaba and he was successful in his conversions of
Halaba especially in his re-Islamizing of Halaba people and later he moved to the land of the East
Gurage.167 The other popular Muslim Sheikh in Halaba was Sheikh Abeinas whose Islamic shrine
center was located in the district of Arsho Kebele on the Mountain peak of Motokoma. There is
confusion among the elderly informants of the Halaba on Sheikh Abeinas' background and the
arrival date into Halaba land especially Motokoma. According to some of Halaba elders, he came
from Bale before the arrival of Amhara leaders into the Halaba territory, while the other group said
he came from Jimma from the village of the Abba Jiffar of Jimma.168

According to Epherem Zeleke and Worku Nida Sheikh Abeinas thought to the Halaba people at
what later become his Shrine center of Motokoma and many Halaba people became converted in to
Muslim during his teachings.169 Mount Motokoma which became Sheikh Abeinas shrine was
covered by dense forest of a variety of species of trees.170 The people of Halaba performed prayers
on Friday in the Sheikh Abeinas Shrine center and Halaba people call them the pray day on
Motokoma on Friday known as a Majlis day. On the Friday prayers on Majlis ceremony many
Muslim followers‟ came to the shrine center to pray and ask Allah to keep them away from natural
disasters and man-made problems.171 They believed that those problems were controlled if they
prayed at Sheikh Abeinas Shrine and they become prosperous.172 The lunch program was followed
by Coffee ceremony. During the Coffee ceremony, in addition to the Arabic prayer, elders recited
prayers in Halabissa language. Then, after praying and blessing, of Sheikh Abeinas shrine and the
„Chat’ is distributed to all attendants of the Friday prayers of Majlis ceremony.173

166
Informants: Ato, Mohammed Bute . Ato,Shiffa Bettana
167
Haile Bubamo. “Some Notes on Fandango Religion in Hadiya (South western Shewa, p.24.
168
Informants: Haji Garad Mundino, Ato,Diltata Muzeyn.
169
Epherem Zeleke, p.44. ; Worku Nida, “The Revivalist Movement of Hassan Enjamo.” (BA, Essay
in History, Addis Ababa University,1983), p,23.
170
Informants: Ato Nasiru Mushke, Ato Mohmmed Shiffa, Ato Nuramade Ibrahim.
171
Ulrich Braukamper, Die Kambata: Geschichte und Gesellschaft, (Wiesbaden, 1983), pp.41-52.
172
Ahmed Safo, Serra: “The Halaba Peoples History, Culture and Language.” (Unpublished, BA,
Essay, in History Wolayita Sodo University, 20120), p.78.
173
Informants: Imam, Wulachafo Abido, Ato Ali Bamud, Sheikh, Hussein Kebato, Ato Shukurala
Mufit.
 31

On the other hand, on Friday prayers of Majlis ceremony Coffee is served in small clubs, (Kawi
Koreta) in the Halabissa language).174 According to the informants, clubs (Kawi Koreta) are an
instrument used to drink Coffee by Halaba people in their community, especially on days of the
Majlis ceremony at Sheikh Abeinas shrine. According to Tigstu Ayele, many Muslim peoples came
to the Majlis ceremony center of the Sheikh Abeinas not only to participate in the Majlis ceremony
but they came to seek the blessing and advice from the elders who gathered at Sheikhs Abeinas. In
this sense, Sheikh Abeinas plays an important role in the expansion of Islam in Halaba Zone.175
According to Tigstu Ayele and my informants, the peoples, who lived in and around the Shrine of
Sheikh Abeinas shrine are devotees and voluntary servants of Sheikh Abeinas descendants. In
general Sheikh Abeinas played an important role in the expansion of Islam in the Halaba Zone.176

The photo taken by the researcher Tariku Bedore on Motokoma in 12/8/2013 EC

Figure, 2. Majlis ceremonies at Shrine of Sheikh Abeinas on Motokoma

2.4.4. The Contribution of Islamic Shrines in Halaba in the Revival of Islam in 19th century

Shrines are the place where Muslims visited for various reasons. Some of the well-known shrine
centers throughout the Halaba Zone are dating back to the nineteenth century. These Shrines are

174
Informants: Ato Geramu Teasfaye, Ato Shifa Hassen, Ato Alemu Gemada.
175
Tigstu Ayele, “The History of Beshano Town from its Foundation to Development and
Religious Culture of the Community”. (Unpublished, B.A. Essay in History, Arab Minch University, pp.49-61.
176
Tigstu Ayele, p. 24. ; Informants: Sheikh, Hussein Kebato,
 32

Abicho Nura-alah, and Sheikh Abinas Shrine.177 The other Shrines are the Dirre Sheikh Hussein‟s
shrine in Bale and it also played a major role in the expansion process of Islam in Halaba. They
performed several functions. The first function of these shrines is to act as a place where the annual
anniversary of the prophet‟s birthday will be held.178 Those Sheikhs played a significant role in the
expansion of Islam in all parts of the Halaba Zone. They built-up Islamic shrine centers in some
parts of the Halaba that inspired the Halaba people to follows Islam and respect the religion as the
religion of the whole Halaba people. The Shrine centers received many Muslims teachers to the
shrine center and those teachers led the worship of the shrine centers.179 Therefore, the foundation of
shrine further facilitated the re-Islamization of Halaba people in the 19th century.180

2.4. 5. The Role of Dirre Sheikh Hussein for the Consolidation of Islam in Halaba

According to Gemechu Geda, Dirre Sheikh Hussein is the name of the Islamic religious center in
Ethiopia, which is important for many Ethiopians Muslims in the process of the introduction and
expansion of Islam in Ethiopia. This Shrine center is located in Oromia Regional State of Bale Zone,
in the Zonal capital town of Robe's district of Gololcha.181 According to Trimingham statement the
shrine of Sheikh Hussein is one of the most interesting religious phenomena in northeast Africa,
founded during the Muslim Sultanate of Bali by a person named Sheikh Hussein. Sheikh Hussein
was regarded as the most important Godly man of Bali's Muslim sultanate, and his origins can be
traced back to Mecca, from which he traveled to Ethiopia by the Somali coast around 1200 A.D.182
The Shrine of Sheik Hussein was established during the old Muslim Kingdom of Bali, which refers
to the time of the sultanate of Bali (13thc to the 16th century).

According to various scholars and oral informants Dirre Sheikh Hussein Shrine played a significant
role in the re-introduction and consolidation of Islam into Halaba. According to scholarly studies and
oral informants Halaba people began to visit the Sheikh Hussein Shrine from around the last years of
the 16th century to pray and participate in the ceremony which took place there. The participations of

177
Bawer Oumer, “The Development of Islamic Propagation (Da’wa) in Addis Ababa and Its
Surroundings.” (MA Thesis in History, Addis Ababa University, 2006), p.16.
178
Amrulah Teleha, The History of Halaba, p.60.
179
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical”, pp.29-50.
180
Informants: Haji Gerad Diltata Muzeyn, Fekeadu Berhane.
181
Gemechu Geda, “Pilgrimages and Syncretism: Religious Transformation among the Arsi
Oromo of Ethiopia”. (Hamburg, University, 2013), pp.37-44.
182
Trimingham Jon. Islam in Ethiopia. (London: Oxford university press, 1952), pp.78
 33

Halaba people in that ceremony lead to the expansion of Islam especially the re-Islamization of
Halaba people into Islam.183 According to Braukamper, Halaba people began to visit Dirre Sheikh
Hussein when they assimilated the cult and preserved it.184 According to other researcher like
Gemechu Geda Dirre Sheikh Hussein contributed more to the spread of Islam in Ethiopia,
particularly in the introduction and spread of Islam into different parts of Ethiopia. Some of its
expansions were linked to its pilgrimage ceremony at this Shrine, center and it supported the
expansion of Islam in many parts of Ethiopia.185 According to my oral informants, the Dirre Sheikh
Hussien Shrine was a famous Islamic pilgrimage center that drew both Islamic and non-Islamic
pilgrims from the 13th century until today.186 According to my informants from Halaba, many
Muslim Halaba people made pilgrimage to Dirre Sheikh Hussien before the building up of his
elder son's memorial center of Abicho Nura-alaha Ahmed in Halaba land, and this motivated Islam
expansion in Halaba in the 19th century.187 As a result, of their visit, to Dirre Sheikh, Hussein Shrine
most Muslims returned to their Islam.188 Sheikh Hussein‟s son, Abicho Nur-Allah Ahmed Shrine
was constructed in Halaba in 19th century. It is located about 3 kilometers south of Kulito town on
the left side of the main road of the Addis Ababa to Arbaminch and near the bridge over the river of
Bilate. It is a traditional worship place for Halaba Muslims in Halaba Zone, and other believers visit
it twice a year.

That is celebrated twice once during the Muslim holiy-day of Ed-al-Adha (Arefa) and the other time
"Gelgela Gobana", which falls six months after Arefa.189 Nura-alah Ahmed was a religious father
who came from Dirre Sheikh Hussein Shrine and preacher Islam before the period of re-Islamization
process began in Halaba land in 19th century. According to some oral tradition Dirre Sheikh came
into Halaba land at the unknown period of time. Dirre Sheikh Hussein Nura-alah Ahmed arrived in
Halaba Kulito as a messenger of religious father of Sheikh Hussein.190 Most of the elders of
Halaba said that Nura-alah Ahmed came into Halaba land with his father Sheikh Hussein. Some
others also said that he arrived in the 19th century. According to my informants and some scholarly

183
Ulrich Braukamper “The Correlation of Oral Traditions and Historical”.p.18. Informant: Ato
Amrulah Teleha.
184
Ibid.
185
Gemechu Geda, pp.41-44; Informant: Ato Mathewose, Lechamo.
186
Teshome Amenu, p. 53.
187
Informants: Imam, Wulachafo Abido, Ato Ali Bamud.
188
Informants: Ato Mohmmed Bute, Ato Hussein, Mundino, Ato Otoko Ergano.
189
Informants: Ato Alemu Gemada Ato Shemisu Nurye, Ato Muktar Roba.
190
Informants: Ato Zenabe Alamu, Ato Samuel, Kebede
 34

studies Nura-alah Ahmed was not completed his teaching in Halaba land.191 While, Nura-alah
Ahmed was preaching Islam in Halaba land he had been suddenly sick and lost his life in Halaba
Kulito town near the Bilate river.192 For this reason the Halaba Muslim people constructed Shrine for
him as burial place.193 Therefore, more than half of the Halaba people converted into of Islam,
during the period of Dirre Sheikh Hussein and his son Nura-alah Ahmed who came to Halaba and
his thought Halaba people to become Muslims.194 According to my informants Sheikh Hussein and
his son Nura-alah Ahmed mission and vision was accompanied by Muslim brothers like Sheikh
Mohammed Burjaj and his friends like Seyid Umar, Wadzar Geyir, Kazimral Beahir, Miskinam and
others who preached during the second half of the 19th century.195 He came with his friends through
Assela, Marako, Siltie, Shashogo, and Kambata.196

2.4.6. The Shrine of Abicho Nura-alah Ahmed in Halaba and its Contribution
to the Islam Expansion

There are popular Islamic learning centers in many parts of the Ethiopia. In those Islamic learning
centers Muslim teachers gave education for none Muslim people who become Muslim.197 From
those well-known Islamic learning center few of them are found in southern Ethiopia particularly
in Halaba Zone. Historically, Kulito town, and its vicinity there are some popular Islamic learning
centers from among which one is Abicho Nura-alah Ahmed Shrine which is the popular Islamic
learning centers in Halaba Zone.198 The Islamic people of Halaba established Shrine for Abicho
Nura-alah Ahmed memorial center and served for many Halaba and others people to accept
Islam.199 Nura-ralah Ahmed was buried in Halaba Zone in the administrative center of the Halaba,
Kulito town, near river Bilate. According to my oral informants the established and the burial site
of the Nura-ralah Ahmed is named by Halaba people as Abicho, which means "great spiritual site"

