UNIT 8 INTERNET OF THINGS

Structure

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 IoT and its Characteristics
8.2.1 Characteristics of IoT
8.2.2 Technologies That Made IoT Possible
8.3 IoT Categories
8.4 IoT Enablers and Connectivity Layers
8.5 Baseline Technologies of IoT
8.6 Sensors
8.6.1 Characteristics of a Sensor
8.6.2 Classification of Sensors
8.7 Actuators
8.7.1 Types of Actuators
8.7.2 Applications of Actuators
8.8 Arduino Board and Raspberry Pi
8.9 IoT Architecture
8.10 Applications of IoT
8.11 Challenges of IoT
8.12 Summary
8.13 Solutions/Answers
8.14 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

In the earlier blocks, we had studied various concepts on Cloud Computing. In

this unit, we will focus on another important technology which is becoming
very much popular namely Internet of Things.

Over the past few years, IoT has become one of the most important
technologies of the 21st century. The Internet of Things, often abbreviated as
IoT, represents a revolutionary concept that has transformed the way we
perceive and interact with technology. The Internet of Things (IoT) describes
the network of physical objects - “things”- that are embedded with sensors,
software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging
data with other devices and systems over the internet. These devices range
from ordinary household objects to sophisticated industrial tools. With more
than 7 billion connected IoT devices today, experts are expecting this number
to grow to 10 billion by 2020 and 22 billion by 2025.

In its essence, IoT refers to a vast network of interconnected devices, sensors,

machines, and systems that communicate and share data with each other over
the internet. These devices can range from everyday objects like household
appliances, wearable devices, and cars to industrial machinery and
infrastructure components.

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What distinguishes IoT is its ability to enable these devices to collect and
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exchange data, allowing for seamless integration, automation, and intelligent
decision-making. By embedding sensors, software, and connectivity into
various objects, IoT empowers them to gather real-time information, analyze it,
and respond intelligently, fostering efficiency, convenience, and innovation
across numerous industries and daily life. The potential applications of IoT are
extensive, spanning across healthcare, agriculture, transportation, smart cities,
manufacturing, and more. Through IoT, devices can autonomously perform
tasks, optimize processes, and enhance overall experiences for individuals and
businesses alike. However, as IoT continues to evolve and expand,
considerations regarding security, privacy, and standardization remain critical.
Safeguarding data, ensuring interoperability between devices, and establishing
robust protocols are pivotal for the sustainable growth and safe implementation
of IoT technologies.

Internet of Things (IoT) is a massive network of physical devices embedded

with sensors, software, electronics, and network which allows the devices to
exchange or collect data and perform certain actions.

IoT comprises “Internet” and “Things”, wherein:

• Things refer to physical devices, appliances, and gadgets.

• Internet denotes the connectivity facilitating the interaction between
these devices.

The primary objective of IoT is to extend internet connectivity beyond

traditional devices like computers and smartphones, encompassing various
devices used in homes and businesses. This technology enables remote control
of devices through network infrastructure, reducing human effort and
facilitating seamless access to connected devices. By enabling autonomous
control, these devices can function without direct human interaction.
Leveraging AI algorithms, data collection, and network connectivity, IoT
enhances our lives by imbuing these devices with virtual intelligence.

Ultimately, the Internet of Things stands as a pivotal force reshaping our

world, promising a future where the integration of smart devices not only
augments our capabilities but also transforms the very fabric of how we live,
work, and interact with the world around us.In this unit we will focus on IoT
and its characteristics, categories of IoT, its enablers and connectivity layers,
baseline technologies of IoT and IoT architecture.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you shall be able to:

• understand various IoT and its characteristics;

• list and describe various IoT categories;
• describe the baseline technologies of IoT;
• discuss IoT architecture;
• elucidate the applications of IoT; and
• explain the challenges in IoT.
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8.2 IoT AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a vast network of interconnected physical

devices, vehicles, appliances, and other objects embedded with sensors,
software, and connectivity, allowing them to collect and exchange data. These
devices communicate with each other and with central systems through the
internet, enabling them to gather information, make intelligent decisions, and
perform tasks more efficiently.

IoT devices range from everyday consumer products like smart thermostats,
wearable fitness trackers, and home assistants to complex industrial machinery
used in manufacturing, healthcare equipment, and infrastructure monitoring
systems. They are designed to sense specific aspects of their environment,
gather data, and often act on that data through automated processes.

The power of IoT lies in its ability to connect these devices, analyze the data
they generate in real-time, and utilize insights to improve efficiency,
productivity, and convenience across various industries and in daily life. For
instance, in agriculture, IoT devices can monitor soil moisture levels and
weather conditions to optimize irrigation, while in healthcare; wearable
devices can track vital signs and provide proactive health monitoring.

IoT technology continues to evolve, offering innovative solutions in areas like

smart homes, transportation, agriculture, healthcare, manufacturing, and more.
As it expands, considerations about security, privacy, data management, and
interoperability are crucial to ensuring the safe and effective integration of IoT
devices into our lives and industries.

