ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2.

Anatomical imaging  use of various

techniques (x-ray) to create picture of inside
Importance: help us understand how the body
of the body, without needing surgery
structures and functions are interconnected
3. Systemic anatomy  study the body
Anatomy and physiology are always inseparable. system such as cardiovascular, skeletal or

The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, nervous system.

 It studies the different organs and how they
and each of those parts has a job to do to make
function together as a whole.
the body operate as a whole. Structure determines  For instance, digestive system which
includes mouth, esophagus, and intestine
what functions can take place.
that work together to process food and
Anatomy  the study of structure or physical form
absorb nutrients.
of the body.
4. Regional anatomy  studies the body by
Structures: components that make up the human focusing on specific areas. Look all the
body such as heart, muscles and bone. structures including muscles, bones, blood
vessels, nerves, and organ within a particular
Anatomia– from Greek word means to cut up or
region and how they interact within that area
dissect. Examines the parts and how they are
or regions such as arm, abdomen or head.
arranged
 There are 5 major parts of the body: head,
neck, trunks, upper limbs and lower limbs

WAYS OF EXAMINE THE STRUCTURE OF

LIVING PERSON
HUMAN ANATOMY
1. SURFACE ANATOMY  Study the
1. GROSS ANATOMY  structure observed
external feature or visible to understand
by naked eye: major muscles like biceps
what is underneath.
2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY  structure
External features are positioned and how they can that observe by microscope to magnify or
be felt through skin see small things: neurons which structure of

Bony projections are bumps on bones where nerve cells including axon

muscles attach, which serve as a landmark for 3. CYTOLOGY  study the cell and different

locating deeper structures. (olecranon) organelles inside a single cell: nucleus

4. HISTOLOGY  study the tissue that make
Also called as superficial and visual anatomy
up the organ in human body: muscle tissue
which study the structure of external features that
can be seen by sight
 5. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY 
study of structure change from the
conception of mother’s womb to birth: limb
formation (from limb buds to fully formed TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY

legs and arms) 1. CELL PHYSIOLOGY  study the

6. Pathological  study of structural changes function of the cell
caused by disease or other illness: bruise  Muscle contraction  study how muscle
discoloration due to blood leakage cells which is myocytes contract and relax

PHYSIOLOGY  function of the body parts 2. SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY  study the

which determine by the structure function of specific organ

Physio: nature  Study how neurons transmit signals

Ology: study of

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 3. SYSTEMATIC PHYSIOLOGY  It’s

about understanding how different parts of
1. Cellular physiology – is the study of
the body work together.
interactions or relationship of cell parts and
 Diabetes  changes how the body handles
components and the specific functions of the
sugar
cellular organelles and the cell in general
4. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY  is the study of
2. Developmental physiology – is the study
the effects of the disease
that changes in function that occur as an
organism of develops (walk, run, jump).
These changes happen overtime.
3. Pathological physiology - is the study of
how diseases affect the normal functions of
the body. It looks at how illnesses disrupt the
body's systems and cause changes in health.
 6. Human organisms are made up of many
organ system

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
HUMAN ANATOMY
ORGANIZATION:
 Human anatomy is the study of how the body is
1. Chemical Level:
built and how its parts work.
 The simplest level, involving atoms and
 It’s important because it helps us understand
molecules.
how to keep our bodies healthy and fix problems
when we’re sick.  The structural and functional characteristics of
all organisms are determined by their chemical
 We study it to better treat illnesses, perform
composition.
surgeries, and improve health care.
 Involves the unique interactions among atoms
 There are 11 body system then form the
and how they are combines to form molecules such
human body.
as water, proteins, sugar and deoxyribose nucleic
acid (DNA)

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL  Individual cells are basically composed of atoms

ORGANIZATION: like carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur, and others. This is

Atoms: The smallest units of matter. They are like important because a molecule 's structure

tiny building blocks that make up everything around determines its function.

us.  The simplest level is where we look at atoms

Molecules: Groups of atoms bonded together. and molecules. All living things are built
from these tiny building blocks. For
Cell: The basic units of life. They are made up of
example, water, proteins, and DNA are all
molecules and are the building blocks of all living
made from combinations of atoms. The way
organisms.
these atoms are arranged in molecules
1. Atoms combine to form molecule affects how they work. So, understanding
2. Cells are made up of molecules these basic structures helps us understand
3. Tissues consist of similar types of cells how cells and living thing function.
4. Organs are made up of different type of
tissues
5. Organ system consist of different organs 2. Cellular Level

that work together closely  The level of individual cells and their structures.
  Cells are the basic structural and functional 4. Organ Level:
units of organisms such as plants and
 Different tissues working together to perform
animals.
specific functions.
: Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all
A structure composed of two or more tissue
living things, like plants and animals.
types that are integrated to perform a specific
 Molecules associate in specific ways to form function.
microscopic cells, smallest units of all living
Vital body organs – are those that are important
things.
for critical body function. (heart, kidney, liver,
 Molecules can combine to form organelles,
lungs, brain)
which are the small structures that make up
some cells. 5. Organ System Level

 All cells have some functions, but individual  Groups of organs that work together to
cells vary widely in size, shape, and their perform complex functions.
particular roles in the body.
 classified as a unit because of a common
3. Tissue Level
function or set of function (cardiovascular
 Groups of similar cells working together bound system)
together by supporting matrix that perform common
6. Organism Level
functions.
 highest level of structural organization. The
4 types of tissue:
entire living being, or the whole body working
1. Epithelial tissue – cover the body and organ together.
surfaces, lines body cavities and lumina,
 it is the sum total of all structural levels
form various glands and are involve with
working together to keep us alive
protection, absorption, secretion and
excretion Organism – is any living thing considered as a
2. Connective tissue – bind, support, protect whole.
body parts
Human organism – is a complex of organ
3. Muscle tissue- contract to produce
system that are mutually dependent upon one
movement of body parts and allow
another.
locomotion
4. Nervous tissue – initiate and transmit nerve
impulses that coordinate body activities
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