191
Amrulah Teleha, pp.21-40; Ato Shukurala Zabib, Ato Muzamin, Jamal, Ato Alamu Zekarias.
192
Brihanu Sinamo, “The Introduction and Development of Catholicism in Hadiya and Kambata
from the 1920s-1991” (MA Thesis, in History, Addis Ababa, University, 2014), pp. 30-61.
193
Haile Mariam Girma, “Th e History of Halaba People and their Cultural link with the Silte
people in Southern Ethiopia.” (Unpublished, BA, Essay in History Gondar University, 2000),pp. 70-72.
194
Ibid.
195
Informants: A to Bekele Galato Fekeadu Berhane Mohmmed Shiffa Mukamil Mohammed
196
Informants: Ato Shiffa Bettana, Ato Hussen, Jabe, Sheikh, Hussein Ato Kabato Olonjo.
197
Tolera, Assefa. “Interrogating Religious Plurality and Separation of State and Religion in
Ethiopia.” Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review 33, 1, 2017.
198
Bawer, Oumer, p.18.
199
Getinet Teagne, p, 34. ; Informants: Ato Shiffa Bettana, Ato Hussen, Jabe, Sheikh,
 35

in Halabissa language.200 For these reasons thousands of people from all over the country visit the
area twice a year for pilgrimage.201 During the pilgrimage ceremony to this Shrine, the participants
participated in a lengthy Da'wa ceremony with the crowd. Da'wa is a Muslim communal invitation
to Islam.202 Nura-alah Ahmed's pilgrimage center is related to Sheikh Hussein of Bale's ceremonial
time.203 Those who cannot travel to Bale will attend Nura-alah Ahmed's ceremony in Halaba
Kulito. The presence of this Shrine encouraged the spread of Islam in Halaba and other ethnic
groups in southern Ethiopia.204 As my informants explained that the prayers offered at this Shrine
to Allah (God) help them in their daily life, to give them harmony for their family and for their
country.205 On the other hand, people also prayed there when they faced with various types of
catastrophes such as natural and man-made for instance drought, famine, flooding and war was
solved by Allah (God).206 Their prayers hold around the Shrine of the Nura-alah Ahmed's burial
place.207 The Shrine center is visited by various Sheikhs, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, to
beseech God for various needs, like rain or the removal of any problem from Halaba Muslim
society.208 If they will adherent to Islam, he promised to pray to Allah to end of those above
mentioned problem. They promised to accept Islam, and they did so. Nura-ralah Ahmed was
buried in Halaba and his shrine center is found at Kulito near Bilate river.209

200
Informants: Ato Fekeadu Berhane, Ato Bekele Gelato, Ato Mustefa Kedir.
201
Ibid.
202
Bawer, Oumer, p, 16.
203
Epherm Zeleke, pp.21-40.
204
Rebato Kedir,p.70. Ato Mukamil Mohammed.
205
Informants: Ato Zabiba Hailu, Imam, Ato Gemada Abdila.
206
Mustafa Habamo, p.49.
207
Ibid.
208
Ahmmed Safo, p.78. ; Braukamper . A History of the Hadiyya in.,p.69.
209
Informants: Ato Bekele Galato Ato Fekeadu Berhane Ato Mohmmed Shiffa
 36

The photo was taken by the researcher in 2/4/2013, EC.

Figure 3. Abicho Nur-alah Ahmed Shrine in Halaba Zone

2.4.7. Indigenous Islamic Education Centers in Halaba

The indigenous Islamic education is non-formal education center which was introduced primarily to
spread the philosophy and laws of Islam among Muslims. Based on evidence from literature and oral
informants, the purpose of Islamic education is the teaching of Islamic dogma and other practices to
Muslims and non-Muslim groups, of the people including the rights and duties of Muslims people
when dealing with the creator as Allah.210 The other goal of Islamic education is to transform
people's lives, and to spread literacy.211 In the case of Islam education in the southern Ethiopia
region, particularly, in the Halaba community, various scholars contend that Islamic education was
initiated by rulers like king Aliko of Halaba, Imam, Nunade Shelamo (1930-1938) Imam Bushra

210
Ali Yasin, “The deployment of Islamic Education System in Ethiopia: Its Features, Relevance
and Influence on Muslim Culture with Reference to South Wallo,” (PhD dissertation, Addis Ababa University, 2005),
p.42.
211
Amrulah Teleha, pp.21-70.
 37

Hundito, (1941-1954) at various times.212 During these rulers Islam was further spread among the
Halaba people and there were many mosques were also built up in the Halaba Zone, particularly in
Halaba Kulito, and in other many urban and rural centers throughout most of the Halaba Zone.213
According to my oral informants and other written evidence, the reign of Imam Bushra from
(1941–1954) was taken as the time of the emergence of additional Islamic centers in many urban and
rural areas of Halaba Zone.214 The ruling system was more focused on the Quran education teaching
and paid more attention on educating children, whose age range is between above 8-12. It was more
critical age to pay attention to educating children in Halaba during the period of Imam Bushra from
(1941–1954).215 On the other hand, people who were significantly older age were also engaged in
Quran education.

Imam Bushra advised other local peoples to educate Islam education and he is said to have begun
the teaching of Quran education to the children of every elite in his own house at Islamic centers
gradually emerged, and increasing in number of educators and students who came to him.216 The
formation of religious institutions like mosques, Shrines around the Muslim community of Halaba
which played an important role in the task of Islam's expansion in the Halaba Zone.217 As a result
later many other Islamic education centers emerged in urban centers which facilitated the
consolidation of Islam.218 The popular Islamic Mosque in Halaba Zone was the Garand Nur mosque
built in 1938 with the support of Imam Nunade Shelamo in Kulito town in the middle of market
center.219 Before the construction of the new Garand Nur mosque, a small mosque was built that was
decorated with wood and grass which come to be known as "Sar Kidan Masegaja." It is previously
known as Halaba Kulito oldest Islamic mosque.220

212
Ulrich Braukamper, “The correlation of Oral Traditional and Historical, p.34.
213
Ibid.
214
Informants: Ato Hussein Jabe, Ato Mohammed Jabe.
215
Grenstedt, Staffan, “Ambaricho and Shonkolla: From Local Independent Church to the
Evangelical Mainstream in Ethiopia. The Origins of the Mekane Yesus Church in Kambata-Hadiya.‟‟(Uppsala,
Sweden,2000),p.66
216
Ibrahim Sayid. “The Islam History in Halaba and their Culture of Halaba Kulito people”.
(Unpublished, BA, Essay in History in Dilla University, 1997),p.78.
217
Ibid
218
Tamirat Anshebo, “The History of Islam Religion in Bonosha Town and its Expansion in
their Community from 1983-2011.” B.A. Essay in History, Wolayita Sodo University, 2006.
219
Ibid
220
Haile Meshasha, “The Religion History in Halaba Community in Southern Ethiopia during
the Period of Ethiopia Emperor‟s from 1894-1897”. (Unpublished, BA, Essay in History, Bahir Dar University,
2004),pp.1-40.
 38

Generally, during the Ethio-Italian war, this grass house mosque was changed and modified, and it
received a new design from the mosque's architects after Ethiopia was liberated from five years rule
of Italian. Similarly, this Islamic worshiping site was the most important Islamic religious expansion
center in Halaba Zone for both urban and rural areas of Halaba community.221 This Islamic
worshiping center was the basis for further diffusion of Islam to the other Islamic centers in Halaba,
resulting in a re-Islamization process.222 The other important mosque is the Badane mosque. It is
locally termed as Badane due to its location near to the Badane dense forest center. According to my
oral informants this mosque is founded by Wollo Sheikh Ali named Badane mosque at the
beginnings of the 19th century.

This Badane mosque is huge in areal coverage and it is the largest mosque which was built up with
the 3000 light metals. The architect of this mosque was Sayid Makiy and some other significant
feature of the Badane mosques is that it runs Quranic education school.223 This Badane mosque was
divided in to three rooms, one of which was named “Golege” it was used as store room of written
materials, particularly Quran, Kitab, newspapers and other written materials in mosque.

The other rooms in Badane mosques are the “Adabo Kawa” in Halabissa language. These “Adabo
Kawa” is used for numerous Islamic religious practices, such as praying rooms during Islam holiy-
day in Ramadan. In general, Badane mosque beguan worships service in 1945.224 According to
Halaba oral informants, the architect of Badane mosque was Alame Ambaye, and also the diameter
of the mosques was 50-60 feet wide. According to Hussein Jabe and others, there are nowadays
more than 8 mosques in Halaba Kulito town.225 There are many mosques which are founded in
Halaba Kulito town and its surrounding areas like: Garand Mosque, Jabart mosque, Bilali mosque,
Seyid Ali mosque, Amdabrto and others are famous mosques in Kulito town today.226 Therefore,
there were many mosques found in many urban and rural areas of the Halaba Zone which was built

221
Abosse Abdu, “The people of Halaba and History of Islamic Introduction and Expansion in
Southern Ethiopia.” (Unpublished, BA, Essay in history Wolayita Sodo University, 2004), p.70.
222
Ibid.
223
Daniel Tafar, The short History of Local Kings of Halaba People in Ethiopia. (Halaba Kulito:
Serra printing hues Unpublished, 1999),pp.12-30.
224
Informants: Ato Hussien Aleango, Ato Hussien Ibrahim and Ato Mustefa Kedir.
225
Informants: Ato Naseradin Habib, Ato Ashenaf, Belay.
226
Informants: Ato Hussein Jabe, Ato Habib Mundino and Ato Nurahmmad Ibrahim.
 39

up by different Islam religious man of Halaba and other Muslim's support by well-known Muslim
religious followers.227

The photo was taken by the researcher 3/6/2012 EC.

Figure 4. The Garad Nur mosque in Kulito town

2.4.8. Muslims Culture in Halaba Society

Pilgrimage is defined as a journey to a shrine or other sacred place attempted to acquire divine help
and support, as an act of thanks giving or penance, or to demonstrate devotion.228 Similar to other
parts of the Ethiopia Halaba Muslims are moved to the other area made pilgrimages to Islamic
centers for a variety of reasons.229 The reasons for pilgrimage in the area include a desire for
spiritual fulfillment, the healing power of the center, and the idea that pilgrims will visit the shrine
and bring major teaching institutions in the study area had been transformed into shrines, attracting
a large number of pilgrims each year from other parts of Halaba and from the neighbors people in
Halaba. Halaba are mainly Muslim and there are more than 1,000 madrassa (Islamic school)
students were sent to other region during the government of Ethiopian Peoples‟ Revolutionary

227
Epherem Zeleke, p.77.
228
Abir, Morchedaik. The Era of the Princes. The Challenge of Islam and the Reunification of
the Ethiopian Empire, 1769-1855.London, Frank Cass, 1968. .
229
Hussein Ahmed, “Traditional Muslim Education in Wollo.Proceedings of the Ninth
International Congress of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 3. (Moscow, 1988), p.78.
 40

Democratic Front (EPRDF) in 1991. Under the Marxist Derg many students worked as farmers as
a result of the harsh rule of Derg government in the region. The Muslim peoples of Halaba
decorated the walls of their homes by green color to indicate the house as Muslim and the moon.
The Muslims who have made the Haji pilgrimage to Mecca proudly depict the Kaba on their walls
and they are much respected people. In the other side the house of the Christians are a minority in
Halaba but their houses is highly decorated, including with quotes from the Bible of the
Christians.230

In the tradition of Halaba people the walls of house decorated with the large collection of coffee
cups, a local tradition to show that wife you can welcome a lot of people at your home. The only
furniture that you can find inside many houses is chairs. All the money goes to the paintings, many
say.231 People like having their favorite animals represented on their walls, like the cows and the
camels they work with every day.232 Lions are no longer found in the region, but they are still
painted on walls as they are part of Ethiopia‟s history and are a symbol of power and strength.
Daily life is depicted on many walls of their house.233

230
Daniel Tafar, pp.40-49. Informant: Garad Mundino Nasiru.
231
Informants: Ato Hussien Aleango, Ato Hussien Ibrahim.
232
Informants: Ato Hussein Jabe, Ato Habib Mundino.
233
Epherem Zeleke, p.77. Informant: Ato Jemal Habib.
 41

CHAPTER THREE

3. SOCIO - ECONOMIC AND THE CULTURAL FEATURES OF THE

HALABA PEOPLE

3.1. Traditional Administration System of Halaba people and its Institution

The main objective of this chapter is to discuss the socio-economic and cultural feature and the
traditional administration system of Halaba people in southern Ethiopia. Now let us start with the
Socio-cultural history first by defining culture. Culture is defined as the sum total of learned
beliefs, values, and customs that govern the behavior of members of a specific ethnic group or
people in a given society. According to Edward Culture is the totality of learned, socially
transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior, including the ideas, values, and
artifacts of groups of people.234 Each individual perceive, the world through his own cultural lens.
Culture is learned, changeable and adaptable.235 The Halaba people, like others Ethiopian people
or societies, they had their own traditional administration and government system at various
times.236 The Halaba people governed by their traditional administration system called Seera.