8.2.1 Characteristics of IoT

Following are the characteristics collectively define the capabilities and

functionalities of IoT, contributing to its widespread adoption and application
across various industries and everyday life scenarios:

• Connectivity: IoT devices are interconnected through the

internet, enabling seamless communication and data exchange
between devices, systems, and users.
• Sensing and Monitoring: IoT devices are equipped with sensors
to collect data from their environment, enabling them to monitor
and gather real-time information about various conditions.
• Data Processing: IoT devices often have the capability to
process data locally or transmit it to centralized systems for
analysis. They can perform basic to complex data processing
tasks depending on their capabilities.
• Automation and Control: IoT allows for remote control and
automation of devices, enabling actions to be performed without
direct human intervention. This feature enhances efficiency and
convenience in various applications.
• Scalability: IoT systems are designed to scale, accommodating a
vast number of devices and users, ensuring seamless integration
and operation as the network grows.
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• Interoperability: Devices from different manufacturers and with
various functionalities can communicate and work together,
thanks to standardized protocols and interfaces, ensuring
compatibility and smooth operation within IoT ecosystems.
• Security and Privacy: Ensuring the security of data transmitted
and stored by IoT devices is crucial. Security measures such as
encryption, authentication, and access control are implemented to
protect data and maintain user privacy.
• Energy Efficiency: Many IoT devices are designed to operate on
low power and are energy-efficient, prolonging their operational
life and reducing environmental impact.
• Dynamic and Self Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have
the capability to dynamically adapt with the changing contexts
and take actions based on their operating conditions, user‘s
context or sensed environment. Eg: the surveillance system is
adapting itself based on context and changing conditions.
• Self Configuring: allowing a large number of devices to work
together to provide certain functionality.
• Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity and a
unique identifier (IP address).
• Integrated into Information Network: that allow them to
communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems.

8.2.3 Technologies That Made IoT Possible

Although the concept of IoT has existed for some time, recent advancements
across diverse technologies have rendered it feasible.
• Accessibility to cost-effective, energy-efficient sensor technology is
broadening the potential for IoT implementation among a wider array
of manufacturers.
• Connectivity options, supported by various internet network protocols,
have simplified the integration of sensors with cloud systems and other
interconnected devices, facilitating swift and efficient data
transmission.
• The proliferation of cloud computing platforms has democratized
access to scalable infrastructure, enabling businesses and consumers to
expand operations without the burden of managing complex systems.
• Progress in machine learning and analytics, coupled with extensive data
repositories stored in the cloud, empowers businesses to swiftly glean
valuable insights from the burgeoning volumes of IoT-generated data,
constantly pushing the boundaries of IoT capabilities.
• The evolution of conversational artificial intelligence (AI), enabled by
advancements in neural networks, has brought natural-language
processing (NLP) to IoT devices like Alexa, Cortana, and Siri, making
these digital assistants both appealing and practical for home use at an
affordable rate.

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8.3 IoT CATEGORIES

Following categories illustrate the diverse applications of IoT across
various industries, each aimed at improving efficiency, productivity,
and overall quality of life through the integration of connected devices
and smart technologies.

• Consumer IoT (CIoT) refers to the use of IoT for consumer

applications and devices. Common CIoT products include smartphones,
wearables, smart assistants, home appliances, etc. Typically, CIoT
solutions leverage Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee to facilitate
connectivity. These technologies offer short-range communication
suitable for deployments in smaller venues, such as homes and offices.

While CIoT tends to focus on augmenting personal and home

environments, Commercial IoT goes a bit further, delivering the
benefits of IoT to larger venues. Think: commercial office buildings,
supermarkets, stores, hotels, healthcare facilities, and entertainment
venues.

There are numerous use cases for commercial IoT, including

monitoring environmental conditions, managing access to corporate
facilities, and economizing utilities and consumption in hotels and
other large venues. Many Commercial IoT solutions are geared towards
improving customer experiences and business conditions.

• Industrial IoT (IIoT), is perhaps the most dynamic wing of the IoT
industry. Its focus is on augmenting existing industrial systems, making
them both more productive and more efficient. IIoT deployments are
typically found in large-scale factories and manufacturing plants and
are often associated with industries like healthcare, agriculture,
automotive, and logistics. The Industrial Internet is perhaps the most
well-known example of IIoT.

• Infrastructure IoT is concerned with the development of smart

infrastructures that incorporate IoT technologies to boost efficiency,
cost savings, maintenance, etc. This includes the ability to monitor and
control operations of urban and rural infrastructures, such as bridges,
railway tracks, and on- and offshore windfarms. Technically speaking,
infrastructure IoT is a subset of IIoT. However, due to its significance,
it’s often treated as its own separate thing.

• Internet of Military Things (IoMT), often referred to as Battlefield

IoT, the Internet of Battlefield Things, or simply IoBT. IoMT is
precisely what it sounds like — the use of IoT in military settings and
battlefield situations. It is chiefly aimed at increasing situational
awareness, bolstering risk assessment, and improving response times.
Common IoMT applications include connecting ships, planes, tanks,
soldiers, drones, and even Forward Operating Bases via an
interconnected system. In addition, IoMT produces data that can be

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leveraged to improve military practices, systems, equipment,
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and strategy.

• Retail IoT (RIoT), is utilized for inventory management, smart

shelves, personalized shopping experiences, and customer behavior
analytics. It enhances operational efficiency and improves the customer
shopping journey.

• Environmental IoT, involves the use of IoT devices to monitor and

manage environmental factors such as air quality, water quality, and
climate conditions. Sensors collect data to enable better environmental
management and sustainability efforts.

8.4 IoT ENABLERS AND CONNECTIVITY

LAYERS
Installers, repair experts, artisans, electrical technicians, plumbers, and
architects are all involved in linking devices and systems to the internet,
whether for personal, commercial, or other business purposes.
The Internet of Things (IoT) empowers devices to make informed decisions
that drive favorable business outcomes, and at the heart of these decisions are
sensors. As the pressures of cost and time-to-market escalate, sensors offer
enhanced visibility into interconnected systems, enabling these systems to
intelligently respond to changes originating from both external forces and
internal factors.

Sensors play a pivotal role in furnishing actionable insights that fuel the IoT,
empowering organizations to execute more astute business decisions. Real-
time measurements facilitated by sensors serve as the catalyst for the
transformative potential of the IoT in an organization's adaptability to change.

Wi-Fi initially catered to computers, while 4G LTE wireless was tailored for
smartphones and portable devices, both achieving tremendous success by
aligning with their intended devices. Similarly, 5G has been designed as the
inaugural wireless technology with the particular focus on extremely small,
low-power, and nearly omnipresent IoT devices.