1. Integumentary system

Major component organs: Skin, nails, hair;

cutaneous sense organs and glands

 The external covering of the body includes

skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.
 To protect the body
 Regulate body temperature
 Eliminate body wastes 2. Skeletal system

 Receive certain stimuli like touch, Major component organs: Bones, cartilages,
temperature, pressure, and pain. tendons, ligaments, and joints
 Waterproof the body
 It includes 206 bone, cartilage, joints, and
 Protect the deeper tissue from injury
ligaments.
 With the help of sunlight it produces vitamin
 Serves to support and protection internal
D.
organs
 Excretes salts and urea
 Provides levers for muscular action (like
Temperature, pressure, and pain receptors (detect seesaw)
and respond) located in the skin alert us to what is  Allow movement and leverage
happening at the body surface  Produce blood cells
 Store minerals
 Also has protective function (skull encloses
and protects the brain)
 Cavities provide a site for blood cell
formation

Hematopoiesis is the process of making blood

cells, which goes on within the cavities of
skeleton.
 The hard substance of bones act as a
storehouse for minerals

3. Muscular system
4. Nervous system
Major component organs: muscles attach to the
skeleton by tendons Major component organs: brain, spinal cord,
nerves, special sense organs and sensory receptors
 Involves all skeletal muscles of the body and
tendons  The nervous system is the body’s quick

 Have one and only function which is the control system, including the brain, spinal

contract or shorten. When this happens, cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

movement occurs. The mobility of the body  It detects changes both inside and outside

as a whole. (Muscles have one main the body, sending electrical signals to the

function: to contract or shorten. When central nervous system.

muscles contract, they pull on bones, which  The brain and spinal cord then process this

causes movement and allows the body to be information and activate muscles or glands

mobile.) to respond.

 reflects the activity of skeletal muscles, the  Helps maintain short-term homeostasis of

large, the body via rapid transmission of electrical

 fleshy muscles attached to bones signals (It helps keep the body balanced by

 Function to effect body movement quickly sending electrical signals to adjust to

 Maintain posture immediate changes.)

 Produce body heat

 6. Cardiovascular system

Major component organs: heart, blood vessels, and

blood
5. Endocrine system
 The primary organs of the cardiovascular
Major component organs: pituitary, thyroid,
system are the heart and blood vessels
parathyroid, adrenal glands, and pineal glands;
 Using blood as a carrier, the cardiovascular
ovaries, testes and pancreas
system delivers oxygen, nutrients,
 Includes all hormone-producing glands hormones, and other substances to, and
and functions to control and integrate body picks up wastes such as carbon dioxide
functions. from, cells near sites of exchange.
 Promotes growth development  White blood cells and chemicals in the
 It controls body activities, but it acts much blood help to protect the body from such
more slowly foreign invaders as bacteria, viruses, and
 It produces chemical molecules called tumor cells.
hormones and release them into the blood  The heart propels (push forward) blood
to travel to relatively distant target out of its chambers into blood vessels to be
organs transported to all body tissues.
 Plays a role in regulating long-term - The cardiovascular system's main organs are
homeostasis the heart and blood vessels. It uses blood to

Homeostasis is the body's way of keeping internal deliver oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to

conditions stable and balanced. cells and remove waste like carbon dioxide.
White blood cells and chemicals in the blood
 help protect against foreign invaders. The
heart pumps blood into vessels to reach all
body tissues.

8. Respiratory system

Major component organs: nose, pharynx, larynx,

trachea, bronchi, and lungs

 The job of the respiratory system is to keep

the body supplied with oxygen and to
7. Lymphatic system
remove carbon dioxide.
Major component organs: lymphatic vessels,  Within the lungs are tiny air sacs (alveoli)
lymphatic nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils  Gases are exchanged with the blood

 The role of the lymphatic system through the thin walls of these air sacs.

complements the cardiovascular system.  Help to regulate acid-base balance/

 Cleanses blood of pathogen and other debris contributes to the acid-base balance of the

 Houses cells that act in the immune response blood via its carbonic acid/bicarbonate

to protect the body from foreign substances buffer system

 When fluid is leaked into tissue from the

blood, lymphatic vessels return it to the
bloodstream so that there is enough blood to
continuously circulate through the body.
 The lymph nodes and other lymphoid
organs help to cleanse the blood and house
white blood cells involved in immunity.
 9. Digestive system 10. Urinary system

Major component organs: mouth, esophagus, Major component organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary
stomach, small and large intestine, and accessory bladder, and urethra
organs (teeth, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and
 Includes organs that operate to remove
pancreas)
wastes from the blood
 The digestive system is basically a tube  Often called as excretory system
running through the body from mouth to  To eliminate urine from the body
anus.  Regulates the chemical composition, volume
 The organs of the digestive system include and electrolyte balance of the blood
the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach,  Help to maintain acid-base balance, water,
small and large intestines, and rectum plus a and electrolytes
number of accessory organs (liver, salivary  of the body
glands, pancreas, and others).  Removes nitrogen containing waste from the
 Their role is to break down food and body in urine
deliver the resulting nutrients to the blood
for dispersal to body cells. The breakdown
activities.

