THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Defining Globalization

Globalization is a very important change, if not, the most important. Bauman 2003
The reality and omnipresence of globalization makes us see ourselves as part of what we
refer to as the “global age.” Albrow 1996
The Internet allows a person from the Philippines to know what is happening to the rest
of the world simply by browsing Google.
The mass media also allows for connections among people, communities, and all over
the globe.
Globalization encompasses a multitude of processes that involves the economy, political
systems, and culture.
Social structures are directly affected by globalization.
Over the years, globalization has gained many connotations pertaining to progress,
development, and integration.
Thomas Larsson 2001
a Swedish Journalist who views globalization as a positive phenomenon.
Globalization is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things
moving close. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the
world can interact, to mutual benefit with somebody on the other side of the world.
Martin Khor (mid-1990s)
the former president of Third World Network (TWN) in Malaysia, who once
regarded globalization as a colonization.
 The Task of Defining Globalization

The first appearance of the word Globalization in Webster’s Dictionary was in

1961.
Classification of Globalization:
1. Broad and Inclusive
Globalization means the onset of the borderless world. Ohmae 1992
It can include a variety of issues that deal with overcoming traditional boundaries.
2. Narrow and Exclusive
Robert Cox
The characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of
production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South
to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the
internationalizing of the state… making states into agencies of the globalizing world.
Are better justified but can be limiting, in the sense that their application adheres
to only particular definitions.

Ritzer 2015
Globalization is a trans planetary process or a set of processes involving increasing
liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of people, objects, places, and information
as well as the structures they encounter and create that are to, or expedite, those flows.

Why are we going to spend time studying this concept? How can we appreciate these
definitions? How can these help us understand globalization?
1. The perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes its definition.
Globalization is many things to many different people.
Globalization is world of things that have different speeds, axis, points of origin and
termination, and varied relationships to institutional structures in different regions, nations,
or societies. Arjun Appadurai
2. Globalization is the debate and the debate is globalization (Cesare Poppi).
One become part and parcel of the other.
The literature stemming from the debate on globalization has grown in the last
decade beyond any individual’s capability of extracting a workable definition of the
concept. In a sense, the meaning of the concept is self-evident, in another, it is vague and
obscure as its reaches are wide and constantly shifting. Perhaps, more than any other
concept, globalization is the debate about it. Poppi 1997
3. Globalization is a reality.
It is changing as human society develops. It is happening before and is still
happening today. We should expect it to continue to happen in the future. The future of
globalization is more difficult to predict. What we could expect in the coming years is what
has happened over the past 50 years and that is the fluidity and complexity of
globalization as a concept, which made more debates, discussions, and definitions than
agreements on it.

Globalization is complex, multifaceted, and can be influenced by the people who define
it.
 Metaphors Globalization

Solid
The epochs that preceded today’s globalization paved way for people, things, information,
and places to harden over time. Consequently, they have limited mobility. Ritzer 2015
Solidity refers to barriers that prevent or make difficult the movement of things.
Natural Solids Man-Made Barriers (Solid)
Landforms Great Wall of China
Bodies of Water Berlin Wall
Nine-Dash Line (China use to claim the
South China Sea)

Liquid
A state of matter that takes the shape of its container and in not fixed.
Liquidity refers to the increasing ease of movement of people, things, information, and
places in the contemporary world.
The forces (the liquid ones) made political boundaries more permeable to the flow of
people and things. Cartier 2001
The most important characteristics of liquid is that it tends to melt whatever stands in its
path (especially solids). Ritzer 2015

Liquidity and solidity are in constant interaction. However, liquidity is the one
increasing and proliferating todays. Therefore, the metaphor that could best describe
globalization is liquidity.