Seera is the totality of code of conduct operational throughout the Halaba people. It is an unwritten
body of rules and procedures binding the community members with regard to all patterns of
relationships of Halaba people. As indicated above, Seera refers to the code of conduct practiced and
internalized among the Halaba people.237 The relations between individuals, tribes and territorial
units are regulated by Seera. Seera is a broadly conceived with normative realm within which
individuals and groups are expected to behave. In Halaba society, the territorial or tribal councilors
function according to their respective rules and regulations of the Seera.238 Similarly, the way of
love affairs, marriage and family relations, peer group associations, work and entertainment parties,

234
Edward Tylor, Society and Culture: Principles of Scarce and Solidarity. (London: SAGE
Publications, 2001),p.24.
235
Endale Eshte. “The Socio-Cultural History of Sidama People”.BA Thesis, Department of
History and Heritage Management. (Wolaita Sodo University, 2013),p.44.
236
Rebato Kedir, pp.78-80.
237
Yacob Arsano, Ethiopia the Challenge of Democracy from Below. (Sweden: Elanders
Gotab, Stockholm, 2002), pp.44-49.
238
Ibid.
 42

games and sports, hunting bands, are all bound by Seera relevant to the specific activity.239 The child
care, socialization of the young, circumcision, initiation and rites of passage are handled as Seera
requires. Seera prescribes the way farmers relate to the environment, young to old, women to
men.240 For instance, a farmer must not cut down a tree on his land without planting one or two
young trees in advance as replacement. Seera is holiday of Halaba in which all Halaba demonstrated
their unity, solidarity, and integrity. This Halaba Seera has been celebrated as a big cultural holiday
of Halaba people in Ethiopia.241 Since, 1996 Halaba Seera has been celebrated as a big cultural
holiyday every two years at the Woreda level in Kulito town and every year at the local or kebele
level at the end of “Mangesa” and at the beginning of the Halaba new year in January or
“Wotota”.242

According to Rebato Kedir, Seera is the traditional administration which began in Halaba since time
of immemorial. Historically, Halaba people used the traditional administrative system Seera to keep
peace in their community and settle disputes among different clan of Halaba and other neighboring
state.243 According to Yacob Arsano and the oral informants of Halaba the traditional administration
system of Halaba is related to the neighboring people of the Oromo, Siltie, Kambata, Qebena, and
Hadiya.244 Traditional administration is a system that is similar in all communities, which
distinguishes and provides a well-established model of ideas and beliefs about the world.245
Although, these worldviews and beliefs differ from place to place, their underlying motivations and
belief systems appear to be generally converging.246 The majority of Halaba people are Islamic
religious adherents.247 Most of the Halaba Muslims usually sat in their homes in their small mosques

239
Ibid.
240
Ibid.
241
Ibid.
242
Aman Nuriye, “The Land Reform in Southern Ethiopia in Case of Halaba and Kambata
during the Emperors Period from 1889-1913” (Arba Minch teachers College in History, Arba Minch1996), p.44.
243
Kedir Hussien, “The Traditional Administrations of Halaba People in Southern Ethiopia
from 1974-1991”. (Unpublished BA, Essay in Arba Minch University, 2004), p.4.
244
Yacob Arsano, Ethiopia the Challenge of Democracy from, pp.45- 56.
245
Kedir Hussien, “The Traditional Administration of Halaba People, p.23.
246
AyeleTerekegn, p.3-12.
247
Ibrahim Sayid. “The Islam History in Halaba and their Culture of Halaba Kulito people”.
(Unpublished, BA, Essay in History in Dilla University, 1997), p.60.
 43

to pray to Allah in every village of Halaba.248 They practiced Islam as a religious and cultural
practice in their community, and it is an exceptional community which has not been touched by
protestant missionary of the Sudan Interior Mission.249 Most of the Halaba people's culture was
related to Islam religion and its religious activities.250 In another way, the Halaba society involved
in cultural activities and some Islamic religious issues has been addressed using the Halabi Seera.
The main objective of the Halaba Seera traditional administration is to guarantee the peaceful co-
existence of the Halaba people with other ethnic groups in their community.251 In tradition of Halaba
people, Halabi Seera is used to negotiate if any problem happened in any family or clan they discuss
together and seek to solve the problem raised in the general assembly called Ogate.252 The general
assembly Ogate of Halaba represented all elders of the council from different clans of Halaba
people. The Halaba people discuss and solve all problems related with their economic, social,
political and traditional customary way of life by formulating rules and regulations by their general
assembly called Ogate.253

The Halaba people judicial traditional administration seat is not permanent, and it is held under the
shade of a big tree recognized as Ogate Hala. According to my oral informants like Amrulah Telaha,
and Mohammed Bute, the general assembly of the Halaba people has four levels. The first level
Halaba judicial system's is Boki Ogate (Yebeteseb Shengo), which oversees the issues of all family
members, and served as up to four or five generations. The second level is Mini Ogate (Yebetezemed
Shengo) which is an organ that solves the conflicts among all members of the family up to seven or
eight generations.254 According to oral informants as the time of the establishment of Ogate its
practice was not known. Based on oral informants, the origin of Ogate is not precisely known and
they give different assumption on the establishment of Ogate.255 The traditional administration
system of Ogate served in Halaba and Qebena as an indigenous institution for both ethnic groups.
Moreover, different scholars explained different concept on Ogate. It was established during the

248
Kedir Hussien, “The Traditional Administrations of Halaba”, p.19.
249
Henok Tsegaye, “The Growth and Influence of Islam in Ethiopia from 1989 to 2000,”
(Salvation gate ministry, 200),pp. 1-20
250
Bekele Woyimo, “The History of Halaba Kulito Town from its Foundation to
Development from 1937-1981”. (Unpublished, B.A, Essay in History, Wolayta Sodo University, 2008), pp.69-73.
251
Epherm Zelek, p.23.
252
Ibid.
253
Informants: Ato Amrulah Teleha Ato Hussein,Mundino.
254
Informants: Ato Amrulah Telaha, Ato Mohammed Bute.
255
Informants: Ato Jemal Habib Ato Desta Baraka Ato Naseradin Habib.
 44

ancestor‟s period and connecting the history of the people with its traditional system of
administration.256 According to Mohammed Awol when the people of Halaba and Qebena left Harar
and went to Bale, and then to Arsi around Shirka Gedeb they began to use their own traditional
administration system.257 Today, Halaba and Qebena people used the same term, Ogate for this
indigenous institution. So it might have been begun before the separation of Qebena and Halaba at
Mafeda near the present day of Gurage Zone.258 The third level of traditional administration system
of Halaba is Debo Ogate (Yegosa Shengo) that resolve conflict. At this stage the conflict between
sub-tribes were solved. Halabi Ogate (Ye Halaba Shengo), the highest rank of power, negotiated
conflicts between all Halaba tribes. Because its power and responsibility are extensive, it has the
authority to make decisions on laws, policies, and relationships with their neighbors.

Halabi Ogate is also an institution that resolves issues that have not been resolved at the first three
levels as well as an institution that oversees appeals.259 This traditional system of making decisions
are highly respected and enforced. According to Kedir Hussien, and Ayele Terekegn the four levels
of the traditional administrative system today work together with the Halaba Zone's regular court
office to make peace with the community.260 Beyond this working as an alternative judicial system,
the Halabi Ogate also encourages the community to help the disabled and poor by financial means
and physical support. It plays an important role in helping the community to fulfill its social
responsibility.261 According to Halaba elders like Garad Mundino and Nasiru Mushke this traditional
administrative system helps to bring harmony within the community and to bring peace by solving
conflicts in the community and it supports the poor segment of the society. 262 In the process of
reconciliation between the plaintiff and defendant, compensation is paid based on the seriousness of
the crime. Moreover, in Halaba culture the defendant is required to pay bail until he/she pays
compensation, to him. This compensation paying system is referred to as Rubete.263 Therefore, this
system helps Halaba people to live peacefully with neighboring people.

256
Mohammedawol Reshad, “Change and Continuity of Traditional System of Governance: The
Case of Ogaet among the Qebena, South Ethiopia. International Journal of Research in Engineering, IT and Social
Sciences.”(Volume 07 Issue 10, (Assosa University: Assosa, 2017), pp.27-32.
257
Informants: Ato Fekeadu Berhane, Ato Bekele Gelato, Ato Mustefa Kedir.
258
Ulrich Braukamper, “The correlation of Oral tradition,” p.34.
259
Kedir Hussien, p.68; Ayele Terekegn, pp.82-89.
260
Ibid.
261
Tigstu Ayele, pp.61.
262
Informants: Garad Mundino Abino, Ato Nasiru Mushke.
263
Informants: Garad Diltata, Ato Shifa Hassen, Ato Mohmmed Shiffa.
 45

The Halaba elders meet with the neighboring elders for serious and common issues. For example,
border issues, accidents, and marriage disputes.264 The general assembly of Halaba Ogate and forms
of the Halabi-Ogate are the final council, when the issues concerning all the tribes are to be
discussed and decisions should have been made. However, among the Halaba people of southern
Ethiopia, there are four traditional levels of administrators among all the Halaba people.265 This are:
Boki-Murichu, Mini-Murichu, Debo-Murichu, and Womma.

In Halaba society, Boki-Murichu is the head of a particular clan at the village level. The Mini-
Murichu is the head of the family level council. The Debo-Murichu is the head of the Debo Ogate
(clan level council), and Womma (king) is the head of the Halaba people.266 It was Hassen Nasro
who was the general assembly head of the Halaba people in the 16th century.267 Currently, his
descendants led this institution in Halaba. The Hassen Nasro families belong to the Side clan of
Halaba people. From all clans of Halaba the Side clan is accepted as an elder among the other clans
of the Halaba people because it is Lahi Boku (skillful clan in Halaba community).268

3.1.1. Holyday, Funeral and Marriage practices in Halaba

3.1.2. The Halaba Seera Holyday and its Celebrations

In Ethiopian many ethnic groups celebrate their holydays according to their own annual calendar.
The Halaba people in southern Ethiopia have their own holyday celebration day known as Halaba
Seera holyday. This Halaba Seera holyday brings all Halaba people together to celebrate their unity,
solidarity, and integrity.269 The Halaba community maintained the Halabi Seera unitary authority
throughout its social-political structure. The elders and Islamic religious leaders respected the
Halaba culture. Seera is unified voice of Halaba people and it was heard and the Halaba Sheiks has
been chosen as the religious leader of Halaba people. The Halaba Sheiks ruling system has been
chosen one of the Halaba community's ruling system for resolving religious and socio-political

264
Tigstu Ayele, p.24.
265
Informants: Ato Nura-Aḥmed Ibrahim, Ato Abdurrahman Keasim.
266
Ibid.
267
Tamirat Anshebo, “The History of Islam Religion in Bonosha Town and its Expansion in their
Community from 1983-2011.” (Unpublished B.A. Essay in History, Wolayita Sodo University, 2006), pp.1-39.
268
Zena Ayele, p.19.
269
Awoke Amzaye , p.90.
 46

problems since the 1950s.270 It is also widely used in the Halaba community today, and the people
respected it.271 Traditional cultural activities of the Halaba people and Islamic religious laws are
unified in the system to solve any problem that has arisen in Halaba society. The Halaba Sheiks are
highly respected regarded by the Halaba people.272 The Halaba Seera has been celebrated as a major
cultural holyday of Halaba every two years at the Woreda level in Kulito town, and every year at the
local or Kebele level at the end of Mangesa (January) and the beginning of the Halaba new year on
January.273 The main objectives of the Seera celebration are promoting the socio-political, cultural
and economic developments of the Halaba nation in Ethiopia. It helps to develop the physical and
spiritual values of the Halaba at national level and to reflect and introduced for our country in
general.274

The photo taken by the researcher in 6/7/2013, EC.

Figure 5. Halaba Seera Holyday Celebration

270
Halaba Zone Cultural and Tourism Bureau. A Symposium on the Culture, Language and
History of the Halaba People. (Halaba Kulito Robot printing, 2011), pp.1-40.
271
Behailu Desta, “Socio- Cultural and Political Interaction of Kambata and Halaba People
during the Period of Amhara Rulings.” (BA, Essay, in Hawassa Teacher‟s Education College, in History, 1993), p.1-
24.
272
Halaba Zone Sera Celebration and its Annual Report Profile, 2014.
273
Zena Ayele, p.90.
274
Zamadkhun Fikre, “The Culture and Cultural Interaction between the Peoples of Halaba and
Kambata in Southern Ethiopia”. (Unpublished, BA Essay, in Sociology, Wolayita Sodo University, 2013), p.44.
 47

3.1.3. Funeral and Mourning Ceremony in Halaba Community

The people of Halaba engage in a variety of cultural activities in their community, for instance, when
someone sick, in Halaba the neighbors came from their surrounding villages and relatives from
nearby and distant areas visit and inquire about the sick person.275 Meanwhile, if a sick person
suddenly dies the first thing done by society is immediately washing the body of the deceased with
cold water.276 Then the people in the vicinity came as soon as they hear the voices of people weeping
at the deceased home and homestead. After that, the message is sent by Idir members to kinsmen
and relatives who live in faraway or nearby areas. The Halaba people are already strong conservative
Muslim religion followers, with their own conservative Islamic laws that would be arranged for the
burial ceremony.277 The burial ceremony follows shortly after Islamic prayer. The funeral ceremony
of a well-known and brave person is marked by prolonged mourning, which is accompanied by
dances and songs such as "Hole, Hole Mordoyuko," which means "We are so sorry." 278

When the brave fighter killed wild animals, such as lion or leopards, died, a messenger would ride to
the villages of local markets on horseback, declaring the death of a famous man in society.279 The
clan leader or a man on horseback told them about the deceased person's genealogy and deeds before
informing them of the funeral date. Burial occurs on the day of a person's death in Halaba. If a small
child died, he or she would be buried at the same day.280 In Halaba, there was no tradition of keeping
the dead body for a week, as in some other cultures. For children, the period of mourning lasts for 3
days, and the mourning is not particularly beneficial.281 The other similar case on the funeral
ceremony ends, the people who traveled from all over the country by serveing them with coffee,
Busho, and Torosho, a type of bread made from maize or barley flour. The mourning period would
last from the day of the burial ceremony until the seventh or eighth day. That is, the seventh-day
ceremony is referred to as Alffateta Keisu, and the eighth day is referred to as Qurani Qereisisu