11. Reproductive system

Major component organs:

Male: testes, scrotum, penis, and duct system, which

carries sperm to the body exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine, tubes, uterus and vagina integumentary system protects internal
organs from drying out (which would be
 The Reproductive system includes all body
fatal), from pathogens, and from the
organs that produce, store, and transport
damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an
reproductive cells and functions to
unbelievable number of chemical substances
reproduce the organism and produce sex
in the external environment.
hormones.
 The role is to produce offspring.
 The male produces sperm.
2. Metabolism
 The female ovaries produce eggs or ova.
- is a broad term that refers to all chemical
 The uterus provides the site for
reactions that occur within the body and
development of the fetus (immature infant)
all of its cells.
once fertilization has occurred.
- It includes breaking down complex
substances into simpler building blocks
(as in digestion), making larger structures
from smaller ones, and using nutrients
ND
LESSON (2 MEET) and oxygen to produce molecules of

8 NECESSARY LIFE FUNCNTION adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the

1. Maintaining boundaries
energy-rich molecules that power cellular
- Every living organism must be able to
activities.
maintain its boundaries so that its
- Metabolism depends on the digestive and
“inside” remains distinct from its
respiratory systems to make nutrients and
“outside.” (It helps control what enters and
oxygen available to the blood and on the
exits the organism, protecting it and
cardiovascular system to distribute these
allowing it to function properly).
needed substances throughout the body.
- Every cell of the human body is
- Metabolism is regulated chiefly by
surrounded by an external membrane (ex.
hormones secreted by the glands of the
skin) that separates its contents from the
endocrine system. (Metabolism, which is
outside interstitial fluid (fluid between cells)
how your body turns food into energy, is
and allows entry of needed substances while
mostly controlled by hormones. These
generally preventing entry of potentially
hormones are produced and released by
damaging or unnecessary substances.
glands in your body.)
 The body as a whole is also enclosed by the
integumentary system, or skin. The Metabolism relies on:
 The digestive system to break down food - This is cellular reproduction, both are
into nutrients. essential to the survival of the human race
 The respiratory system to bring in oxygen.
 The cardiovascular system to distribute
nutrients and oxygen to cells throughout the 6. Growth

body. - Growth can be an increase in cell size or

an increase in body size that is usually
3. Responsiveness accomplished by an increase in the
- Stimuli are things that cause you to react number of cells. For growth to occur, cell-
- is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in constructing activities must occur at a
the environment and then to react to them. faster rate than cell-destroying ones.
For example, if you accidentally touch a hot Hormones released by the endocrine system
pan, you involuntarily (something that play a major role in directing growth.
happens without you having to think about it
or control it) pull your hand away from the
painful stimulus. 7. Development
- - Development or differentiation is a
4. Movement developmental process by which
- includes all the activities promoted by the unspecialized cells change into specialized
muscular system, such as propelling cells with distinctive structural and
(means pushing or driving something functional characteristics.
forward) ourselves from one place to - Through this cell develop into tissues and
another (by walking, swimming, and so organs
forth) and manipulating the external
environment with our fingers.
8. Respiration
- Refers to all the process involved in the
5. Reproduction exchange of, oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Life is transmitted from one generation to between the cells and the external
the next through reproduction of the environment.
organism - It includes ventilation, the diffusion of
- Refers to the formation of new cells for oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the
the replacement and repair of old cells as transport of the gases in the blood.
well as for growth.
 - Cellular respiration deals with the cell’s Carbohydrates are the major energy
utilization of oxygen and release of carbon providing fuel for body cells.
dioxide in its metabolism Proteins and, to a lesser extent, fats
are essential for building cell
structures. Fats also cushion body
9. Digestion organs and provide reserve fuel.
- is the process of breaking down ingested Minerals and vitamins are required
food into simple molecules that can then for the chemical reactions that go on
be absorbed into the blood. The nutrient- in cells and for oxygen transport in
rich blood is then distributed to all body the blood.
cells by the cardiovascular system, where
body cells use these simple molecules for
energy and raw materials. 2. Oxygen - All the nutrients in the
world are useless unless oxygen is
also available. Because the chemical
reactions that release energy from
foods require oxygen, human cells
can survive for only a few minutes
10. Excretion
without it. It is made available to the
- is the process of removing excreta (waste
blood and body cells by the
products that are expelled from the body,
cooperative efforts of the respiratory
like urine and feces) or wastes, from the
and cardiovascular systems.
body. Several organ systems participate in
3. Water - Water accounts for 60 to 80
excretion. For example, the digestive system
percent of body weight, depending
rids the body of indigestible food residues in
on the age of the individual. It is the
feces, the urinary system disposes of
single most abundant chemical
nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in
substance in the body and provides
urine, and the skin disposes of various waste
the fluid base for body secretions
products as components of sweat
and excretions. We obtain water
chiefly from ingested foods or
liquids, and we lose it by
SURVIVAL NEEDS
evaporation from the lungs
1. Nutrients - which the body takes in
(breathing) and skin (sweat) and in
through food, contain the chemicals
body excretions (waste and feces).
used for energy and cell building.
 and atmospheric pressure is lower,
gas exchange may be too slow to
4. Normal body temperature - if
support cellular metabolism.
chemical reactions are to continue at
life-sustaining levels, normal body
temperature must be maintained.
If body temperature drops below
37°C (98.6°F), metabolic reactions
become slower and slower and
finally stop. If body temperature is
too high, chemical reactions
proceed too rapidly, and body
proteins begin to break down. At
either extreme, death occurs. Most
body heat is generated by the
activity of the skeletal muscles and
dissipated via blood circulating
close to the skin surface or by the
evaporation of sweat.