Flows
Is the movement of people, things, places, and information brought by the growing
“porosity” of global limitations. Ritzer 2015
Poor illegal migrants flooding many parts of the world, the virtual flow of legal and illegal
information such as blogs and child pornography, respectively, and immigrants recreating
ethnic enclaves in host countries. (Moses 2006)
Concrete Example: The Filipino communities abroad and the Chinese communities in the
Philippines.
 Globalization Theories

Homogeneity
Refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic factors, and
political orientations of societies expand to create common practices, same economies,
and similar forms of government.
Homogeneity in culture often linked to culture imperialism. This means a given culture
influences other cultures.
Christianity is the dominant religion in our country which was brought to us by the
Spaniards.
Americanization is the import by non- Americans of products, images, technologies,
practices, and behavior that are closely associated with America/Americans. Kuisel 1993
In terms of the economy, there is recognition of the spread of neoliberalism, capitalism,
and the market economy in the world. (Antonio 2007)
Global economic crises are also products of homogeneity in economic globalization.
Stiglitz 2002, blamed the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for its “one-size-fits all”
approach which treats every country in the world as the same.
Barber 1995, said that, “McWorld” is existing. It means only one political orientation is
growing in today’s societies.

Global Flow of Media

Is often characterized as media imperialism.
TV, music, books, and movies are perceived as imposed on developing countries by the
West. (Cowen 2002)
Media imperialism undermines the existence of alternative global media originating from
developing countries, such as Al Jazeera (Biera, 2008) and the Bollywood (Larkin, 2003),
as well as the influence of local and regional media.
The internet can be seen as an arena for alternative media.
Global media are dominated by a small number of large corporations.
Global media is being extended from old media to new media such as Microsoft,
Facebook, Twitter, Google, and Apple’s iTunes. As a result, in the long run, the Internet
could end up being less diverse and competitive. McChesney 1999
McDonaldization
The contemporary world is undergoing the process of McDonaldization.
It is the process by which Western societies are dominated by the principles of fast-food
restaurants. It involves the global spread of rational systems, such as efficiency,
calculability, predictability, and control.
It is extended to other business, sectors, and geographic areas. Ritzer 2008
Grobalization is the process wherein nations, corporations, etc. impose themselves on
geographic areas in order to gain profits, power, and so on. Ryan 2007

Heterogeneity
Pertains to the creation of various cultural practices, new economies, and political groups
because of the interaction of elements from different societies in the world.
Refers to the differences because of either lasting differences or of the hybrids or
combinations of cultures that can be produced through the different trans planetary
processes.
Heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural hybridization. A more specific concept
is “glocalization.” Global forces interact with local factors or a specific geographic area,
the “glocal” is being produced. Roland Robertson 1992
 Dynamics of Local and Global Culture

Global flows of culture tend move more easily around the globe than ever before,
especially through non-material digital forms
Three Perspectives on Global Cultural Flows:
1. Cultural Differentialism
Emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially different and are only superficially
affected by global flows.
The interaction of cultures is deemed to contain the potential for “catastrophic collision.”
After the Cold War, political- economic differences were overshadowed by new fault lines,
which were primarily cultural in nature. Increasing interaction among different
“civilizations” (such as the Sinic, Islamic, Orthodox, and Western) would lead to intense
clashes, especially the economic conflict between the Western and Sinic civilizations and
bloody political conflict between the Western and Islamic civilizations. Huntington 2004
This theory has been critiqued for a number of reasons, especially on its portrayal of
Muslims as being “prone to violence.” Huntington 1996
2. Cultural Hybridization
Emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures. (Czetkovich and Keller 1997)
Globalization is considered to be a creative process which gives rise to hybrid entities
that are not reducible to either the global or the local. A key concept is “glocalization” or
the interpenetration of the global and local resulting in unique outcomes in different
geographic areas. (Giulianotti and Robertson, 2007)
Scapes is when the global flows involve people, technology, finance, political images,
and media and the disjuncture between them, which lead to the creation of cultural
hybrids. (Arjun Appadurai 1996)

3. Cultural Convergence
Stresses homogeneity introduced by globalization.
Cultures are deemed to be radically altered by strong flaws, while cultural imperialism
happens when one culture imposes itself on and tends to destroy at least parts of another
culture.
Deterritorialization means that it is much more difficult to tie culture to a specific
geographic point of origin. John Tomlinson
 The Globalization of Religion