275
Ibid .
276
Halaba Zone Culture, Tourism office, A Symposium on the Culture, Language and History
of the Halaba nationality, (Kulito town, 2014), pp.12-16.
277
Halaba Zone Culture, Tourism affairs, A Symposium on the Culture, Language and History
of the Halaba Nationality, (Kulito Town, 2013), p.12.
278
Seifu Yigzu, “Kambata Awuraja Traditional Government of the Hadiya”, (M. A. thesis,
Department Political Science Addis Abebe University, 1970), pp. 16.
279
Kambata- Halaba Tembaro (KAT) Zone Culture and Tourism Office profile No,4 of the
(1990).
280
Halaba Zone History, Culture & Language Profile (Halaba Kulito, 2010).
281
Ibid.
 48

(Hajetta).282 According to Halaba oral traditions, of Halaba people Alffateta Keiso means the end of
the mourning program and the Quranni Qereisisu also refers to the calling of those who have
adequate knowledge of Quranic education and the ability to recite the verses of the Quran are also
performed for dead person. The prepared food is served in the homes of mourner for their relatives.
Every day in the morning, the neighbors bring coffee and food for dinner to the house of the dead
person.283 In other case, women who lose their husbands due to death do not marry for a year in
Halaba culture. On the day of her husband's funeral, the widow sits with another woman, her hair
smeared with fresh butter. She cuts her hair and covers it with a white garment after the burial
ceremony. 284

3.1. 4. Marriage Culture in Halaba Community

Marriage is a socially recognized and approved union between the two individuals of the opposite
sex made with the expectations of permanence and usually intending to produce offspring.
Marriage has a remarkable place in the life of the Halaba people. It is one of the social institutions
that make the beginning of the family in society as well as it is a means of creating social
interrelation among different ethnic groups of people. It is also considered as a way of getting a
significant place in a social responsibility among the Halaba community.285 In Halaba community
married person considered as having reached full development or a mature age. According to some
studies and oral informants, there are different types of marriage in Halaba community as with the
other Ethiopians people.286

The first and the most widely known marriage type in Halaba community is Meisisu. This is a
type of marriage held with the consent of the consent of the boys and girls families. When the
girl‟s and the boy‟s parent reached agreement, and the girls has no right to ignore this marriage.287
The second type of marriage is Heranata (Eloping) which is a type of marriage in the Halaba
culture which means marriage by the agreement of both couples. In this case the young boy and

282
Council of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional Profile. (Hawassa:
Berehanina Selam publishing, 2016), p.68.
283
Informants: Ato, Desta Somano, Alemu Gemada.
284
Halaba Zone Cultural and Tourism Bureau, A Symposium on the Culture, Language, pp.1-
40.
285
Rebato Kedir, “History and Culture of the”
286
Halaba Zone History, Culture & Language Profile (Halaba Kulito, 2010),
287
Ibid.
 49

the girl deliberately escape from their homes without the knowledge of parents from both sides.288
The condition would be settled later by sending elders from the side of the boy. The other type of
marriage is Gosu (Abduction) which is a type marriage by force without her or her parents‟
consent.289 The other type of marriage is Regita (Inheritance) which is practiced when a husband
loses his wife through death after the end of the funeral ceremony. The family of the woman
replaces her younger sister to the man. On the other hand marriage plays a key role in bringing
together people living in far places with different descent groups and religious background.
Among the Halaba people, marriage creates a social, emotional connection between different
groups of the society. Marriage converts strangers into friends and creates strong group and
personal alliances. Actually these all type of marriage might be playing a significant role for
introduction and expansion of Islam.290 The marriage type especially, „Heranata’ (Eloping)
marriage is more practiced between Muslim youth and Christian youth. Because by marriage
relation many Christian girls marred with Muslim boys and they become Islam. This can increase
the number of adherents of Islam because wives and children born to Muslims were regarded as
Muslims.

According to elders, women or wives are expected to subordinate themselves to the wishes of their
husbands. As her the Halaba culture the husbands have full control over all the properties of the
family except the special gift granted to her family in the form of “Nikise Giza” during their
marriage. Since daughters are highly respected in the cultures, they have the right to claim to the
inheritance of a plot of land from their parents.291 Those, families with many children mainly with
sons, are respected and their progeny are taken as sources of prosperity and imperviousness to
external attack and as insurance when the parents get older.292 On the other hand (Sharia) the
Islamic law defines Nikah marriage as a legal and social contract between two individuals, a man,
and a woman. The elders of Halaba people considered marriage as an act of Islam that has been
legally encouraged when two individuals equipped with financially and emotionally ready to
marriage.293 In Islam, the general purpose of marriage is for both sexes to provide company, and
love, procreate children, and live in peace and with the commandments of Allah. The general and
288
Ibid.
289
Informants: Garad Mundino Ali Ato Mohammed Bute.
290
Halaba Zone History, Culture & Language Profile (Halaba Kulito, 2010),
291
Informants: Ato Lalima, Ribato Ato Amina, Nura-alah Ato Shukurala Mufit.
292
Ibid.
293
Endale Eshine, “The Socio-Cultural History of Sidama People”, p.23.
 50

specific rules governing marriage practices resulted in a number of influences that shaped Muslims
in my study area. The criteria for marriage in Halaba society begins after the circumcision of both
boys and girls and the formation of marriage ties physical fitness, accumulating wealth, and good
relations of the regulations of the parents of both boys and girls.294 In most of the villages of
Halaba particularly in urban areas, Muslims accompany their wedding with Islamic songs such as
Manzuma.295 The people of Halaba are predominantly Muslims, and the Halaba Seera culture
permitted the children to get married after adolescence.296 According to Desta Makuriya Halaba,
Seera culture is permitted to marry more than one wife, no matter because the Islamic religion
supports the marriage of more than one wife. Because of the rule of exogamy, which regulates
marriage and the choice of wife, the Halaba boy is not allowed to marry a girl of his half lineage
and his maternal lineage is forbidden (close relatives).297 In Halaba culture marriage alliances
between neighboring Muslim communities are also common.298

3.2.4. Economic History of the Halaba people

About 85% of the Ethiopian people economies depend on agriculture activity.299 According to oral
informants, the Halaba people arrived from the different living centers to the present Halaba land
and they depend on cattle herding as the major source of their income. 300 The oral tradition of the
Halaba people clearly shows that throughout the time of their movement from Harar plateau; to their
present day of the Ulla Halaba (land of Halaba) they were cattle herders until the late 19 th century.
Later they begin to produce some crop to develop their own economy.301 As they reached the present
territory the Halaba people began to lead sedentary way of life through mixed farming and crop
production. The trend of modern agricultural system is not highly practiced and the majority of the
people of the area use traditional farming system.302 The existing farming systems of the area are
based on animal tracing and human labor. In addition to this, the society also uses both rain and

295
Desta Makuriya, “Marriage Culture in Halaba Community.” (Unpublished, BA. Essay in
History, in Wachamo University, and 20), p.40.
296
Ibid.
297
Ibid.
298
Beharu Shikur, “Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Parents Towards girl‟s Education and
their Influence on Females Enrolments in Primary Schools of Halaba Woredas”. (Unpublished research paper in
Hawassa teacher‟s education, 2006), p.29.
299
Halaba Zone Finance and Economic Development Office, 2009.
300
Halaba Zone, Agricultural and Rural Development Office profile N 2, Vol.4, 2000.pp.18-20.
301
Informants: Haji Garad Diltata Muzeyn , Garad Mundino Abino.
302
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, p. 44.
 51

irrigation farming system. On the other hand, the societies of the area also practice mixed farming of
this crop and livestock production. The Halaba land is fertile soil and favorable climate conditions of
the area, the society use to produce different types of cereal crops such as red pepper, teff, barley,
sorghum and wheat. In Halaba people who live every society either in the town or in the rural areas
the produce of the red pepper.

Trade is the second economic bases of the Halaba people. According to some sources, some of the
trade exchanges their product by moving in to the neighboring area. 303 However, agricultural
productivity has continued to be low because of the traditional system of land tenure and backward
technology. Halaba people are producers of red pepper and the highest income gained from red
pepper from all agricultural products and historically Halaba known by its product of red pepper.
This red pepper is the most important cash crop for the majority of Halaba people and the most
marketable crop in Halaba community.304

As a result of these, Halaba land was popular in red pepper production in Ethiopia including other
adjacent woredas of Silte and Gurage.305 The Halaba Zone is famous in producing the red pepper
(Berbere). The other crops include maize and teff which are also transported to other towns
including Hawassa, Dilla, and Shashemene, Wolayta, Arba Minch, Jinka, and Hosanna.306 However,
the Halaba people experienced many social and economic changes. Those who settled in the town
Kulito between the begining of the seventeenth until the mid-seventeenth centuries, shifted from
pastoralism to agricultural product of cereal crops like red pepper, maize, millet, teff, sorghum, and
other crops produced in the society. As a result of these many Muslim merchants come to Kulito
market to purchase the red pepper of Halaba people and simultaneously diffused Islamic culture
religion in to the society. However, these merchants who came from Muslim center of Wollo, Bale,
Arsi, Jimma, Silte, Harar, Gurage and Ifat and from other parts of Ethiopia.307

303
Shifäraw Bekele, An Economic History of Ethiopia: The Imperial Era 1941-1974. (Addis
Ababa, University 1992), p.142. 77
304
Ibid.
305
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, pp.22-44.
306
Halaba Zone, Agricultural and Rural Development Office profile N 2, Vol.4, and 2006, p.78.
307
Ibid.
 52

CHAPTER FOUR

4. HALABA RELATION WITH CHRISTIANS

AND ETHNIC INTERACTION OF THEIR NEIGHBORS

4.1. The Muslims and Christians Interaction in Halaba

Ethiopia is a religiously diversified country in Africa. Islam entered the largely Christian country in
the seventh century but its real expansion started after the tenth century. 308 In Ethiopia, Islam and
Christianity religion co-existed peacefully making the country colorful. Peoples elsewhere in the
world have been the representatives of three great religions co-existed peacefully and this is true in
the case of Ethiopia. This is not to deny that many points of mutual suspicions.309 Indeed harassment
and exploitation have existed. But the existence of shared celebration of holiy-days, and the
conversions back and forth cannot be denied in Halaba Zone.310 Thus, Ethiopia has diverse
backgrounds for celebrating such multiethnic elements together.311 The south west part of the
country, like other, distinguishes homogeneity that does not withstand its heterogeneity in ethno
linguistic and cultural aspects from other parts of the Ethiopia.312 Ethiopian peoples had a long
tradition of peaceful co-existence between Islam and Christianity among themselves in times of
peace and conflict.313 In the Halaba, Muslims are invited by the Christians to their home for annual
holidays, seasons, and other festivities in their meal except for meat and some other drinks which are
not allowed by the faith.314 According to my informants, the Muslims Halaba, on their part also did
the same practice that in earlier and it also continued to these days. In Halaba Zone the strong
relationship between Muslim-Christian relations existed from ancient period to the present.315
Generally, Islam and Christians whose followers differ in religions had common cultural values

308
Markos Tekle, pp.61-67.
309
Ulrich Braukamper, Fandaanano the Traditional Socio- Religious System of the Hadiya in the
Southern Ethiopia, (Harrassowitz Verlag Wiesbaden, 2014), pp. 41-49.
310
Alemayh Eresado, “The History of Evangelization processes in Kambata Tembaro”. (Thesis,
Teleology”. Full gospel Bible Study College, 2004), p.24.
311
Mengistu Gobeze and Asamenu Kasa,Ybete kristyan Tarik Kutur. (Church History. Vol. 2)
(Addis Ababa: Mahibere Kidusan, 2008), p.20.
312
Bahrey Aalmeida, Huntig ford, and Buckingham, History of Southwest Ethiopia (Oakland:
California, University, 1993), pp.9-12.
313
Terje Ostebo, Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale,
Ethiopia.( Leiden:Brill University, 2012), pp.24-51.
314
Ulrich Braukamper, “The correlation of Oral tradition and Historical Records in, p.34.
315
Informants: Ato Shemisu Nurye and Ato Alamu Zekarias, Ato Fekeadu Berhane.
 53

which related to each other as Ethiopian. For instance their common manifestations are the wedding
ceremony, funeral ceremony and participation during the problems. Both religious followers
supported each other during the time of sadness or happiness and highly shared cultural aspects
without any consideration of the two different religious aspects.316 On the other hand there was no
any external challenge which came for the followers of Islam during its expansion. The only
exception was during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1935. This created the power gap between
the overthrow of the imperial regime of Ethiopia and during the initial period of the Italian rule of
Ethiopia. This period was not politically stable period in our national level of Ethiopia. Therefore,
using this unstable political condition few conservative Muslim followers of Halaba encouraged by
few Italian agents they burned the Saint George Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Halaba in 1940 and
their properties were robed and the Christians were expelled from their homes.