5. Atmospheric pressure – is the force

exerted on the surface of the body by
the weight of air Breathing and the
exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the lungs depend on
appropriate atmospheric pressure
(This means that the weight of the air
around us (atmospheric pressure)
pushes against our body. Proper
breathing and the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
lungs rely on having the right
amount of this air pressure. Without
it, breathing would be difficult.). At
high altitudes where the air is thin
  This is maintained by muscles or glands
(effectors) which are regulated by sensory
information from the internal environment.
 Any change or damage at the cellular level
can affect the entire body. When an external
stressor (injury, lack of nutrients, invasion
by parasites or organisms) disrupts
homeostasis, illness may occur. Throughout
the course of a person's life, many external
stressors affect the body's internal
equilibrium.

3 STRUCTURES IN THE BRAIN THAT ARE

RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING
HEMEOSTASIS

1. Medulla oblongata

 part of the brain system that is associated

with vital life functions like respiration and
circulation.

 the connection between the brainstem and

the spinal cord, carrying multiple important
function center. It is comprised of the
cardiovascular-respiratory regulation system,
HOMEOSTASIS
descending motor tracts, and origin of cranial
 The body is constantly striving to
nerves IX, X, XI, and XII.
maintain a dynamic, steady state of
internal balance called homeostasis.
 Every cell in the body is involved in
maintaining homeostasis, both on the
cellular level and as part of an organism.
 Homeostasis is the process by which a
nearly stable internal environment is
maintained in the body so that cellular
metabolic functions (cell) can go on at 2. Pituitary gland
maximum efficiency.
  function of the other glands Blood Glucose Regulation:
 persons growth
Process: The pancreas keeps track of blood sugar
 maturation
levels using special cells.
 reproduction
3. reticular formation Example:

 group of neve cells that form a large High Blood Sugar: Beta cells release insulin to
network of connection tissues, controls via lower sugar levels.
reflexes like cardiovascular function and
Alpha cells release glucagon to raise sugar levels.
respiratory
How it works:
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
1. Detection: A sensor identifies when a variable
1. Negative feedback
(e.g., temperature, glucose level) deviates from its
is a mechanism that helps maintain stability normal range.
within systems by reducing the impact of
2. Processing: The control center, often part of the
changes or deviations (move away from a
brain or an organ, evaluates the deviation
standard, norm, or expected path) from a set point.
(changes) and determines the necessary response to
 Purpose: The goal is to keep things stable correct it.
by correcting any changes that move them
3. Response: The effector (such as muscles, glands,
away from a normal range.
or organs) carries out the actions needed to bring the
 Mechanism: If something starts to go out of
variable back to its normal range.
the normal range, a feedback system notices
this change and makes adjustments to bring 4.Correction: The effect of these actions is
it back to where it should be. This helps monitored, and if the variable returns to its normal
keep everything steady and on track. range, the corrective responses are reduced or
stopped.
Body Temperature Regulation:
Heating Up
Process: The body adjusts temperature if it goes too
high or too low. When the brain's temperature regulatory center
receives data that body temperature is lower than
Example:
the setpoint, it sets into motion the following
Too Hot: Sweating and increased blood flow to the responses:
skin help cool down.
Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction)
Too Cold: Shivering (the act of shaking) and to prevent blood from flowing close to the surface
reduced blood flow to the skin help warm up. of the body. This reduces heat loss from the
surface. (Blood vessels in the skin tighten to keep carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals) to
blood deeper inside the body. This helps to keep glucose, which can be used as an energy source.
body heat from escaping through the skin.) This catabolic chemical process is exothermic, or
heat producing.
Vasoconstriction is a way your body regulates
blood flow and blood pressure by making blood Catabolic Chemical Process Breaking down
vessels narrower. complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing
energy.
As the temperature falls lower, random signals to
skeletal muscles are triggered, causing them to Exothermic - A reaction that releases heat.
contract. This causes shivering, which generates a
BLOOD GLUCOSE
small amount of heat. (As it gets colder, the brain
sends signals to your muscles to make them move. An example of a negative feedback mechanism is

This causes shivering, which helps produce a little the homeostasis for blood glucose. If the blood

bit of heat to warm you up.) glucose level is increased, the brain stimulates
the pancreas to secrete insulin. This, in turn,
Shivering is when your muscles rapidly shake to
lowers the level of blood glucose to its normal level.
produce heat and help warm you up when you’re
Once the blood glucose level reaches its normal
cold.
level, the brain again instructs the pancreas to
The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain stop secreting insulin.
(via the pituitary gland) to secrete more thyroid
(High Blood Sugar: If your blood sugar gets too
hormone. This hormone increases metabolic
high, your brain tells the pancreas to release
activity and heat production in cells throughout the
insulin.
body.
Insulin Action: Insulin helps cells use the extra
Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland releases
sugar, lowering the blood sugar level.
hormones that regulate other glands and bodily
functions. Return to Normal: When blood sugar levels go back
to normal, the brain tells the pancreas to stop
Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland produces
making insulin.)
hormones that control metabolism and body
temperature. 2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 is a process where an initial stimulus
Thyroid Hormone: Thyroid hormones increase
triggers a response that intensifies and
metabolism and heat production in the body.
amplifies the original change, pushing the
The adrenal glands may also be stimulated to system further away from its normal
secrete (produce) the hormone adrenaline. This state.
hormone causes the breakdown of glycogen (the
  In a positive feedback loop, feedback A2 and ADP) that attract additional
serves to intensify (stronger) a response platelets.
until an endpoint is reached.  As the platelets continue to amass, more of
 occurs when hormone secretion triggers the chemicals are released and more
additional hormone secretion which platelets are attracted to the site of the
indicates a trend away from homeostasis clot.
(balance).  The positive feedback accelerates the
 The positive feedback mechanism is far process of clotting until the clot is large
from positive. enough to stop the bleeding
 It is said to be positive because the change
Childbirth
that occurs proceeds in the same direction as
the initial disturbance. It occurs when the shows the positive feedback loop that controls

initial stimulus further stimulates the childbirth.