Unlike Wi-Fi and LTE devices, which are handled and connected to power
sources daily, IoT sensors operate autonomously for extended periods, often in
remote and inaccessible locations, without requiring recharging or
replacement. The advent of the IoT is driving the development of numerous 5G
communication standards, spawning a multitude of network types rather than a
singular or dual protocol.

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 Check Your Progress 1

1) What is the Internet of Things (IoT)?

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2) What is the purpose of IoT?

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8.5 BASELINE TECHNOLOGIES OF IoT

The foundation of the Internet of Things (IoT) is built upon several key
technologies that enable the connectivity, data processing, and communication
between devices. Some of the base technologies of IoT include:
• Sensors and Actuators: These are fundamental components that
gather data from the physical world (sensors) and perform actions
based on received instructions (actuators). Sensors collect information
such as temperature, motion, light, and more, while actuators execute
commands like opening a valve or turning on a motor.

• Connectivity: Various communication protocols and technologies

facilitate the transfer of data between IoT devices and systems. This
includes Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, RFID, NFC, cellular
networks (2G, 3G, 4G, and now 5G), LoRaWAN, and others. Each
protocol has its strengths and is suited to different IoT use cases based
on factors like range, power consumption, and bandwidth.

• Cloud Computing: Cloud platforms store and process the vast

amounts of data generated by IoT devices. These platforms provide the
infrastructure for data storage, analysis, and enable remote access to
information from anywhere. Cloud services also offer scalability and
computational power necessary for handling IoT-generated data.

• Edge Computing: To reduce latency and handle data processing closer

to the source, edge computing is utilized. It involves processing data
locally on devices or within the local network instead of sending all
information to the cloud. This enhances real-time decision-making and
reduces the load on central servers.

• Security Technologies: IoT devices require robust security measures

to protect data and prevent unauthorized access. Encryption protocols,
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authentication methods, firewalls, and secure device management
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frameworks are crucial components in securing IoT ecosystems.

• Machine Learning and AI: Advanced analytics, machine learning

algorithms, and artificial intelligence play a significant role in deriving
insights from the massive volumes of IoT-generated data. These
technologies enable predictive maintenance, pattern recognition,
anomaly detection, and intelligent decision-making within IoT systems.

• IoT Analytics: IoT business models will exploit the information

collected by “things” in many ways, which will demand new analytic
tools and algorithms. As data volumes increase over the next five years,
the needs of the IoT may diverge further from traditional analytics.

• IoT Device (Thing) Management: Long-lived nontrivial "things" will

require management and monitoring, including device monitoring,
firmware and software updates, diagnostics, crash analysis and
reporting, physical management, and security management. Tools must
be capable of managing and monitoring thousands and perhaps even
millions of devices.

• Low-Power, Short-Range IoT Networks: Low-power, short-range

networks will dominate wireless IoT connectivity through 2025, far
outnumbering connections using wide-area IoT networks. However,
commercial and technical trade-offs mean that many solutions will
coexist, with no single dominant winner.

• IoT Processors: The processors and architectures used by IoT devices

define many of their capabilities, such as whether they are capable of
strong security and encryption, power consumption, whether they are
sophisticated enough to support an operating system, updatable
firmware, and embedded device management agents. Understanding
the implications of processor choices will demand deep technical skills.

• IoT Operating Systems: Traditional operating systems such as

Windows and iOS were not designed for IoT applications. They
consume too much power, need fast processors, and in some cases, lack
features such as guaranteed real-time response. They also have too
large a memory footprint for small devices and may not support the
chips that IoT developers use. Consequently, a wide range of IoT-
specific operating systems has been developed to suit many different
hardware footprints and feature needs.

• Event Stream Processing: Some IoT applications will generate

extremely high data rates that must be analyzed in real time. Systems
creating tens of thousands of events per second are common, and
millions of events per second can occur in some situations. To address
such requirements, distributed stream computing platforms have
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emerged that can process very high-rate data streams and perform tasks
such as real-time analytics and pattern identification.

• IoT Standards and Ecosystems: Standards and their associated

application programming interfaces (APIs) will be essential because
IoT devices will need to interoperate and communicate, and many IoT
business models will rely on sharing data between multiple devices and
organizations. Many IoT ecosystems will emerge, and organizations
creating products may have to develop variants to support multiple
standards or ecosystems and be prepared to update products during
their life span as the standards evolve and new standards and APIs
emerge.

8.6 SENSORS
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc. A sensor is a device that
provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement. The sensor
attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity. The output of
the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like
changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance etc.
8.6.1. Characteristics of a Sensor

The static accuracy of a sensor indicates how much the sensor signal correctly
represents the measured quantity after it stabilizes (i.e. beyond the transient
period.) Important static characteristics of sensors include sensitivity,
resolution, linearity, zero drift and full-scale drift, range, repeatability and
reproducibility.

1. Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to

a unit change in the input (the measured quantity.) Example: The
speakers you purchase for your home entertainment may have a rated
sensitivity of 89 dB Signal Pressure Level per Watt per meter.

2. Resolution is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be

detected and accurately indicated by the sensor. Example: What is the
resolution of an ordinary ruler? of a Vernier Calipers?

3. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration

curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static
conditions. Its degree of resemblance to a straight line describes the
linearity.

4. Drift is the deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the
sensor is kept at that value for a prolonged period of time. The zero
drift refers to the change in sensor output if the input is kept steady at a
level that (initially) yields a zero reading. Similarly, the full -scale
drift is the drift if the input is maintained at a value which originally
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yields a full scale deflection. Reasons for drift may be extraneous, such
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as changes in ambient pressure, humidity, temperature etc., or due to
changes in the constituents of the sensor itself, such as aging, wear etc.