This was the first external challenge which affected during the period of Italian rule in Halaba
land.317 During the political stability in the country these occasional problem was solved and the rest
few Christians started to live with the Muslims of Halaba.318 The political stability still continued as
the majority number of Muslims in Halaba land respected a few Christians religion followers and
vice versa. Moreover, the Muslims of Halaba contributed more to the expansion of Orthodox
Christianity and other Christian denomination in the area.319 According to Jemal Habib and Desta
Baraka, the Muslims community contributed money and other construction material for the
Ethiopian Orthodox Christian to build the Church and they are also willing to give the Church land
from their land owners.320 In similar way the Muslims of Halaba start to build up their additional
mosques in different parts of the Halaba land in different period. In this period, the Christian people
were very interested to support with their labor and with other construction materials like money,
nail, cement, wood, etc, for Muslims of Halaba. These all helped their mutual support.

4.2. General Overview of the Ethnic Interactions of Halaba people with others
According to Wehib Ahmed the ethnic interaction of the Halaba people began with other ethnic
groups from their earliest living center of the ancestor‟s land of Harar to the present day of Ulla

316
Ibid.
317
Alemayhu Eresado, “The History of Evangelization processes in Kambata Tembaro”, p.24.
318
Ibid.
319
Ibid.
320
Informants: Ato Jemal Habib and Ato Desta Baraka.
 54

Halaba (land of Halaba they live today).321 Like other people of Ethiopian peoples of the Halaba
were formed through integration of indigenous and migrant group of peoples living together for a
long period in the different Ethiopian regions and they formed common identity through constant
economic, social, cultural and political interaction.322 In Ethiopia, the social, cultural activity that
likes Idir, Ikub and Mahber have been the most important linking agent of the socio-cultural
institutions of Ethiopia.
The Halaba people are no exclusion from these kinds of socio-cultural institutions of Ethiopia.323
Idirs is the natural outgrowth of a common historical background and the process of assimilation
and art-cultivation among the diverse ethnic groups of the Ethiopia.324 In addition, the way the
ethnic groups in Halaba link with others Ethiopian people as trough Ekub. It is a form of traditional
capital-raising or saving organization in which weekly or monthly payments of stable amount of
money are put together to raise capital for personal use. As a result, it serves as a center of an
ethnically mixed population with all diversity of numerous cultures and wide range of languages
spoken in Ethiopia.325 According to oral informants Halaba people described by it is relatively
greater heterogeneity in terms of linguistic group, occupation, social status and religion like other
Ethiopian people.326
Culturally, one ethnic group share from the other ethnic group through their daily activity, such as
language, religion, wedding ceremony, mourning ceremony, dressing style, hair style, feeding
style, and others.327 The Halaba people are interacting by many things without segregating the
other ethnic groups in their village; they have a lot of social activity like Ekub, Idir, Mahibar and
Senbate, and included local population without considering the religion other ethnic group.328
There was a great deal of cooperation among neighborly people of the local community of
Ethiopians. This activity which drew each person of the area cultural aspects of the way of
traditional coffee drinking ceremony, wedding ritual, mourning ritual, dancing, dressing style,

321
Wehib Ahmed, The History of Harar and the Hararis. (Harar, 2008), p.47
322
Yonas Seifu, “A Historical survey of Jimma Town 1936-1974,” MA Thesis, Addis Ababa
University2002, p.56.
323
Ibid.
324
Ibid.
325
Berhanu Gutema, “Restructuring State and Society: Ethnic Federalism in Ethiopia.” Institute
of History, International and Social Studies, (Aalborg University, 2007), p, 44.
326
Informant: Ato Abegaz Yadore.
327
Asebe Regassa, “Ethnicity and Inter-ethnic Relations: - The „Ethiopian Experiment‟ and the
Case of the Guji and Gedeo.” (Tromso, University Norway, 2007),p.47.
328
Ibid
 55

inhabiting mode, religion festival, due to their daily interaction they share with the culture of their
neighbors.329 A funeral could attract neighbors from some distance, but only the men of the
community had duties to perform.
The other activity which involved the whole Halaba community was the collection of funds to
support a person whose house burned down by fire or other natural factors. Halaba was one of the
most important commerce centers in the country controlling the local markets and connected the
long-distance trade route southwestern region with the northern one.330 As a result, the Halaba
people established strong relations with a number of the traders from Arsi, Bale, Harar, Gurage,
Qebena, including some of immigrants from Muslim world like Hijaz and Yemen. In addition, the
Halaba people had been maintaining a constant interaction with Arsi Oromo, Hadiya, Qebena,
Gurage, Siltie and Kambata other peoples of Ethiopians.331

4.2.1. The Interaction between the Halaba and Siltie People

In Ethiopian history many people and ethnic groups are integrated by different socio-cultural aspects
for over a long period of time. Those famous socio-cultural aspects of Ethiopians that are taken as
the first interacting traditional norms are: the way of traditional coffee drinking ceremony, wedding
ceremony, ritual ceremony, mourning ritual ceremony, dancing and hair style, dressing style,
inhabiting mode, religion festival; as a result of their daily interaction they share with the peoples of
other cultures of their neighboring people.332 They are both Muslim neighbors who peoples lived
together in the present day of the southern Ethiopia. They had settled and lived together in earlier
period in Eastern part of Ethiopia in the present-day of Harar and its vicinity.333 According to my
oral informants and some other written source both Halaba and Siltie people lived together with
Muslim community of Harar people for a long period. Similarly, they werre also famous Islamic
teachers who teach them commonly when they lived in Harar are: - Sheikh Sayid Abadir, Sheikh
Side, and Haji Aliye, who came from the Arabian, land in 13th century.334 However, both the Halaba

329
Yash Ghai, Autonomy and ethnicity. Negotiating competing claims in multi-ethnic states.
(New York: Cambridge University Press,2000), p.46.
330
Kedir Hussien, “The Traditional Administrations of Halaba People in Southern Ethiopia
from 1974-1991”. (Unpublished BA, Essay in Arba Minch University, 2004), p.4.
331
Ibid
332
Tezera Kassu, Serra: “The Siltie Peoples History, Culture and Language.” (Addis Ababa :)
(Addis Ababa University Press.2012), p.60.
333
Informants:Ato Jemal Habib, Ato Desta Baraka.
334
Wehib Ahmed, The History of Harar and the, pp27-.47.
 56

and Siltie ethnic groups later adopted the religion of Islam and the Islamic culture of the Harar
people as additional religious dogmas of their forefathers in 13th century.335 Today, both the Halaba
and Siltie identities are linked with the common ancestry of Haji Aliye; who was a leader of both
ethnic group in Harar before they arrived in the present day of the (Ulla Halaba). The Siltie ethnic
groups are considered as an ethnic group of sub-clan group of the Gurage people in southern
Ethiopia for a long period of time.

In the oral tradition the Siltie there are two dominant views about their history. One story
considers the 16th century as the starting point of the Siltie identity.336 The 16th century was a
significant historical time in Ethiopian history in general. According to scholarly studies Halaba and
Siltie people came from Saudi Arabia from 10th-11th century. Then they became later immigrated
and settled in Harar and its environs in 13th century. The 16th century events commonly disturbed
the history of both peoples. This historical event is particularly the great Oromo population
movement and expansions, and the Imam Ahmed Gragn war from (1527–1543), which had a major
impact on the political, economic, and socio-cultural lives of the Ethiopian people.337 After the
Adalite leader Ahmed Gragn came in to the neighboring areas of the Halaba and Siltie, they had
welcomed Ahmed Gragn and conquered Dawaro and their troops joined and fought against the
Christian army of the Ethiopia.338 In this war, both the Halaba and Siltie ethnic groups formed a
regional Muslim military organization called the Gogot confederation due to their interactions
through Islam.339 These two peoples were linked in administrations system which led to
establishment of indigenous or local political institutions known as Garad in their community.340
The Siltie identity is linked with the strong works of Hajji Aliye and his leadership that paved the
ground for the establishment of the indigenous/local political institution of the Garad system.341 On
the other hand, both Halaba and Siltie people used the title of the Garad traditional elders ruling
system. However, today these two ethnic groups used the traditional political titles of Garad who
was chosen based on their economic status and oratory skill of the local elders by both ethnic

335
Ibid.
336
Ahmed Dalal, “Appropriating the Past: Twentieth-Century Reconstruction of Pre-Modern
Islamic Thought,” Islamic Law and Society 7, no. 1 (Leiden, 2000), pp.247-347.
337
Tezera Kassu, Serra: “The Siltie Peoples History, Culture and Language, pp.61-64.
338
Ibid.
339
Wehib Ahmed, The History of Harar and the Hararis, p.47.
340
Kederala Mohammed, “(Re) Constructing Identity through Cultural Clothes as Ethnic
Markers:” The Case of Siltie Nationality of Southern Ethiopia. (Norway: Arctic University, 2017), p.28.
341
Ibid
 57

groups.342 The Garad is a title among the Halaba and Siltie ethnic groups and it was given for many
individuals depending on their elderly age and their service in resolving conflict among different
ethnic groups. It is considered as a corner stone for both Halaba and Siltie identity to lead their
people effectively and to solve the socio-cultural problems of their people.343

According to Kederala Mohammed and some oral tradition elaborations Halaba and Siltie people
material culture and heritage exhibited the same characteristics in post-1991 Ethiopian government.
They also share the same dancing style, musical instrument, and similar worshiping of Islam
today.344 There is also the tradition wisdom of hat making practiced by both ethnic groups in the
lowland areas of Halaba and Siltie. According to my oral informants and scholarly studies the
Halaba and Siltie used that cultural hat from the market of Halaba Kulito and it is not originally the
culture hat of the Siltie.345 But the Siltie people had today the wisdom of making that traditional hat
for their people as well as for the market.346 On some other occasions, the Silties presented this hat
as their ethnic marker and the Kambata people did the same and the Halabas too.347 Therefore,
anyone with access to this hat is Halaba who first advertised it in television as their own cultural
heritage. Historically, this material culture got a permanent recognition from the Ethiopian heritage
authority as the hat of Halaba people.348 On the other hand, this hat distinguishing the Halaba
community's features, along with other aspects of their culture. The same hat is also worn by the
Siltie people used by those who lived near Halaba especially in Sankura (Alemgebya) and other
Siltie communities. Some groups of Silties demanded the hat to be included in their cultural
costume.349 However, because the Halaba had already popularized it, it would be difficult to return
to that reality to claim the hat.350 The Silties, on the other hand, shared cultural attire with the Halaba

342
Wehib Ahmed, The History of Harar and the, pp27-.47.
343
Ibid.
344
Kederala Mohammed, “Re Constructing Identity through Cultural, pp.28-40.
345
Ibid.
346
Kederala Mohammed, p.12-78.
347
Tezera Kassu, p.22.
348
Haile Meshasha, “The Religion History in Halaba community in Southern Ethiopia during the
Period of Ethiopia Emperor‟s from 1894-1897”. (Unpublished, BA, Essay in History, Bahir Dar University, 2004),
pp.1-40.
349
Mustafa Habamo, “The Traditional Religion of Kambata People and its Role on Protestant
Religious Expansion of from 1960-1980” (Unpublished, M.A, thesis in History, Dilla University, 2000), p.49.
350
Hussein Mohammed, “Siltie as a Medium of Instruction. “(MA, thesis Addis Ababa: Addis
Ababa University, 2010), p.24.
 58

people.351 The other historical link between the Halaba and Siltie people are linked by their
traditional Muslim military confederation called Gogot. It is formed by the Halaba and Siltie Muslim
military elders of the Halaba and Siltie people in the 16th century.352

According to Hussein Mohammed, these Muslim military Gogot a confederate was later developed
into four neighboring ethnic groups traditionally which include later the Muslim peoples of the
Measkan, Kistane Gurage, Qebena and Marako. This Gogot confederation acted as a regional
political organization among those ethnic groups.353 The other culture interaction between Halaba
and Siltie was the Sharia (Islamic law), Nikah is a marriage legal law and socially formal rule in
both Halaba and Siltie people community in common. This rule gave full opportunity between the
two individuals that is a man and a woman for Marriage. According to Nikah criteria, marriage is an
act of Islam and it is strongly recommended by the age of marriage being when the two individuals
feel ready, financially and emotionally.354 According to my informants, sometimes it was difficult to
discuss in separate the way of interactions between Halaba and Siltie people. But starting from the
beginning the people of Halaba and Siltie had been maintains a strong interaction throughout in
sphere of the social integration, economic, cultural and political aspects. For instance, they provided
basic cash crop like red pepper (Berbere) which is commonly produced by Halaba and Siltie
people.355

351
Girma Awgichew, “The Ethio-Semitic Languages: R-examining the Classification”. Journal
of Ethiopian. Studies 34:2(, Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa, University press, 2001.) pp., 57-93.
352
Siltie Zone Culture, Truism Affairs. A Symposium on the Siltie Culture, Language and
history. A Symposium on the Siltie Culture, Language and history. Worabe: Siltie Zone Culture, Tourism and Public
communication Office.2009, p12.
353
Hussein Mohammed, p.24.
354
Informants: Ato Abegaz Yadore, Ato Zenabe Alamu.
355
Ibid.
 59