response. (when a change in the body causes  The process normally begins when the
a response that makes the change even head of the infant pushes against the
greater, moving further away from normal cervix.
levels. It happens when the initial stimulus  This stimulates nerve impulses, which travel
leads to even more of the same effect, from the cervix to the hypothalamus in the
amplifying the response.) brain.
 In other words, positive means that the  In response, the hypothalamus sends the
deviation from the set point becomes even hormone oxytocin to the pituitary gland,
greater. which secretes it into the bloodstream so
it can be carried to the uterus.
 Oxytocin stimulates (active) uterine
Blood Clotting
contractions, which push the baby harder
 When a wound causes bleeding, the body against the cervix. In response, the cervix
responds with a positive feedback loop to starts to dilate (expand) in preparation for
clot the blood and stop blood loss. the passage of the baby.
 Substances released by the injured blood
Oxytocin: A hormone produced by the pituitary gland
vessel wall begin the process of blood
that plays a key role in childbirth and breastfeeding.
clotting.
Uterine Contractions: The tightening and relaxing of the
 Platelets in the blood start to cling (sticks
muscles in the uterus (womb)
closely to the wound) to the injured site and
release chemicals ((such as thromboxane
  This cycle of positive feedback continues, 3. Effector – provides the means for the
with increasing levels of oxytocin, stronger control center’s response (out-put) to the
uterine contractions, and wider dilation of stimulus. Information flows from the control
the cervix until the baby is pushed through center to the effector along the efferent
the birth canal and out of the body. pathway.

efferent pathway is the route through which signals

travel from the control center (such as the brain) to
 At that point, the cervix is no longer
the effector (like muscles or glands) to carry out a
stimulated to send nerve impulses to the
response
brain, and the entire process stops.

 These are organs or systems that carry out

HEMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM the response to correct the deviation from
the set point
1. Receptors – is a type of sensory that
monitors and responds to changes in the
environment. It responds to such changes The results of the response then feedback to
called STIMULI (Changes or signals in the influence the stimulus (the original change), either
environment) in the environment, like by reducing the amount of change (negative
temperature or pressure, and send this feedback), so that the whole control mechanism is
information to the control center. shut off; or by increasing the amount of change
(positive feedback), so that the reaction continues at
an even faster rate.

2. Control center - This part receives

information from the receptors. The
control center determines the level (set
point) at which a variable is to be
maintained. This component analyzes the
information it receives and then determines
the appropriate response or course of
action. compares it to the normal body
temperature (set point), and decides what to
do
 his body with palms of bis hands turned
forward and the fingers pointing downward.
 It provides Standard reference framework
for describing body parts and their locations.

Supine – when lying face upward

Prone – when lying face downward

Anatomical Position

In order to learn the different anatomical directional

terms, we need to have a standard body position we
can use as a reference. This standard body
position is called the standard anatomical
position. The correct anatomical position is the
following:

1.Standing upright

ANATOMICAL POSITION 2. Head and eyes directed straight ahead

 Standing, attention, body erect, feet are 3.Upper limbs hanging down at th sides
parallel and flat on the floor, eyes are
looking in front and the arms are at sides of
4.Upper limbs slightly away from the trunk so the Anterior: Front, Towards the front. The other term
hands are not touching the sides is Ventral. The breast is on the anterior side of the
body.
5. Palms facing forward
Posterior: Back, Behind, Towards the rear or back.
6. Thumbs pointing away from the body
The other term is Dorsal. The kidneys are posteriar
7.Lower limbs parallel to the intestines.

8.Feet flat on the ground facing forward

PROXIMAL AND DISTAL

Distal: Away from the main mass of the body,

farther from the trunk or the point or attachment.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS OF THE BODY
Ex: The foot (malayo to sa trunk) is distal to the
Here are the most common directional terms used. knee.
The anatomical directions below are under separate
Proximal: Near, Closer to the point of attachment,
headings to show how they relate to each other.
Toward the trunk. Towards the main mass of the
For example, anterior and posterior are grouped body. Ex: The hip (mas malapit sa trunk) is
together because the coronal anatomical planes proximal to the foot.
divide the body into anterior and posterior parts. See
the pics below for a better understanding of these
terms.

ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR

SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR DORSAL AND VENTRAL

Superior: Above, Towards the head, towards the Dorsal: Near the upper surface, Opposite the
top (eyes is superior to the mouth) ventral surface, Toward the back.

Inferior: Below, Under, Towards the feet, away Ventral: Toward the bottom and front, Opposite the
from the head. Also called caudal (feet are inferior dorsal surface, toward the belly.
to the thighs)

ROSTRAL AND CAUDAL

Rostral: Toward the front of the head, Latin

meaning is toward the beak/nose.

Caudal: Toward the back, Inferior to another

structure, Latin meaning is toward the tail.
MEDIAL AND LATERAL

Lateral: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line.