5. The range of a sensor is determined by the allowed lower and upper

limits of its input or output. Usually the range is determined by the
accuracy required. Example:Sometimes the range may just be
determined by physical limitations. Example: a pocket ruler.

6. Repeatability is defined as the deviation between measurements in a

sequence when the object under test is the same and approaches its
value from the same direction each time. The measurements have to be
made under a short enough time duration so as not to allow significant
long term drift. Repeatability is usually specified as a percentage of the
sensor range. Example:

7. Reproducibility is the same as repeatability, except it also incorporates

long time lapses between subsequent measurements. The sensor has to
be operation between measurements, but must be calibrated.
Reproducibility is specified as a percentage of the sensor range per unit
of time.

The dynamic characteristics of a sensor represent the time response of the

sensor system. Knowledge of these is essential to fruitfully use a sensor.
Important common dynamic responses of sensors include rise time, delay time,
peak time, settling time percentage error and steady-state error

8.6.2. Classification of Sensors

The common IoT sensors include:

Temperature sensors, Pressure sensors, Motion sensors, Level sensors, Image

sensors, Proximity sensors, Water quality sensors, Chemical sensors, Gas
sensors, Smoke sensors, Infrared (IR) sensors, Humidity sensors, etc.
A description of each of these sensors is provided below.

Temperature sensors

Temperature sensors detect the temperature of the air or a physical object and
concert that temperature level into an electrical signal that can be calibrated
accurately reflect the measured temperature. These sensors could monitor the
temperature of the soil to help with agricultural output or the temperature of a
bearing operating in a critical piece of equipment to sense when it might be
overheating or nearing the point of failure.

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Pressure sensors

Pressure sensors measure the pressure or force per unit area applied to the
sensor and can detect things such as atmospheric pressure, the pressure of a
stored gas or liquid in a sealed system such as tank or pressure vessel, or the
weight of an object.

Motion sensors

Motion sensors or detectors can sense the movement of a physical object by

using any one of several technologies, including passive infrared (PIR),
microwave detection, or ultrasonic, which uses sound to detect objects. These
sensors can be used in security and intrusion detection systems, but can also be
used to automate the control of doors, sinks, air conditioning and heating, or
other systems.

Level sensors

Level sensors translate the level of a liquid relative to a benchmark normal

value into a signal. Fuel gauges display the level of fuel in a vehicle’s tank, as
an example, which provides a continuous level reading. There are also point
level sensors, which are a go-no/go or digital representation of the level of the
liquid. Some automobiles have a light that illuminates when the fuel level tank
is very close to empty, acting as an alarm that warns the driver that fuel is
about to run out completely.

Image sensors

Image sensors function to capture images to be digitally stored for processing.

License plate readers are an example, as well as facial recognition systems.
Automated production lines can use image sensors to detect issues with quality
such as how well a surface is painted after leaving the spray booth.

Proximity sensors

Proximity sensors can detect the presence or absence of objects that approach
the sensor through a variety of different technology designs.

Water quality sensors

The importance of water to human beings on earth not only for drinking but as
a key ingredient needed in many production processes dictates the need to be
able to sense and measure parameters around water quality. Some examples of
what is sensed and monitored include:

Chemical presence (such as chlorine levels or fluoride levels),Oxygen

levels (which may impact the growth of algae and bacteria),Electrical
conductivity (which can indicate the level of ions present in water), pH level (a
reflection of the relative acidity or alkalinity of the water),Turbidity levels (a
measurement of the amount of suspended solids in water)
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Chemical sensors
Technologies

Chemical sensors are designed to detect the presence of specific chemical

substances which may have inadvertently leaked from their containers into
spaces that are occupied by personnel and are useful in controlling industrial
process conditions.

Gas sensors

Related to chemical sensors, gas sensors are tuned to detect the presence of
combustible, toxic, or flammable gas in the vicinity of the sensor. Examples of
specific gases that can be detected include:

Bromine (Br2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Chlorine (Cl2), Chlorine Dioxide

(ClO2),Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN),Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2), Hydrogen
Sulfide (H2S), Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3), etc.

Smoke sensors

Smoke sensors or detectors pick up the presence of smoke conditions which

could be an indication of a fire typically using optical sensors (photoelectric
detection) or ionization detection.

Infrared (IR) sensors

Infrared sensor technologies detect infrared radiation that is emitted by objects.

Non-contact thermometers make use of these types of sensors as a way of
measuring the temperature of an object without having to directly place a
probe or sensor on that object. They find use in analyzing the heat signature of
electronics and detecting blood flow or blood pressure in patients.

Acceleration sensors

While motion sensors detect movement of an object, acceleration sensors, or

accelerometers as they are also known, detect the rate of change of velocity of
an object. This change may be due to a free-fall condition, a sudden vibration
that is causing movement with speed changes, or rotational motion (a
directional change).

8.7 ACTUATORS

An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the

mechanism or the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then
control signals are generated for the actuators according to the actions needed
to perform. Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical
quantity such as movement, force, sound etc.

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8.7.1. Types of Actuators

Actuators are devices used in various engineering and technological

applications to convert energy into physical movement or action. There are
several types of actuators, each designed for specific purposes and with
different mechanisms for generating motion. Here are some common types:

1. Electric Actuators

• Linear Actuators: These actuators produce linear motion,

converting rotary motion from an electric motor into linear
movement. They are used in applications like opening and
closing doors, adjusting solar panels, or controlling valves.

• Rotary Actuators: Convert electrical energy into rotational

motion. They're used in applications such as robotics, conveyor
systems, and control mechanisms for valves or dampers.

Figure 1: Electric Actuator

2. Hydraulic Actuators

• Linear Hydraulic Actuators: Utilize pressurized hydraulic

fluid to generate linear motion. They're employed in heavy
machinery, construction equipment, and industrial systems that
require high force output.
• Rotary Hydraulic Actuators: Convert hydraulic power into
rotary motion. They're used in heavy-duty applications like
moving heavy loads, steering systems, and some types of
machinery.