The photo taken by a researcher in 6/4/2014, EC

Figure 6. The cultural Hat of the Halaba people

4.2.2. The Interaction between the Halaba and Harari People

According to oral informants and few written sources the Halaba and Harari people had many
socio-cultural interactions starting from the 13th century.356 The Halaba people are the earliest
neighboring people for the Harar people when they lived together in Harar and its environs.357
According to oral informants the Halaba and Harari people were Semitic language speakers when
they lived together in Harar in 13th century.358 According to oral traditions, the Halaba people
migrated to different parts of Cushitic speaking environments of Ethiopian and they familiarized
with the Cushitic language family. They have been familiarized specially with the languages
family of the Tambaro, Qebena, Kambata, Sidama, Hadiya and Oromo. Then Halaba people later
adopted the Cushitic language and their language was gradually changed from Semitic to Cushitic
language family.359 On the other hand, Harar had been the center for many civilizations and
Islamic learning for many Muslims states of Ethiopia Halabas ancestors were educated by Harari
Muslims during the time when they lived in Harari.360 According to Braukamper elaborations the

356
Informants: Ato, Amrulah Teleha Ato, Garad Mundino. ; Ulrich Braukamper, p, 177.
357
Zena Ayele, pp.40-48.
358
Informants: Ato, Amrulah Teleha Ato, Garad Mundino.
359
Ibid.
360
Informants: Ato Jemal Habib, Ato Desta Baraka.
 60

Halaba people had lived for centuries in Harar and its environments as their earlier homeland in
13th century. Similarly, some other Harari cluster who lived together with the Halaba people in
Harar for a long period time were the people of Siltie, Qebena, Marako and Gurage.361 The
conversion of the Harar and Halaba people in to Islam was most probably due to the Islamic
propagation of Harar in the area and their interactions with the arrival of Muslim sheiks Arabia
into Harari and its environments.362 The other widespread oral traditions among Halaba elders
associated with Halaba history is the arrival of the Sheikh Sayid Abadir and the Halaba ancestors
who lived in Harar in around 13th century.363
Scholarly, studies like Braukamper oral informants and other written sources claim that the arrival
of the Sheikh Sayid Abadir and her son Umar ar-Rida together with other 40 holy-men came from
Hijaz to Ethiopia especially into Harar and Sheikh Sayid Abadir and her subordinates lived in
Harari with the Halaba people. These were taken as facilitating factor for the conversion of the
Harar and Halaba people in to Islam. Similarly, Sheikh Sayid Abadir was the most populara
leader for the Halaba people when they lived in Harar and its vicinity.364 According to oral
traditions of Halaba people Sheikh Seyid Abadir later died and was buried in Harar around the
Jagol wall.365 The other famous Islamic Sheikhs, who lived in Harar, were Sheikh Side and Sheikh
Hassan who were the leaders of the Halaba people who lived in Harar for a long period of time.366
The advent of Sheikh Sayid Abadir to Harar, in general and Sheikh Side was a clan leader of Side
when Halaba live with the Harar people. The Halaba king (Woma) chief politic-judiciary lineage of
Halaba selected from among a particular clan of Halaba that is the Side.367 These are clear
indications of the cultural ties between the Halaba and Harar people‟s interactions.368 According to
oral informants Sheikh Seyid Abadir was an important historical figure always remembered by
Halaba, Hararis, Gurage, Marako, Qebena and Siltie when they lived in Harla land in 13th
century.369 On the other hand traditionally the people of Halaba and Harar apparently had been
governed for centuries by their traditional titles of Garad, and Imam. It has been the tradition that

361
Ulrich Braukamper, p,179.
362
Ibid.
363
Ulrich Braukamper, pp. 17-180. Informants: Ato Gebril Sealu, Ato Nur-Ahmad Ibrahim.
364
Ibid.
365
Zena Ayele, pp.40-48.
366
Informants: Ato Abegaz Yadore, Ato Zenebe Alamu.
367
Ulrich Braukamper, p, 178; Informant: Ato ZabibYesufi, Ato Desta Baraka.
368
Kederala Mohammed, pp.60-80.
369
Informants: Ato Zena, Ayele and Ato Shifa Betana.
 61

whenever the power of the religious societal group was dominant, an Imam would secure an upper
hand and determine significantly both the internal and the external political policies of the Halaba
and Harari together.370 As far as the various political offices in the state structure of Harar are
concerned the office of Garad was given to a local chief in administrative structure.371

4.2.3. The Interaction between the Halaba and Hadiya

The Halaba and Hadiya people also have been shared commonly many ways of lived together and
they maintained strong interaction through their cultural traditions. For instance they belong to the
same language family, have the same wedding ceremony and mourning ritual. They also shared
many culture with each other in their daily interaction with one another. They lived together for a
long period of time in the Muslim sultanate of Hadiya as a Muslim people. They lived together on
the Muslim sultanate of Hadiya and mutually worshiped Islam in earlier period and today half of the
Hadiya people were turned away from Muslim family.372 Today they commonly shared different
customs, like marriage, religion and many ways of lives. They are categorized under the same
language family of Cushitic language speakers. They live together as neighbor‟s people living
together in southern Ethiopia.373 They both have the same traditional administrative and conflict
resolution methods of Seera system of their people called Seera.

Until today the people of Halaba and Hadiya negotiated conflicts through the traditional
administrative system of Seera. The dignitaries or traditional leaders in the hierarchy of the Seera of
Halaba and Hadiya are chosen by the society based their personal performance, to hold the
administrative role in the society.374 According to Alebachew Kemiso Halaba people had their own
Muslim sultanate, but the name of the sultanates was not confirmed until today.375 The other
interacting issues concern the Hadiya and Halaba people are the traditional religion called
Fandanno. Generally, the Hadiya and Halaba peoples worshiped the traditional religion called
Fandanno for a long period of time. Fandanno religion is originally practiced by the Hadiya not the
Halaba people.

370
Wehib Ahmed, pp.47- 49.
371
Ibid.
372
Ulrich Braukamper, p, 178.
373
Alebachew Kemiso and Samuel Handamo Hadiya People: History and Culture. (Sefir Printing:
Addis Ababa Ethiopia 1st ed. Vol.1, 2010),pp.1-32.
374
Ibid.
375
Informants:Ato Ashenaf, Belay, Ato Nur-Ahmad Ibrahim.
 62

This traditional religion was introduced into Halaba by marriage link between the Hadiya and
Halaba.376 Both of them are lived together in different parts of Oromia regional state around 14th
century, particularly in the Arsi, Bale, Gadab, Guna, Shrika, Kofale and other places by adopting the
Arsi Oromo culture, Islam and other cultural systems of the Oromo people. As the elders of Halaba
and Hadiya informants stated both Halaba and Hadiya are the same in every aspect of life,
particularly in inter-marriage among the society, inter-connections through trade and other social and
cultural activities. There are no significant differences between them in general. They did, migrate to
different regions of Ethiopia and establish their own government systems.377

4.4. The Interaction between the Halaba and the Arsi Oromo

According to Braukamper Halaba and the Arsi Oromo were neighbors for a long period of time.
They are also living together today in the same territory and both of them are Muslim dominated
communities in earlier period and today. According to Braukamper both Halaba and the Arsi Oromo
is Cushitic language speaking pastoral communities in earlier period.378 According to oral
informants, Halaba and Arsi Oromo settled in the same area since earlier period and had strong
cultural and linguistic affiliations. They maintain inter-marriages inter-connections through trade and
other social activities.379 For both ethnic groups typically, Islam is a religion they had also shared
together and it has played a pivotal role in their socio-cultural lives of Halaba and Arsi Oromo.

The Arsi and Halaba people married in similar way which included similar food habits clothing
styles and others. They lived together for a long period of time in the present Arsi territory before
the Ahamed Grang war in Ethiopia, particularly, in Sharka, Guna, Gedab and Siraro.380 Islam has
been commonly worshiped in their community and the Arsi people played a great role in the
introduction and expansion of Islam into the Halaba.381 On a larger scale, the Halaba people contact
with diverse peoples of Ethiopia especially with the Oromo contributed to the integration of peoples
from different ethnic and religious backgrounds. Their linkage has been through trade especially

376
Yash Ghai, Autonomy and ethnicity. Negotiating competing Claims in Multi-Ethnic States, p.47.
377
Ulrich Braukamper, p.28.
378
Ulrich Braukamper, “Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia,” .p.12-16.
379
Informants: Ato Muzamin Jemal, Ato Hussien Aleango, Ato Nuramade Ibrahim.
380
Informant: Ato ZabibYesufi, Ato Desta Baraka Ato Mustefa Kedir.
381
Ibid.
 63

red pepper, Chat, are the major cash crops and non-cash crops produced by Halaba farmers and sold
to the Arsi Oromo traders at Kulito market center for a long period including other crops.382

Those cash crop trade exchanges linked the Halaba people with the Arsi Oromo and other peoples
market centers of Kulito in Halaba.383 Similarly Halaba Kulito had also connection to one of the
biggest caravan routes in southern Ethiopia through which salt was transported from El-Kare from
the Ogaden by passing through Robe, Bale, and Kofale up to Woliyta.384 According to Braukamper
Halaba and Arsi Oromo people the first half of the nineteenth century, was a campaign of re-
Islamization began in Halaba Kulito, carried out by foreign Muslim teachers who had ties to the Arsi
Muslims.385 Sheikh Hussein of Bale and his elder son, Nura-alah Ahmed, and their supporters came
into Halaba in second half of the 19th century and were the religious fathers for both Arsi and Halaba
people. According to Braukamper and oral informants the architects of the re-Islamization in Halaba
come from Dirre Sheikh Hussein and his elder son, Nura-alah Ahmed and his followers from Arsi
Oromo particularly from Bale.386

382
Alemayehu Lirenso, “The Function of Periodic Markets in Kambata and Hadiya Awuraja”
(Seminar Paper Addis Ababa University, 1983), p.16.
383
Wanna Wagesho, Ye Wolayita Hizb Tarik: (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa Berhanena Selam
Printing Press, l997), p.47.
384
Ulrich Braukamper, “Peoples and Cultures of “, p.179.
385
Ibid.
386
Ulrich Braukamper, “Peoples and Cultures. Informants Hussein,Mundino Otoko Ergano,
 64

CHAPTER FIVE

5. ISLAM FROM THE TIME OF MENELIK II TO THE DERG PERIOD

5. 1. Islam during the period of Menelik II

After the death of Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia in 1889, Menelik crowned himself as Menelik
II, of Ethiopia, as Elect of God, as well as king of kings of Ethiopia. The last quarter of the
nineteenth century sew a shift of a paradigm because, before that period, the present Ethiopian
region did not constitute a unified political center, and the leading central government at that time in
Ethiopia, as well as several peoples and states, remained an autonomous state not ruled by the central
government completely.387 Consequently, Ethiopia is a home to many different nations, nationalities,
and ethnic groups, and different local leaders were assigned by Ethiopian emperors in different
period Menelik II of Ethiopia completed the conquest southern Ethiopia.388 According to the elders
of Halaba, until the last quarter of the 19th century Halaba people were administered by their own
local chief whose titles were Garad, Abegazes, Imam, and Azmach. Then Halaba later, ceased to
have been an autonomous in1891.

As a result, Halaba lost its independence in 1891, when Dajjazmach Wodajo Gobena subdued it and
incorporated it into the Meneliks Empire.389 In 1886, the governor of the Sodo Gurage area,
Dajjazmach Ashagre, started the conquest of Hadiya and Kambata territories, but it was unfiled by
the Qebena leader, Hassen Enjamo, who launched a war on them.390 According to my informants the
Halaba people, suffered greatly from these wars. Some of them were captured by Menelik's forces,
while others were killed. The Muslims' holiy book Quran on the other hand, was burned down and
many materials were destroyed. According to Zena Ayele, Halaba people's leader, Abegaz Higiso,
was killed by Dajjazmach Wodajo Gobena in 1884.391 The Halaba people have never forgotten the
brutalities of Menelik forces during his regine.392 However, the subsequent rise of Hassen Enjamo
Muslim revivalist movement against Menelik's expansion increased the motivation, of Halaba and

387
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: (Addis Ababa University Press,
1991), p.21.
388
Bahru Zewde, “System of Local Governance among the Gurage; the Yajoka Qicha and the
Gordenna Seera” (In The Challenge of Democracy from Below. Ed by Bahru, 2002), p.44.
389
Ibid.
390
Ibid.
391
Zena Ayele, Culture and Ethno- History of Halaba, p, 27.
392
Informant: Ato, Gebril Seahalu.
 65

their neighbors like Silte, Qebena, Marako, Measkan Gurage, and Kistane Gurage who formed a
local military organization, typically known as the Gogot confederation.393 This Gogot alliance also
included the Muslims of Halaba peoples, Siltie, Marako, and Qebena. Nevertheless, the movement
was crushed in 1888 by the forces of Menelik's general, Gobana Dache.394 During the period of
Menelik, territorial expansion towards the south and south-west Hassen Enjamo was strong. He was
also not easily defeated by Menelik. He resisted strongly and gave a hard time to Menelik‟s army.395
According to my informants such as Nura-Ahmed and Lalima, Hassen Enjamo was the leader of
Qebena who made great efforts to push back Menelik's forces in different districts at different times,
and then the Halaba people received strong support from the neighboring Muslim communities of
Qebena, Siltie, and Gurage.