SUPERFICIAL AND DEEP
The ears are lateral to the head.
SUPERFICIAL: closer to the surface of the body
Medial: Toward the mid-line, Middle. Ex: The
structure or organ.
heart is medial to the lungs.
DEEP: further from the surface of the body
structure or organ; toward the interior of the body

INTERNAL or deep means away from the surface

of the body. The lungs are internal to the thoracic
cage.

EXTERNAL or superficial, means toward the

surface of the body
VISCERAL refers to the internal organs. Ex. The ANTERIOR ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS
heart is covered by a thin membrane called the
visceral pericardium.

PARIETAL relates to the body walls. Ex. The

parietal peritoneum is the inside lining of the
abdominal cavity.

Body Parts and Regions

Health professionals use a number of terms when

referring to different regions or parts of the
body.

The central region of the body consists of the

head, neck, and trunk.

 The trunk can be divided into the thorax

(chest), abdomen (region between the thorax
and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of
the trunk associated with the hips).
 The upper limb is divided into the arm,
forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends
from the shoulder to the elbow, and the
forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.
 The lower limb is divided into the thigh,
leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from
the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from
the knee to the ankle.
 Note that, contrary to popular usage, the
terms arm and leg refer to only a part of
the respective limb.
PLANES

At times, it is conceptually useful to discuss the

body in reference to a series of planes (imaginary
flat surfaces) passing through it. Sectioning the
body is a way to "look inside" and observe the
body's structures.

A sagittal (saji-tal) plane runs vertically through

the body and separates it into right and left parts.

 The word sagittel literally means the flight

of an arrow and refers to the way the
body wouls be split by an arrow passing
anteriorly to posteriorly.
 A median plane is a sagittal plane that passes
through the midline of the body, dividing it
into equal right and left halves.
 A transverse (trans-vers') plane, or
horizontal plane, runs parallel to the surface
of the ground, dividing the body into
superior and inferior parts.
 A frontal plane, or coronal (köro-nal ko-
ro'nal; crown) plane runs vertically from
right to left and divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts.
 The body contains many cavities. Some of these
cavities, such as the nasal cavity, open to the
outside of the body, and some do not.

The trunk contains three large cavities that do

Body planes and section not open to the outside of the body: the thoracic
cavity, the abdominal cavity, and the pelvic cavity
(figure 1.13).

The thoracic cavity is surrounded by the rib cage

and is separated from the abdominal cavity by
the muscular diaphragm.

It is divided into right and left parts by a median

structure called the mediastinum (me'de -as-t 'ñu
m; wall).

The mediastinum is a partition containing the

Oblique Planes heart, the thymus, the trachea, the esophagus, and
other structures. The two lungs are located on
 is a plane that can literally be any type of
each side of the mediastinum.
angle other than a horizontal or vertical
angle. The abdominal cavity is bounded primarily by the
 In fact, the word "oblique" means that abdominal muscles and contains the stomach, the
something is not parallel or a right angle. intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the
 An easy way to remember this is to kidneys.
remember "obliques are odd angles
The pelvic (pelvik) cavity is a small space enclosed
 ." You can also think about your oblique
by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary
muscles. These muscles come down at an
bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal
angle and are located laterally to your
reproductive organs.
abdominal muscles.
The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not
physically separated and sometimes are called the
abdominopelvic (ab-dom'i-no-pel'vik) cavity.
 because of trauma, the other will still be functioning
because of this anatomical division.

Abdominal Cavity - contains the stomach, small

and large intestines, spleen, liver and gallbladder

Pelvic Cavity - houses the bladder and organs of

the reproductive system

BODY CAVITIES Cranial Cavity - also known as the cranium,

houses the brain
The different vital internal organs of the body are
protected inside the body by a unique cavity called Spinal Cavity - contains the spinal cord

BODY CAVITIES. Body cavities are enclosed Mediastinum - the area between the two lungs
spaces in which the organs are protected, separated,
and supported by associated membranes. There are
2 major body cavities:

• The posterior (dorsal) cavity includes the cranial

and vertebral cavities which encloses the brain and
spinal cord

• The anterior (ventral) cavity is made up of

thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities and encloses
body organs like the heart, lungs, stomach,
intestines, bladder, and kidneys

Body cavities function to separate organs and

systems by function. Visceral organs, or viscera, are
those that are located within the anterior body
cavity.

Thoracic Cavity - contains the heart and the lungs

Pericardial cavity - contains the heart

Pleural cavity - houses the lungs specially designed

as two separate compartments in order to minimize
trauma and the risk of disease or infection spreading
from one organ to another. Should a lung collapse
 LESSON 2

Cells, tissues, glands, and membrane

WHAT IS A CELL?

 A cell is a structural and fundamental unit of

life.

Cell Biology  the study of cells from its basic structure

The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell
Biology.
four sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary lines-
-one horizontal and one vertical -that intersect at the Robert Hooke  was the first biologist who discovered
navel. The quadrants formed are the right-upper, cells. Cells are the smallest structures capable of
left-upper, right-lower, and left-lower quadrants. In maintaining life and reproducing, compose all living
addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is things, from single-celled (unicellular) plants to
sometimes subdivided into regions by four multibillion-celled (multicellular) animals.
imaginary lines- -two horizontal and two vertical.
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. All
These four lines create an imaginary tic-tac-toe
organisms are made up of cells. The human body is
figure on the abdomen, resulting in nine regions: composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for
epigastric (ep-i-gas'trik), right and left the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those
hypochondriac(hi-po-kon dre-ak), umbilical (üm- nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
bili-käl), right and left lumbar (lüm'bar), functions. Cells determine the form and functions of
hypogastric (hi-po-gas'trik), and right and left iliac the human body.
(ille-ak) Clinicians use the quadrants or regions as
Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are
reference points for locating the underlying organs.
complex, and their components perform various
For example, the appendix is in the right-lower
functions in an organism. They are of different shapes
quadrant, and the pain of an acute appendicitis is
and sizes. Our body is made up of cells of different
usually felt there.
shapes and sizes.