3. Pneumatic Actuators

• Pneumatic Cylinders: Use compressed air to create linear

motion. They're commonly found in industrial automation, such
as in manufacturing, automotive assembly lines, and control
systems.
• Pneumatic Rotary Actuators: Generate rotary motion using
compressed air. They're used in applications where quick and
precise rotation is required, such as in robotics and
manufacturing.

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Figure 2: Pneumatic Actuator

4. Piezoelectric Actuators

• These actuators use piezoelectric materials that change shape

when an electric field is applied. They are used in precision
positioning systems, nanopositioning, and in some medical
devices.

5. Electroactive Polymers (EAPs)

• EAP actuators change shape or size in response to electrical

stimulation. They're still in the development stage but hold
promise for artificial muscles, soft robotics, and biomimetic
devices.

Actuators play a crucial role in a wide range of (IoT) applications, from

manufacturing and robotics to aerospace, automotive, and healthcare. The
choice of actuator depends on the specific requirements of the application,
including the type of motion needed, force or torque requirements, precision,
speed, and environmental considerations.

8.7.2 Applications of Actuators

Actuators have a wide range of use in the modern world in machines,

automobiles, and automation. The following table 1 describes common
applications, devices suitable for said applications, and actuators that provide
power to the devices.

Table 1: Applications, Devices and Types of Actuators

Application Device Actuator Type

Automated control of fluid flow Control Valve, Flow Meter Linear, Rotary
in pipelines and process systems (Hydraulic, Electric)
Adjustment of industrial valves, Ball Valve, Solenoid Valve, Rotary (Hydraulic,
positioning of machine Servo Motor Electric)
components
Digging, grading, and Excavator, Backhoe Linear, Rotary
excavating in construction and (Hydraulic)
mining operations
Manufacturing of metal parts, Hydraulic Press, CNC Rotary (Hydraulic,
plastic molding, and forging Machine, Forging Hammer Electric)
operations
Powering machine tools, robots, Electric Motor, Robot Arm, Linear, Rotary
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and conveyor systems Conveyor Belt (Electric, Hydraulic)
Positioning of machine Linear Actuator, Servo Motor, Linear, Rotary
components in automated Gripper (Electric, Hydraulic)
production systems
Regulating the flow of fuel and Throttle Valve, Fuel Injector Rotary (Mechanical,
air into internal combustion Electric)
engines
Regulating the speed of steam Turbine Governor, Valve Rotary (Electric,
or gas turbines in power plants Hydraulic, Thermal)
Simple machine control in Mechanical Lever, Electric Linear, Rotary
mechanical systems, such as Switch (Mechanical, Electric)
door openers
Transmission of power in Gearbox, Gear Pump, Linear, Rotary
machines, such as conveyor Hydraulic Motor (Hydraulic,
systems and gear pumps Mechanical, Electric)

8.8 ARDUINO BOARD AND RASPBERRY PI

Arduino board and Raspberry Pi are both popular hardware platforms used in
electronics and computing. Arduino is more focused on hardware interaction
and real-time processing for embedded systems, Raspberry Pi serves as a
miniature computer suitable for a wide array of applications, from education to
IoT and multimedia projects, owing to its computational capabilities and
versatility.

Arduino Board

• An Arduino is actually a microcontroller based kit.

• It is basically used in communications and in controlling or operating
many devices.
• Arduino UNO board is the most popular board in the Arduino board
family.
• In addition, it is the best board to get started with electronics and
coding.
• Some boards look a bit different from the one given below, but most
Arduino’s have majority of these components in common.
• It consists of two memories- Program memory and the data memory.
• The code is stored in the flash program memory, whereas the data is
stored in the data memory.
• Arduino Uno consists of 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be
used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a
USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button
1.Power USB 2.Power (Barrel Jack) 3.Voltage Regulator 4.Crystal
Oscillator 17.Arduino Reset 5.Arduino Reset 6,7,8,9.Pins (3.3, 5, GND,
Vin) 10.Analog pins 11.Main microcontroller 12.ICSP pin 13.Power
LED indicator 14.TX and RX LEDs 15.D.

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Figure 3: Arduino Board

Raspberry Pi

• The Raspberry Pi is a very cheap computer that runs Linux, but it also
provides a set of GPIO (general purpose input/output) pins that allow
you to control electronic components for physical computing and
explore the Internet of Things (IoT).
• Raspberry Pi was basically introduced in 2006.
• It is particularly designed for educational use and intended for Python.
• A Raspberry Pi is of small size i.e., of a credit card sized single board
computer, which is developed in the United Kingdom(U.K) by a
foundation called Raspberry Pi

There have been three generations of Raspberry Pis: Pi 1, Pi 2, and Pi 3

• The first generation of Raspberry (Pi 1) was released in the year 2012,
that has two types of models namely model A and model B.
• Raspberry Pi can be plugged into a TV, computer monitor, and it uses
a standard keyboard and mouse.
• It is user friendly as can be handled by all the age groups.
• It does everything you would expect a desktop computer to do like
word-processing, browsing the internet spread sheets, playing games to
playing high definition videos.
• All models feature on a broadcom system on a chip (SOC), which
includes chip graphics processing unit GPU(a Video Core IV), an
ARM compatible and CPU.
• The CPU speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz for the Pi 3 and on
board memory range from 256 MB to 1 GB RAM.
• An operating system is stored in the secured digital SD cards and
program memory in either the MicroSDHC or SDHC sizes.
• Most boards have one to four USB slots, composite video output,
HDMI and a 3.5 mm phone jack for audio. Some models have WiFi
and Bluetooth.