Imam Nunade of Halaba, was the religious leader of the Halaba people, presented Hassen Enjamo
with a sword inscribed with the Arabic letter "Islam" in recognition of his efforts.396 Before the jihad
was declared Wodajo asked the Halaba leaders named Waqo to submit and pay. Then Dejazmach
Wodajo Gobena agreed that Halaba should be granted a tributary status in 1894.397 The balabbat and
Melkegna system came into existence in Halaba history during the regime of Menelik and the social
stratification become apparent with the introduction of new culture and language into Halaba
society.398 Coming back to the administration, after its subjugation, the Halaba area was put under
Kambata and Hadiya Awraja, which was governed by Dajazmach Wodajo Gobana. He appointed his
representative named Ahmed Abaro from among the influential members of Halaba people in 1935.
Ahmed Abaro was later succeeded by Jebir Gega, and he was again, succeeded by Ali-Hundito and
Fitawrari Bushra Ali who consecutively served as his representative until 1935.399

393
Hussein Mohammed, p.64.
394
Worku Nida, p.20-40.
395
Tsehay Berhane, Menelik II Conquest and Consolidation of the Southern Provinces”. (BA
Thesis, in History, Addis Ababa University, 1969), p.21.
396
Informants: Ato Nur-Ahmad Ibraim, and Lalima Ribato.
397
Abera Kelecho, “A History of Tembaro People from 1890-1941.”(BA Thesis, in History
Addis Ababa University, 1989), pp. 40-48.
398
Gedeon Addise, “A Socio - Economic and Cultural History of Hadiya (1941-1991)” (MA
Thesis, in history Addis Ababa University, 2008), .p .26.
399
Tagesse Shuramo,”Ethinc Interaction in South Central Ethiopia: The case of Kambata and
Hadiya (1890s1990s).”(MA Thesis, in History Jimma University, 2014), pp, 20-30.
 66

5.2. The Reign of Haile Selassie and Islam in the Halaba Zone

After the death of Zewditu, Tafari, Mekonen was crowned as Emperor Haile Selassie I, in 1930.
Emperor Haile Selassie introduced the first written constitution in 1931 for the first time in
Ethiopian history.400 In his ministerial system, the education opportunity was not given to all to his
royal family.401 During the period of Emperor Haile Selassie clan's ownership of land in Halaba was
abandoned and a new tenure system was introduced.402 Another feature of Haile Selassie‟s rule of
Halaba was the effort made by the emperor to Christianize the Halaba people.403 However,
Christianization was unsuccessful because most of the Halaba people were Muslims before the
emperor‟s rule began in the Halaba community.404 Emperor Menelik had already begun the process
of conversions, with some success, to Christianize the balabbat in different areas of Ethiopia, but the
Halaba people were already become Muslims. On the other hand, the emperor and his supporters did
not have favorable conditions to introduce and spread Christianity in Halaba.405

Generally, a few of Halaba balabat of the period and the inhabitants of the area accepted
Christianity, presumably as a strategy to establish a link with the Amhara elites to secure or get
peaceful political and economic advantages from the leading royal family of the Emperor.406
According to Haile Mariam Larebo who conducted studies on religion, the emperor's speech in
November 1945, “Religion is personal the State is for all.” These shows that Emperor Haile Selassie
appeared to follow a policy of tolerance towards the Muslims, but the Halaba Muslims had no equal
rights with the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.407 According to the 1955 constitution of Ethiopia
"the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, founded in the fourth century on Saint Mark's doctrines, is the
established church of the Empire and it is supported by the state." The Church was protected by the
state and became an important part of the ethnic identity of the dominant rulers, particularly, the

400
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1991” pp.41-46.
401
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1991. (Second Edition, Oxford, Athens,
2005,), p.37.
402
Shifaraw Bekele. An economic History of Ethiopia: The Imperial Era 1941-1974. (Addis
Ababa: Addis Ababa, University peress1992), p.48.
402
Behailu Dasta, p.77-79.
403
GebruTareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest. Peasant Revolts in the 20th century.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp.21-30.
404
Behailu Desta, “Socio-Cultural and political Interaction of Kambata and Halaba People
during the Period of Amhara rulings. “BA, Essay, in Hawassa College teacher‟s education, in History, 1993 p.77.
405
Ulrich Braukamper, “The Colorations of Oral Tradition and Historical” p.66.
406
Gedeon Addise, p.21.
407
Haile Mariam Larebo. “The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Politics in the Twentieth
Century”: (part II Northeast African Studies 10 (1): (1988), pp.1-30.
 67

Amhara and Tigray ruling class.408 According to Abbink Muslims were considered as those living in
Ethiopia that they remembered as a foreigner guest during Haile Selassie ".409 According to Shifa
Betana, Ethiopian Muslims were treated as foreigners and hence considered as threat to Ethiopian
political identity, and the same policy was followed in the Muslim community of Halaba in southern
Ethiopia.410 Both the 1931 and 1955 constitutions ratified by Emperor Haile Selassie favor the
Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church as the only established church in the Ethiopian Empire and the
Emperor is expected to profess the faith of this church.

During his rule, the Emperor paid little attention to Ethiopian Muslims, and the constitution had only
411
the "paper-value constitution." During the era of Emperor Haile Selassie, Muslims in Halaba
could not practice their religion freely although the Emperor considered religion as a private matter
during his rule the Muslims were treated as second-class citizens, with no or restricted public
representation in the country's political discourse.412 According to Desta Bearaka, and Nasiru
Mushke, the other historical development during Emperor Haile Selassie the Muslim Arab traders
came into Halaba Kulito and opened shops in the Halaba Kulito town and its surroundings. During
this time they also played a significant role in religious expansion processes throughout Kulito town
and other areas of the Halaba Zone.413 Similarly some Islam institution centers were built throughout
Halaba land during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie.414 From those the popular Islamic mosques
were built in Halaba Kulito during the period of Emperor Haile Selassie. This was the Grand Nur
Mosque in 1945 which was modified with the help of Imam Nunade Shalamo of the Halaba.415 The
other was built during the same Emperor in Halaba Zone for instance the Nuriy Mosque in 1953.416

5.3. Muslim Halaba people during the Derg period

According to Haile Mariam Larebo during the Derg in 1974 Ethiopian revolution, the 16th -century-
old Christian monarchy system came to an end and the Derg took power in 1974. The church and the
408
Trimingham Spencer, Islam in Ethiopia. London and Liverpool, p.80.
409
Jon Abbink, “New Configurations of Ethiopian Ethnicity: The Challenge of the South.”
Northeast African Studies, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Michigan State University Press 1998), pp. 59-81.
410
Informants: Ato Shifa Betana, Ato Alemu Gemada.
411
Jon Abbink, “An Historical-Anthropological Approach”, pp.69-80.
412
Feyissa, Dereje, pp.30-40.
413
Informants: Ato Desta Baraka, Ato Nasiru Mushke, Ato Mohmmed Shiffa,
414
Tamru Abamo, p.44.
415
Henok Tsegaye, “The Growth and Influence of Islam in Ethiopia from 1989 to 2000,”
(Salvation gating ministry, 200), pp. 1-20.
416
Informants: Ato Lalima,Ribato, Imam Gemda Abdila, Ato Mukamil Mohammed.
 68

state were separated.417 Ethiopia declared itself a socialist state in Africa in December 1974, with the
revolutionary slogan called "Ethiopia Tikdem" (Ethiopia first).418 According to Andargachew
Turneh, the regim was the new Marxist government who deposed the Emperor did not have a well-
articulated policy toward the Ethiopian religion. During the Derg regime, the land was declared to be
in the hands of peasants, and Derg later implemented the Maret larashu (Land to Tiller)
proclamation.419 However, according to my oral informants after this policy was implemented in
Halaba Zone, some of the Halaba's farm land was redistributed to the farmers of Halaba people.420

However, in 1975, the Derg government implemented a land reform policy that effectively ended
landlordism in Ethiopia and liberated millions of peasants from the control of Ethiopia's feudalism
government.421 Derg government also stopped the supremacy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and
declared that all religions are equal to some extent.422 As a result of this declaration, some
improvements occurred for Muslims of Ethiopia. In this regard, Muslim holidays became official
Islamic holidays in the Halaba and Ethiopia.423 This holiday, which got recognition by the Derg
government, is Id al-Fitr. Id al-Adha (Arefa in Ethiopia).424 The last and other national Islamic
holiday is Mawlid, the birthday of the Prophet Mohammed, which was celebrated in my study
area.425 Previously, the Ethiopia Muslims were referred to as those Muslims residing in Ethiopia.
During the Derg this was changed to Ethiopian Muslims who have been recognized as such since
that time.426 The Ethiopian Islamic Affairs Supreme Council (EIASC or Majlis) was established in
1976 as a component of religious equality and institutional representation of Muslims in the country
during the Derg military regime.427 Although, the situation had been better than under the Imperial

417
Haile Mariam Larebo, pp.1-30.
418
Teshome Amenu, p.48.
419
Andargachew Tiruneh, The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987: A transformation from an
Aristo Totalitarian Autocracy. (Cambridge University Press, 2004).pp.24-60.
420
Informants: Ato, Otoko Ergano. Lalima, Ribato, Imam Gemda Abdila, Mukamil Mohammed.
421
Lapiso G.Dilebo. Abiyatawi Yemirt Inna Idget Zemecha be Kambata Inna Hadiya Awrajja
1971 -1975 E.C (Addis Ababa: Central Matemiya Bet 1975),p.77
422
Jon Abbink, “An Historical-Anthropological Approach” pp, 109–24.
423
Tolera, Assefa. “Interrogating Religious Plurality and Separation of State and Religion in
Ethiopia.” Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review 33 (1): 2017), pp.39–72.
424
Berhane Zikarge, “The Scope of Religious Freedom and Its Limits under the FDRE
Constitution: A Survey of Contemporary Problems and Challenges.” (Thesis, School of Graduate Studies, Faculty of
Law, Addis Ababa University, 2009), pp.1-30.
425
Ibid.
426
Ulrich Braukamper, “A Muslim State in Southern Ethiopia. The Journal of African History.”
Vol. 22, No. 4 Cambridge University Press,1981), pp. 558-559
427
Hussein Ahmed, “The historiography of Islam in Ethiopia”. Journal of Islamic studies.
(Oxford University press, vol.3, no.1, 1992), pp.90-94.
 69

government, there were restrictions on the construction of mosques and censorship of religious
literature, which the Halaba Muslims experienced during the Derg regime due to the these
restrictions.428

428
Eshete Tibebe, The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience. (Waco, Tex:
Baylor University Press, 2009), p.12.
 70

Conclusion

The major findings in this study showed that Halaba is one of the earliest peoples who came to
Ethiopia from outside and lived in the different parts of our country and currently they live in present
day of southern Ethiopia. Particularly, they lived in different geographical areas of the Ethiopia.
According to different oral traditions and few written sources, initially Halaba peoples were the
Semitic language speakers before they come to the (Ulla Halaba) land of Halaba they lived currently.
Later, they lived with the Cushitic people and adopted the Cushitic language especially from the
peoples like Tambaro, Kambata, Sidama, Qebena, and other Cushitic language speakers of
Ethiopian. According to my findings there are different factors that facilitated the introduction and
spread of Islam into Halaba people. The first factor is that the origin of Halaba people ancestor‟s
come same were from the Muslim countries from Hijaz, Jidda, and Yemen. The other is the oral
traditionalist explanations Halaba lived in Harar and its vicinity in 13th century as a Muslim people.
They were also influenced by Islamic faith of Harar people during the period when they stay in
Harar. The Halaba people later established an Islamic kingdom in Harar under the leadership of the
Sheikh Seyid Abadir in the 13th century. But the name of Islamic kingdom is not mentioned until the
current history of Islam in Ethiopia.
Historically, different reasons were raise up on the introduction and expansion of Islam into the
southern Ethiopia in particularly into Halaba. There is the existence of various Muslim sultanates in
the Southern Ethiopia since 13th century. Among those sultanates, one of them is Muslim sultanate
of Hadiya. As indicated in the earlier section there was an ethnic interaction between Halaba and
Hadiya. Hadiya Muslim sultanate is a Muslim sultanate which had strong Muslim sediment and
there was strong socio-political link with the Halaba people. That means both of them are live
together under the same Muslim sultanate of Hadiya beging from the fourteenth century.
According to my oral informants and scholarly studies conducted on Islam the introduction of Islam
was first initiated by the ancestors of Halaba people and when they settled in the present day Halaba
lands (Ulla Halaba) the introduction of Islam by Muslim teachers whose came from different
Islamized centers of Ethiopia. In the 17th century a variety of well-known Islamic Sheikhs and
merchants came to Halaba from various Islamized centers of the Ethiopian regions to re-Islamize
and consolidate Islam in Halaba. In the 19th century the coming of Islam religious preachers from
different Muslim centers of Ethiopia for instance, Sheikh Wolle from Ifat and Sheikh Hussein his
son from Bale, Sheik Abeinas and the others into Halaba. The roles of Dirre Sheikh Hussein his son
 71