The fundamental type of cell is the stem cell, which can

develop into any kind of specialized cell needed by the
body. There are over 200 types of specialized cells in the
human body — ranging from reproductive cells that
assist in the reproductive creation of offspring to red
blood cells that carry oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood throughout the body
CELL STRUCTURE

 The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms.

 The simplest organisms consist of single cells,
whereas humans are composed of multiple
cells.
 An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size of the
smallest dot you can make on a sheet of paper
with a sharp pencil, But despite their extremely
small size, cells are complex living structures.
 Cells have many characteristics in common;
however, most cells are also specialized to
perform specific functions.
 The human body is made up of many
populations of specialized cells. The
coordinated functions of these populations are
critical to the survival of humans and all other
complex organisms.
 Each cell is a highly organized unit. Within cells,
specialized structures called organelles (or′ğa -
nelz; little organs) perform specific functions
 The nucleus is an organelle containing the cell’s
genetic material.
 The living material surrounding the nucleus is
called cytoplasm (s̄ı ′t̄o -plazm), and it contains
many types of organelles. The cytoplasm is
enclosed by the cell membrane, or plasma
membrane

The cell is essentially made up of three important

structures:

 the nucleus which contains genetic information;

 a cytoplasm which contains other cell
organelles; and
  a cell wall that encloses the cytoplasm and the 2. Synthesis of molecules.
nucleus.  Cells synthesize various type of molecules.
The different cells of the body do not all produce
The number and type of organelles within each cell
the same molecules. Therefore, the structural and
shall determine the cell’s specific structure and
functional characteristics of cells are determined by
function.
the types of molecules they produce.
The functions of the cell include: 3. Communication.

1. It is the basic unit of life. The cell is the smallest unit  Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical

to which a living organism can be reduced and still signals that allow them to communicate with one

retain the characteristics of life. another. ex. Nerve cells and muscle cells

2. Cells produce and secrete different kinds of

4. Reproduction and inheritance
molecules that protect and support the human body.
 Each cell contains a copy of genetic information
3. Some types of cells have specific organelles that of the individual. Specialized cells ( sperm cells
allow the body to move. and oocytes) transmit that genetic information
to the next generation
4. Cells also produce and receive chemical and
electrical signals that permit communication between THE CELL MEMBRANE
and among the different cells.
 The cell membrane, also called the plasma
5. Chemical reactions that occur within cells are called membrane, is the outermost component of a
cell metabolism which releases energy for the different cell.
cell activities  It is found in all cells and separates the interior
of the cell from the outside environment.
6. Inside the nucleus of each cell is the genetic
 The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
information necessary to assure the transmission of
that is semipermeable.
inheritance patterns to the next generation
 The cell membrane acts a selective barrier that
regulates and determines the transport of

The 4 main functions of the Cell include: materials entering and exiting the cell and plays
a role in communication between cells.
1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
 The cell membrane protects the cell from
 The chemical reactions that occur within cells
external factors in order for the cell to maintain
are collectively called cell metabolism.  Energy
internal balance or homeostasis.
released during metabolism is used for cell
 The cell membrane forms a boundary between
activities, such as the synthesis of new molecules,
material inside the cell (intracellular) and those
muscle contraction , and heat production which
outside the cell (extracellular).
helps maintain body temperature.
  The unique arrangement of molecules in the cell
membrane is called Fluid-filled Mosaic Mode

Nuclei

 The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of

chromosomes, which consist of DNA and
proteins.
 During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes

The membrane is composed of a bilayer of are loosely coiled and collectively called

phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins “floating” in chromatin.

the membrane. The nonpolar hydrophobic region of  When a cell prepares to divide, the

each phospholipid molecule is directed toward the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are

center of the membrane, and the polar hydrophilic visible when viewed with a microscope.

region is directed toward the fluid environment either  the genes that influence the structural and

outside or inside of the cell. functional features of every individual are

portions of DNA molecules.
 These sections of DNA molecules determine the
Organelles - Cell Structures and their Functions structure of proteins. By determining the
structure of proteins, genes direct cell structure
NUCLEUS
and function
 is a large organelle usually located near the
center of the cell.
 All cells of the body have a nucleus at some NUCLEOLI
point in their life cycle, although some cells,
 are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
such as red blood cells, lose their nuclei as they
membrane that are found within the nucleus.
mature.
 There are usually one to several nucleoli within
 Other cells, such as skeletal muscle cells,
the nucleus.
contain more than one nucleus (store calcium).
 The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
 The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope,
cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
which consists of outer and inner membranes
nucleolus.
with a narrow space between them At many
 Proteins produced in the cytoplasm move
points on the surface of the nucleus, the inner
through the nuclear pores into the nucleus and
and outer membranes come together to form
to the nucleolus.
nuclear pores, through which materials can pass
 These proteins are joined to ribosomal
into or out of the nucleus.
ribonucleic acid (rRNA), produced within the
 nucleolus, to form large and small ribosomal  For example, proteins produced at the
subunits ribosomes enter the Golgi apparatus from the
 The ribosomal subunits then move from the ER. In some cases, the Golgi apparatus
nucleus through the nuclear pores into the chemically modifies the proteins by attaching
cytoplasm, where one large and one small carbohydrate or lipid molecules to them.
subunit join to form a ribosome during protein  The proteins then are packaged into membrane
synthesis sacs, called secretory vesicles, that pinch off
from the margins of the Golgi apparatus.
RIBOSOMES
 The Golgi apparatus is present in larger
 are the organelles where proteins are numbers and is most highly developed in cells
produced. that secrete protein, such as those of the
 Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, salivary glands or the pancreas
such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes.
 Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum The
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranes forming sacs and tubules that SECRETORY VESICLES