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• All models feature a Broadcom system on a chip (SoC) with an
integrated ARM-compatible central processing unit (CPU) and on-chip
graphics processing unit (GPU).
• Processor speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.4 GHz for the Pi 3 Model
B+ or 1.5 GHz for the Pi 4; on-board memory ranges from 256 MB to 1
GB with up to 4 GB available on the Pi 4 random-access memory
(RAM).
• Secure Digital (SD) cards in Micro SDHC form factor (SDHC on early
models) are used to store the operating system and program memory.
• The boards have one to five USB ports. For video output, HDMI and
composite video are supported, with a standard 3.5 mm tip-ring-sleeve
jack for audio output.
• Lower-level output is provided by a number of GPIO pins, which
support common protocols like I²C. The B-models have an 8P8C
Ethernet port and the Pi 3 and Pi Zero W have on-board Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.

Figure 4: Raspberry Pi

 Check Your Progress 2

1) What are the components of an IoT system?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2) How do IoT devices communicate?
……………………………………………………………………………
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3) List the differences of Arduino Board and Raspberrypi in a table.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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8.9 IoT ARCHITECTURE

The Reference Model introduced in 2014 by Cisco, IBM, and Intel at the 2014
IoT World Forum has as many as seven layers. According to an official press
release by Cisco forum host, the architecture aims to “help educate CIOs, IT
departments, and developers on deployment of IoT projects, and accelerate the
adoption of IoT.” These layers are:

• The perception layer hosting smart things;

• The connectivity or transport layer transferring data from the
physical layer to the cloud and vice versa via networks and gateways;
• The processing layer employing IoT platforms to accumulate and
manage all data streams; and
• The application layer delivering solutions like analytics, reporting,
and device control to end users.

(i) Perception layer: Converting analog signals into digital data and
vice versa
The initial stage of any IoT system embraces a wide range of “things” or
endpoint devices that act as a bridge between the real and digital worlds. They
vary in form and size, from tiny silicon chips to large vehicles. By their
functions, IoT things can be divided into the following large groups.

• Sensors such as probes, gauges, meters, and others. They collect

physical parameters like temperature or humidity, turn them into
electrical signals, and send them to the IoT system. IoT sensors are
typically small and consume little power.
• Actuators, translating electrical signals from the IoT system into
physical actions.
• Machines and devices connected to sensors and actuators or having
them as integral parts.

(ii) Connectivity layer: enabling data transmission

The second level is in charge of all communications across devices, networks,
and cloud services that make up the IoT infrastructure. The connectivity
between the physical layer and the cloud is achieved in two ways:
• directly, using TCP or UDP/IP stack;
• via gateways — hardware or software modules performing translation
between different protocols as well as encryption and decryption of IoT
data.

The communications between devices and cloud services or gateways involve

different networking technologies.

Ethernet connects stationary or fixed IoT devices like security and video
cameras, permanently installed industrial equipment, and gaming consoles.

WiFi, the most popular technology of wireless networking, is a great fit for
data-intensive IoT solutions that are easy to recharge and operate within a
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 Internet of Things
small area. A good example of use is smart home devices connected to the
electrical grid.

NFC (Near Field Communication) enables simple and safe data sharing
between two devices over a distance of 4 inches (10 cm) or less.

Bluetooth is widely used by wearables for short-range communications. To

meet the needs of low-power IoT devices, the Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE)
standard was designed. It transfers only small portions of data and doesn’t
work for large files.

LPWAN (Low-power Wide-area Network) was created specifically for IoT

devices. It provides long-range wireless connectivity on low power
consumption with a battery life of 10+ years. Sending data periodically in
small portions, the technology meets the requirements of smart cities, smart
buildings, and smart agriculture (field monitoring).

ZigBee is a low-power wireless network for carrying small data packages over
short distances. The outstanding thing about ZigBee is that it can handle up to
65,000 nodes. Created specifically for home automation, it also works for low-
power devices in industrial, scientific, and medical sites.

Cellular networks offer reliable data transfer and nearly global coverage.
There are two cellular standards developed specifically for IoT things. LTE-M
(Long Term Evolution for Machines) enables devices to communicate directly
with the cloud and exchange high volumes of data. NB-IoT or Narrowband IoT
uses low-frequency channels to send small data packages.

Edge or Fog computing layer: reducing system latency

This level is essential for enabling IoT systems to meet the speed, security, and
scale requirements of the 5th generation mobile network or 5G. The new
wireless standard promises faster speeds, lower latency, and the ability to
handle many more connected devices, than the current 4G standard.
The idea behind edge or fog computing is to process and store information as
early and as close to its sources as possible. This approach allows for analyzing
and transforming high volumes of real-time data locally, at the edge of the
networks. Thus, you save the time and other resources that otherwise would be
needed to send all data to cloud services. The result is reduced system latency
that leads to real-time responses and enhanced performance.

Processing layer: making raw data useful

The processing layer accumulates, stores, and processes data that comes from
the previous layer. All these tasks are commonly handled via IoT platforms
and include two major stages.

Data accumulation stage

The real-time data is captured via an API and put at rest to meet the
requirements of non-real-time applications. The data accumulation component
stage works as a transit hub between event-based data generation and query-
based data consumption.
Among other things, the stage defines whether data is relevant to the business
requirements and where it should be placed. It saves data to a wide range of

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IoT Fundamentals
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storage solutions, from data lakes capable of holding unstructured data like
Technologies
images and video streams to event stores and telemetry databases. The total
goal is to sort out a large amount of diverse data and store it in the most
efficient way.

Data abstraction stage

Here, data preparation is finalized so that consumer applications can use it to
generate insights. The entire process involves the following steps:
combining data from different sources, both IoT and non-IoT, including ERM,
ERP, and CRM systems; reconciling multiple data formats; and aggregating
data in one place or making it accessible regardless of location through data
virtualization.
Similarly, data collected at the application layer is reformatted here for sending
to the physical level so that devices can “understand” it.
Together, the data accumulation and abstraction stages veil details of the
hardware, enhancing the interoperability of smart devices. What’s more, they
let software developers focus on solving particular business tasks — rather
than on delving into the specifications of devices from different vendors.