and the foundation of his son Shrine Nura-alah Ahmed reinvigorated is motivated the re-Islamization
of the Halaba people for the second time into their ancestral religion Islam. The socio-cultural
history of Halaba people had its own rule and regulations. The Halaba people, like the others
Ethiopian people and societies, they had their own traditional administration system. It has its rules
regulations at local and in government level of the people. The Seera is the totality of code of
conduct operational throughout the Halaba people. It is an unwritten body of rules and procedures
binding on the community members with regard to all patterns of relationships among them. As
indicated above, Seera refers to the code of conduct practiced and internalized among the Halaba
people. The relations between individuals, tribes and territorial units are regulated by Seera.
According to the elders of Halaba people like Ephrem Zeleke and others Halaba people, until the last
quarter of the 19th century, administered by their own local chief‟ by Garad, Abegazes, Imam, and
Azmach.
The people of Halaba had been faced both negative and positive consequences during the Menelik
incorporation of Halaba particularly on the former socio economic and political life of the Halaba
people. Among those Halaba had been faced them, are the land expropriation and the introduction of
modern institutions had played a major role. Halaba lost its independence in 1891, when Dajjazmach
Wodajo Gobena subdued it and incorporated it with the Menelik Empire. In 1886, the governor of
the Sodo Gurage area, Dajjazmach Ashagre, started the conquest of the Hadiya and Kambata
territories, but it was stopped by the Qebena leader, Hassen Enjamo, who launched a war on them.
The Halaba people, was suffered greatly from these Menelik's wars and some of them were captured
by Menelik's forces, while others were killed.
The Halaba people have been never forgotten the brutalities of Menelik period. However the rise of
the Hassen Enjamo Muslim revivalist movement against Menelik's expansion increased the
motivation, of Halaba and their neighbors state Silte, Qebena, Mask'an, and Kistane formed a local
political organization, typically known as the Gogot confederation. During the period of Emperor
Haile Selassie clan's ownership of land in Halaba was abandoned and a new land tenure system was
introduced into Halaba community. The other feature of Haile Selassie‟s rule of Halaba was the
effort made by the emperor to Christianize the people of Halaba but the Christianizing system was
unsuccessful because most of the Halaba people were Muslims before the emperor‟s rule began in
the Halaba.
 72

Generally, the Halaba peoples balabat of the Emperor period and some of them inhabitant adherents
to Christianity, presumably as a strategy to establish a link with the Amhara elite to secure or get
peaceful political and economic advantages from the royal family of the Emperor. During era of the
Emperor Haile Selassie, the Muslims of Halaba could not practice their religion freely and they were
considered as foreigners and Muslims became treated as second-class citizens, with no or restricted
public representation in the political discourse. After the downfall of Emperor Haile Selassie
government in 1974, the Derg government implemented a land reform policy that effectively ended
landlordism in Ethiopia and liberated millions of peasants from the land. The Derg government also
abstained from the supremacy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and declared that all religions are
equal to some extent.
As a result of this declaration, some improvements occurred for Muslims of Ethiopia in this regard,
Muslim holydays became official Islamic holidays in the Halaba. This holiday, which got
recognition by the Derg government, is Id al-Fitr. Id al-Adha (Arefa in Ethiopia). Under the Derg
Imperial government, there were restrictions on the construction of mosques and censorship of
religious literature, which Halaba Muslims imposed because the Derg government followed the
same policy in Ethiopia.
 73

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 81

List of Key Informants

N Name of Age Place of Date of Remark

o informant s Interview Interview

1 Amrulah Teleha 49 Kulito March, He has a good memory of the

(Ato) town 12/2013 Islamic religion as well as
culture, and he is chairperson of
Halaba development Association.
2 74 Kulito March, He has a good knowledge about
Garad Mundino town 21/2013 Halaba peoples as well as about
Abido the introduction and expansion of
(Ato) Islam in the Halaba zone.

3 50 Kulito March He has a good memory of Abicho

Mohammed Bute town 4/2013 Nurala mosque in Halaba Kulito
(Ato) and he was the tour guide of
Abicho Nu-ralah.

4 Shiffa Betana 48 Motoko March He has good Knowledge about

(Ato) ma 14/2013 the introduction and expansion
Islam in Halaba Zones its
surroundings.
5 Hussein, Jabe (Ato) 70 Hansha March He has a good memory on the
Kebele 15/2013 role of Islamic religious teachers
in Halaba zone.
6 Mohammed Jabe 61 Motoko March He has a good memory on the
(Ato) ma 20/2013 role of Sheikh Abeinas and his
teachings and the historical
founding of Sheikh Abeinas
mosque in the mount, Motokoma.
7 (Ato) 60 Bedane March, Both of them are a good memory
Hussein,Mundino 18-19/2013 on Islam expansion in the Halaba
and Otoko Ergano zone and the Bedane mosque and
the role of Bedane Sheiks in the
expansion of Islam in the Halaba
zone.
 82

8 Jemal Habib and 44 Yaye March, He is an old man with a good

Desta Baraka knowledge of the traditional
(Ato) 20/2013 religion of Hadiya and Halaba in
Southern Ethiopia.
9 Ibrahim, Ahmed 62 1st Lenda March, He has a good memory of the
(Ato) 24/2013 Islamic religion and skill about
the origins of the Halaba people
and their clan.
10 Naseradin Habib 68 Hantaza March, He told me about some of the
(Ato) Kebele 26/1/2013 traditions of Halaba people and
the ethnic interaction with other
people and religious practices of
the society.

11 Ashenaf, Belay 60 Beshano March,27- He has good knowledge of the

(Ato) Town 30/2013 trade relation between Halaba
with their neighbouring states.

12 Ato,Gebril Sealu. 46 Wanja April, He is a good oral informant who

Kebele 10/2013 responded well to Halaba out of
the missionary activity of
(Ato) Protestantism in the zone
including the Kambata.
13 Nur-Ahmad 70 Uddo, April, He has a good memory of the
Ibrahim Kebele 16/2013 introduction and expansion of
(Ato) Islam in different period.
(Ato)
14 Lalima,Ribato 50 Kulito An old man & told me good
(Ato) town information about the earliest
land of Halaba people before the
arrival of the Abyssinian land
(Ulla Halaba).
15 Muktar Roba (Ato) 80 Gubea April, An old man & told me good
information about the earliest
21/2013 land of Halaba people before the
arrival of Abyssinian land.
16 Shemisu Nurye. 73 Choroko April He gave me more information
(Ato) about the language of Halaba and
27/2013 its interaction with other
language.
 83

17 Amina,Nural 70 Mekela April, She is a resourceful informant

(w/ro) Kebele about the Islamic religion and its
30/2013 expansion in Halaba as well as
marriage culture about male and
female.
18 Shukurala Mufit 62 Motokoma May, He has a good knowledge Halaba
(Ato) 6/2013 language and culture.

19 Desta Beraka 75 Kulito May, He has a good memory of the

(Ato) town 16/2013 history Sheikh Abeinas shrine in
Halaba.

20 Sheikh,Hussein 50 Tukea May, He has a good memory of the

Kabato Kebele 19/2013 Islamic religious tradition of
Halaba society and culture of
(Ato) Halaba people.
.
21 45 Abokicho May,24/201 An old man currently the head of
Geramu, Teasfaye 3 the seera tradition rule of Halaba
(Ato) people and gave good
information about Halaba people,
and their religion.

23 70 Wera Dijo June, He has a good memory of the

Ali Bamud (Ato) woreda 3/2013 history, culture of the Halaba
people and marriage in the society.

24 Imam, Wulachafo 55 Alam Tena June, He told me about the introduction

Abido 9/2013 of Islam religions, the relationship
(Ato) the Muslim sultanate of Hadiya
with Halaba.
25 Mukamil 59 June, He told me good information about
Mohammed Atote 23/ 2013 the Ahmmed Geragns war and the
(Ato) Woreda support of Halaba people for the
hem.
26 Mohammed 56 Ashoka June, He has a good memory of the
Teddesse Kebele 27/ 2013 Islamic religious cult in Halaba
(Ato) and the religious interaction of
Halaba with Arsi Oromo.
 84

27 65 Offoda June, He is the leader of the Torombora

Nasiru Kebele 29-30/2013 clan and he told me good
Mushke (Ato) information about traditional
conflict resolution methods in the
Halaba community.

28 Imam,Gemda Abdila 57 Makela June, He is a resourceful informant about

(Ato) Kebele 11/2013 the Islamic religion in Halaba
zone.
29 Mohmmed Shiffa 80 Kulito June, He has a good memory about the
(Ato) town 16/2013 SIM missionary in the Halaba and
Kembata Muslim peoples of
Halaba.
30 Fekeadu Berhane 58 Wera Woreda June, He has a good memory of the
17/2013 earliest historical mosques, shrines
(Ato) in Halaba zone.
31 Bekele Galato 65 Dato Kebele A resourceful informant about the
(Ato) introduction and expansion of
Islam in Kulito town and their
surroundings.

32 Alemu Gemada 68 Weteta July, He has a good memory of the

(Ato) Kebele 8/2013 influence of protestant religion
and factors of the decline of
Islamic religions in the Halaba.

33 Hussien Ibrahim 76 Kulito July, He has good knowledge about the

(Ato) 02 period of introduction and
11/2013 expansion of Islamic religions in
Halaba.
34 Nuramade 48 Upper July, He told me about the expansion
Ibraim Beadane 13, 2013 of Islam during the period of
(Ato) Derg and Haile Selassie.

35 Mustefa Kedir 72 Lower July, He is a resourceful informant in

(Ato) Tukea 16/201 trade exchange and expansion of
Islam in Halaba zone.
36 Abdurrahman 71 Girmme July, Resourceful informant about the
Keasim (Ato) Kebele 16/2013 expansions Islam in Halaba post-
liberation period.
 85

37 Shemisu Nurye 76 Cheafa July, He has good knowledge of the

(Ato) Kebele 18/2013 religious cult in all Halaba
communities.

38 Alamu Zekarias 75 Wojago March, He has good memory of the

(Ato) Yato 24/2013 origin of Halaba of people and
their religions in southern
Ethiopia.
39 Mathewose 80 Wera March He has a good memory of the
,Lachamo Woreada. 17/2013 indigenous religious of Islam
(Ato) introduction and expansion
Islamic religion in many woredas
of Halaba.
40 Sheikh,Hussein 76 Kulifo He has a good memory of Islamic
Kabato Kebele March, religious introductions and its
(Ato) 20/2013 obstacle during the period of
Menelik territorial expansion in
Halaba zone.
41 Habib Mundino 78 Anshea March He is good oral informant who
(Ato) 12/2013 responded the religion of Halaba
before came to the present day of
(Ulla Halaba).
42 ZabibYesufi 65 Sorge March She is an informant told me about
(w/ro) Dergsa 17/2013 the relationship between the
Halaba with the Silte, Arsi Harar
peoples.
43 Hussien Aleango 61 Wera April, He told me about the Language
(Ato) Dijo 4/2013 link between Halaba, Sidama,
woreda Kambata Qebena, Silte and
others in Ethiopia.

44 Muzamin Jamal 70 Mito April, He has a good memory on the

(Ato) Kebele introduction and expansion of
6/2013 Islam religion in Halaba and Silte
people interaction.
45 Shukurala Zabib. 76 2nd, April He has important informant on
(Ato) Makeala 11/2013 relationship of Halaba and its
neighbouring ethnic groups.

46 Mohammednur 84 Kulito April, He gave important information

Leramo town 8/2013 on relations of Halaba and
(Ato) Hadiya, Arsi Oromo Silte,
 86

47 Samuel, Kebede 60 Kulito April, He has a good memory about the

(Ato) town 14/2013 History, and Culture of the
Halaba people with others.
48 Zenabe Alamu 70 1st An elder man with good memory
Makeala April, and told me about the origin of
(Ato) 128/2013 the Halaba people and early
Islamic history in Ethiopia.
49 Abegaz Yadore 69 East April, He is an old man having a good
(Ato) Gortanch 19/2013 memory and told me about the
o introduction and expansion of
Islam into southern Ethiopia.
50 Zena, Ayele 72 Kulito April, She has an educated elder in
(W/ro) town 30/2013 Kulito town and a good memory
about Islamic education and she
also told me about the Fandano
religion and its effect on
Muslims.
 87

APPENDIXES

Appendix- I
Personal written information on Islam in Halaba from Mohammednur Leramo
 88

Appendix- II
 89

Appendix- III
 90

Appendix- IV
 91

Appendix- V
 92

Appendix- VI
 93

Appendix- VII
 94

Appendix-VIII