extends from the outer nuclear membrane into  is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports
the cytoplasm. or stores materials within cells.
 Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached to it.  Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi
 A large amount of rough ER in a cell indicates apparatus and move to the cell membrane.
that it is synthesizing large amounts of protein  The membrane of a secretory vesicle then fuses
for export from the cell. with the cell membrane, and the contents of the
 On the other hand, ER without ribosomes is vesicle are released to the exterior of the cell.
called smooth ER. Smooth ER is a site for lipid  In many cells, secretory vesicles accumulate in
synthesis and participates in detoxification of the cytoplasm and are released to the exterior
chemicals within cells. In skeletal muscle cells, when the cell receives a signal. For example,
the smooth ER stores calcium ions nerve cells release substances called

GOLGI APPARATUS neurotransmitters from secretory vesicles to

communicate with other cells. Also, secretory
 consists of closely packed stacks of curved,
vesicles containing hormones remain in the
membrane-bound sacs. It collects, modifies,
cytoplasm of endocrine cells until signals
packages, and distributes proteins and lipids
stimulate their release. For example, insulin
manufactured by the ER.
remains in the cytoplasm of pancreatic cells
 until rising blood glucose levels stimulate its mitochondria than cells that require less energy. For
secretion. example, cells that carry out extensive active transport,
described earlier, contain many mitochondria. When
muscles enlarge as a result of exercise, the mitochondria
LYSOSOMES AND PEROXISOMES Lysosomes (lı̄′sō-sōmz) increase in number within the muscle cells and provide
are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi the additional ATP required for muscle contraction
apparatus. They contain a variety of enzymes that
function as intracellular digestive systems. Vesicles
formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes . The CYTOSKELETON The cytoskeleton (s̄ı -t̄o - skel′ĕ -ton)
enzymes within the lysosomes break down the consists of proteins that support the cell, hold
materials in the endocytotic vesicle. For example, white organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape.
blood cells phagocytize bacteria. Then enzymes within These protein structures are microtubules,
lysosomes destroy the phagocytized bacteria. microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
Peroxisomes (per-ok′si-sōmz) are small, membrane-
bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein

Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and sub-units. They perform a variety of roles, such as

amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. The helping support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell

enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen peroxide division, and forming essential components of certain

to water and O2. Cells active in detoxification, such as organelles, such as cilia and flagella. Microfilaments are

liver and kidney cells, have many peroxisome small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm. Some
microfilaments are involved with cell movement. For
MITOCHONDRIA Mitochondria (m′tō-kon′drē-ă; sing. example, microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells
mitochondrion) are small organelles with inner and to shorten, or contract. Intermediate filaments are fibrils
outer membranes separated by a space The outer formed from protein sub-units that are smaller in
membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than
membranes have numerous folds, called cristae(kris′tē), microfilaments. They provide mechanical support to the
which project like shelves into the interior of the cell.
mitochondria. Mitochondria are the major sites of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production within cells.
Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, a series of CENTRIOLES The centrosome (sen′trō-sōm) is a

chemical reactions that require O2 to break down food specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus,

molecules to produce ATP. ATP is the main energy where microtubule formation occurs. It contains two

source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and centrioles (sen′trē-ōlz), which are normally \oriented

cells with a large energy requirement have more perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a small,
cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets; each
triplet consists of three parallel microtubules joined
together. Additional microtubules, extending from the
area of the centrioles, play an important role in cell
division

Lesson 3 REPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body,

disposes of carbon dioxide, and helps regulate blood Ph

Without oxygen, cells will eventually die. Too much

carbon dioxide in the blood will cause the blood pH to

become acidic, which will interfere in cellular function.

Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs of the lungs called

alveoli, and at capillary beds around the body

ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM It shares

responsibility for supplying the body with oxygen and
disposing of carbon dioxide. It oversees the gas
exchange that occur between the blood and external Trachea
environment

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM a. The upper respiratory tract,
Lungs
known as the upper airway, warms and filters inspired
air so that the lower respiratory tract (the lungs) can Pleura

accomplish gas exchange. b. Gas exchange involves Mediastinum

delivering oxygen to the tissues through the
Lobes
bloodstream and expelling waste gases, such as carbon
dioxide, during expiration. c. The respiratory system Bronchi and Bronchioles
works in concert with the cardiovascular system; the
Alveoli
respiratory system is responsible for ventilation and
diffusion, and the cardiovascular system is responsible
for perfusion NOSE

➢pug- or ski jump in shape, is the only externally visible

VENTILATION the movement of fresh air around a closed part of the respiratory system.

space, or the system that does this ➢The air enter the nose through the nostrils or nares.

DIFFUSION process resulting from random motion of ➢The interior of the nose consist of the nasal cavity,

molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a diviDed by nasal septum

region of high concentration to a region of low ➢Olfactory receptor for the sense of smell are in the
concentration. A familiar example is the perfume of a mucosa
flower that quickly permeates the still air of a room.
PERFUSION is the passage of fluid through the
circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ or a
tissue, usually referring to the delivery of blood to a
capillary bed in tissue

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Nose

Paranasal Sinuses

Pharynx, Tonsils, and Adenoids

Larynx