(iii) Application layer: addressing business requirements

At this layer, information is analyzed by software to give answers to key

business questions. There are hundreds of IoT applications that vary in
complexity and function, using different technology stacks and operating
systems. Some examples are:
device monitoring and control software, mobile apps for simple interactions,
business intelligence services, and analytic solutions using machine learning.
Currently, applications can be built right on top of IoT platforms that offer
software development infrastructure with ready-to-use instruments for data
mining, advanced analytics, and data visualization. Otherwise, IoT applications
use APIs to integrate with middleware.

Business layer: Implementing data-driven solutions

The information generated at the previous layers brings value if only it results
in problem-solving solution and achieving business goals. New data must
initiate collaboration between stakeholders who in turn introduce new
processes to enhance productivity.
The decision-making usually involves more than one person working with
more than one software solution. For this reason, the business layer is defined
as a separate stage, higher than a single application layer.

Security layer: preventing data breaches

It goes without saying that there should be a security layer covering all the
above-mentioned layers. IoT security is a broad topic worthy of a separate
article. Here we’ll only point out the basic features of the safe architecture
across different levels.

Device security: Modern manufacturers of IoT devices typically integrate

security features both in the hardware and firmware installed on it. This
includes embedded TPM (Trusted Platform Module) chips with cryptographic
keys for authentication and protection of endpoint devices;

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 Internet of Things
a secure boot process that prevents unauthorized code from running on a
powered-up device; updating security patches on a regular basis; and physical
protection like metal shields to block physical access to the device.

Connection security: Whether data is being sent over devices, networks, or

applications, it should be encrypted. Otherwise, sensitive information can be
read by anybody who intercepts information in transit. IoT-centric messaging
protocols like MQTT, AMQP, and DDS may use standard Transport Layer
Security (TSL) cryptographic protocol to ensure end-to-end data protection.

Cloud security: Data at rest stored in the cloud must be encrypted as well to
mitigate risks of exposing sensitive information to intruders. Cloud security
also involves authentication and authorization mechanisms to limit access to
the IoT applications. Another important security method is device identity
management to verify the device’s credibility before allowing it to connect to
the cloud.

The good news is that IoT solutions from large providers like Microsoft, AWS,
or Cisco come with pre-built protection measures including end-to-end data
encryption, device authentication, and access control. However, it always pays
to ensure that security is tight at all levels, from the tiniest devices to complex
analytical systems.

8.10 APPLICATIONS OF IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) has an extensive range of applications across
various industries. These applications showcase how IoT technology is
transforming various aspects of our lives, driving efficiency, automation, and
connectivity across different sectors.

• IoT Wearables
Wearable technology is a hallmark of IoT applications and probably is
one of the earliest industries to have deployed the IoT at its service. We
happen to see Fit Bits, heart rate monitors and smart watches
everywhere these days.
One of the lesser-known wearables includes the Guardian glucose
monitoring device. The device is developed to aid people suffering
from diabetes. It detects glucose levels in the body, using a tiny
electrode called glucose sensor placed under the skin and relays the
information via Radio Frequency to a monitoring device.

• Smart Home Applications

When we talk about IoT Applications, Smart Homes are probably the
first thing that we think of. The best example I can think of here
is Jarvis, the AI home automation employed by Mark Zuckerberg.
There is also Allen Pan’s Home Automation System where functions in
the house are actuated by use of a string of musical notes.

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• IoT Applications – Health Care

IoT applications can turn reactive medical-based systems into proactive

wellness-based systems. The resources that current medical research
uses, lack critical real-world information. It mostly uses leftover data,
controlled environments, and volunteers for medical examination. IoT
opens ways to a sea of valuable data through analysis, real-time field
data, and testing. The Internet of Things also improves the current
devices in power, precision, and availability. IoT focuses on creating
systems rather than just equipment.

• Smart Cities
By now I assume, most of you must have heard about the term Smart
City. The hypothesis of the optimized traffic system I mentioned
earlier, is one of the many aspects that constitute a smart city.
The thing about the smart city concept is that it’s very specific to a city.
The problems faced in Mumbai are very different than those in Delhi.
The problems in Hong Kong are different from New York. Even global
issues, like finite clean drinking water, deteriorating air quality and
increasing urban density, occur in different intensities across cities.
Hence, they affect each city differently.

• Agriculture
Statistics estimate the ever-growing world population to reach nearly
10 billion by the year 2050. To feed such a massive population one
needs to marry agriculture to technology and obtain best results. There
are numerous possibilities in this field. One of them is the Smart
Greenhouse.

A greenhouse farming technique enhances the yield of crops

by controlling environmental parameters. However, manual handling
results in production loss, energy loss, and labor cost, making the
process less effective.

• Industrial Automation
This is one of the fields where both faster developments, as well as the
quality of products, are the critical factors for a higher Return on
Investment. With IoT Applications, one could even re-engineer
products and their packaging to deliver better performance in both cost
and customer experience. IoT here can prove to be game changing with
solutions for all the following domains in its arsenal.
• Factory Digitalization
• Product flow Monitoring
• Inventory Management
• Safety and Security
• Quality Control
• Packaging optimization
• Logistics and Supply Chain Optimization

More details you will study in Unit-11 of this course.

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8.11 CHALLENGES OF IoT

The biggest challenges for IoT adoption include:

Security Challenges

Rapid advances in both technology and the complexity of cyber-attacks have

meant that the risk of security breaches has never been higher. There is an
increased responsibility for software developers to create the most secure
applications possible to defend against this threat as IoT devices are often seen
as easy targets by hackers.

Regulation Challenges

We’ve already touched on how GDPR has impacted the IoT industry, however,
as the industry is still relatively new and young, it generally lacks specific
regulation and oversight, which is required to ensure that all devices are
produced with a suitable level of protection and security.

Compatibility Challenges

At the core of the IoT concept, all devices must be able to connect and
communicate with each other for data to be transferred.

The IoT industry currently lacks any compatibility standards, meaning that
many devices could all run on different standards resulting in difficulties
communicating with one another effectively.

Bandwidth Challenges

Perhaps at no surprise, devices and applications that rely on the ability to

communicate with each other constantly to work effectively tend to use a lot of
data at once, leading to bandwidth constraints for those using many devices at
once.

Combine this with existing demands for data and broadband in the typical
house, and you can quickly see how data and bandwidth limitations can be a
challenge.

Customer Expectation Challenges

Arguably the biggest hurdle for the industry relates to customer perception. For
anything new to be adopted by the masses, it has to be trusted completely.

For the IoT industry, this is a continuously evolving challenge as it relies on

the ability to actively combat security threats and reassure the general
consumer market that the devices are both safe to use and secure to hold vast
quantities of sensitive data.

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IoT Fundamentals
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 Check Your Progress 3
Technologies

1) What is the architecture of an IoT system?

………………………………………………………………………………
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2) What is the Perception Layer in IoT?
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3) Explain the Network Layer in IoT.
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4) What is the Application Layer in IoT?
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5) How is data handled in IoT systems?
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6) What are examples of IoT applications?
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8.12 SUMMARY

In this unit we had studied Internet of Things, a new technology.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a vast network of interconnected devices and sensors
that communicate and share data over the internet. Its fundamental concept
revolves around enabling everyday objects to collect and exchange information,
creating a seamless web of connectivity.

IoT empowers devices to gather real-time data from their surroundings through
sensors, process that data, and use it to trigger actions or provide valuable
insights. This technology spans across numerous industries, revolutionizing
how we live and work.

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 Internet of Things
Key components of IoT include sensors/devices that gather data, connectivity
options like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, data processing and storage systems, and
interfaces for user interaction. IoT architecture typically consists of the
Perception Layer (sensors), Network Layer (connectivity), and Application
Layer (data processing and user interface).

Its applications are diverse, from enhancing daily life through smart homes and
wearable tech to optimizing industries via industrial automation, healthcare
monitoring, smart cities, and agricultural advancements. Ultimately, IoT aims
to drive efficiency, improve decision-making, and create more interconnected
and intelligent systems for a wide range of purposes.

8.13 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1. The Internet of Things refers to a network of interconnected

devices that can communicate and share data with each other over
the internet.

2. IoT aims to enhance connectivity and automation, allowing devices

to collect, exchange, and utilize data to improve efficiency,
convenience, and decision-making.

Check Your Progress 2

1. An IoT system typically consists of devices/sensors, connectivity,

data processing/storage, and user interface.

2. A: IoT devices communicate using various protocols like Wi-Fi,

Bluetooth, Zigbee, or cellular networks to transmit data to other
devices or a central hub.

3. The differences define their respective strengths and best use cases.
Arduino is excellent for hardware-focused projects and applications
requiring real-time interaction, while Raspberry Pi is better suited
for more complex computing tasks, running multiple applications,
and serving as a miniature computer for various projects.
Differences are summarized in the following table:

Parameter Arduino Board Raspberry Pi

Microcontroller platform for Single-board computer for diverse

Purpose hardware projects computing tasks

Processing Generally low-power, suitable Higher processing power

Power for simple tasks comparable to a computer

Operating No operating system, runs Uses various operating systems like

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IoT Fundamentals
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Technologies Parameter Arduino Board Raspberry Pi

System Arduino sketches Linux

Limited connectivity options Extensive connectivity (Wi-Fi,

Connectivity (USB, Bluetooth) Bluetooth, Ethernet)

Abundance of GPIO (General

Purpose Input/Output) pins for GPIO pins available for hardware
GPIO Pins hardware interaction interfacing

Uses Arduino IDE and C/C++ for Supports multiple programming

Programming programming languages and IDEs

Slightly higher cost, but offers more

Price Generally lower cost features

Suitable for media centers, servers,

complex IoT applications, and
Ideal for embedded systems, learning programming and
Applications robotics, simple IoT projects computing

Check Your Progress 3

1. IoT architecture comprises three layers: the Perception Layer

(sensors/devices), the Network Layer (connectivity), and the
Application Layer (data processing and user interface).

2. The Perception Layer includes sensors and devices that collect data
from the physical world, such as temperature sensors, cameras, or
motion detectors.

3. The Network Layer involves the connectivity infrastructure that

enables devices to transmit data. This includes protocols, gateways,
and communication technologies.

4. The Application Layer involves data processing, analysis, and the

interface that allows users to interact with the system, often through
applications or dashboards.

5. Data collected by IoT devices is processed, analyzed, and stored

either locally or in the cloud, where it can be accessed and utilized
for various applications.

6. Smart homes, wearable devices, industrial automation, smart cities,

healthcare monitoring, and agriculture are examples of IoT
applications impacting various sectors.

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(More on IoT applications and application development can be
studied in Unit-12).

8.14 FURTHER READINGS

1. Internet of Things, Jeeva Jose, Khanna Publishing, 2018.

2. Internet of Things - A Hands-on Approach, Arshdeep Bahga and Vijay
Madisetti, Universities Press, 2015.
3. IoT Fundamentals: Networking Technologies, Protocols and Use Cases
for the Internet of Things, Hanes David, Salgueiro Gonzalo, Grossetete
Patrick, Barton Rob, Henry Jerome, Pearson, 2017.
4. Designing the Internet of Things, Adrian Mcwen, Hakin Cassimally,
Wiley, 2015.

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