Globalization
- played a tremendous role in providing a context for the current revival and the
resurgence of religion.
- provided religions a fertile milieu to spread and thrive.
Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled co-religionist across the planet to
have greater direct contact with one another. Global communications, global
organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of the Muslims and the
universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as never before. Scholte 2005
Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are deemed important
means on which religionists rely on the dissemination of their religious ideas.
The internet allows people to contact each other worldwide and therefore hold forums
and debates that allow religious ideas to spread.
Media plays an important role in the dissemination of religious ideas.
Modern transportation has contributed considerably to the emergence, revivalism, and
fortification of religion.
Islamic revivalism in Asia is related to the improvement in transportation that has allowed
many Muslims to travel to Mecca, and return with reformist ideas. Turner 2007
Modern technology has helped religions of different forms, such as, fundamentalist,
orthodox, or modernist to cross geographical boundaries and be present everywhere.
Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance and
importance as a non- territorial touchstone of identity.
Islamic Ummah is Muslim’s community of believers.
Globalization transforms the generic “religion” into a world- system of competing and
conflicting religions. This process of institutional specialization has transformed local,
diverse and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable system of religion.
Globalization has, therefore, had the paradoxical effect of making religions more self-
conscious of themselves as being “world religions. Turner 2007
Islam and Christianity are mostly incompatible with each other. These religions cannot be
hybridized or homogenized even if they often come in contact.
Religion seeks to assert its identity in the light of globalization.
At the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of religious
identity have, like nationalist strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to
globalization. Scholte 2005
Globalization is also associated with Westernization and Americanization. The dominance
exerted by these two processes, particularly on the less developed countries, makes
religion- related cultures and identifies take defensive measures to protect themselves.
Sometimes, extreme forms of resisting other cultural influence are being done, such as
that of the Islamic State of Iraq and Iran (ISIS).
Globalization is not only seen as a rival of Islamic ways, but also as an alien force divorced
from Muslim realities. Stressing the negative impact of the loose morals of Western life is
a daily feature of airwaves in the Middle East. Ehteshami 2007
 Globalization and Regionalization

The process of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1980s and
heightened after the end of Cold War in the 1990s.
Regionalism is a sort of counter- globalization.
In a 2007 survey, the Financial Times revealed that majority of Europeans consider that
globalization brings negative effects to their societies. (Jacoby and Meunier 2010)
The threats of an “ungoverned globalization” can be countered what Jacoby and Meunier
called managed globalization; it refers to “all attempts to make globalization more
palatable to citizens”.
Regionalization in one part of the world encourages regionalization elsewhere- whether
by imitation, like the success of the European Single Market, or by “defensive” reaction.
It is intimately linked to globalization since it is part of it and it builds on it.
The new regionalization is not a barrier to political globalization but, on the contrary,
entirely compatible with it- if not an indirect encouragement. Held et. al. 2005
Globalization goes back to when humans first put a boat into the sea. Sweeney 2005
Globalization is the increased flows of goods, services, capital, people, and information
across borders. Jacoby and Meunier 2010
Region is a group of countries in the same geographically specified area. Mansfield and
Milner 1999
Regionalization is the societal integration and the often-undirected process of social and
economic interaction. Hurrell 2007
Regionalization is different from regionalism, which is the formal process of
intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states. Ravenhill 2008
One of the reasons behind regionalism is the concern for security, which is to ensure
peace and stability. Confidence building can be enhanced through economic cooperation
within a region. The ASEAN and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) are
regional organizations that seek strong security in Asia through cooperation.
The culture and identity guide regionalization, in the post-Cold War world, states
increasingly define their interests in civilizational terms”. For him, culture and identity are
civilizations. He identified nine major civilizations: Western, Latin American, African,
Islamic, Sinic, Hindu, Orthodox, Buddhist, and Japanese. He argued that international
organizations like the EU or Mercosur share a common culture and identify and are far
more successful than NAFTA, whose member states belong to different civilizations. If
we follow Huntington’s idea of the “clash of civilizations,” one could argue that the
potential for such clash can be strong in Asia because many of those civilizations are, at
least, can be found in the region. Huntington 1996
Nevertheless, economic motivations are arguably the main motivation behind
contemporary regionalization. By entering in regional organizations, Asian states may
regain some control over flows of capital and enhance their bargaining power against
transnational economic factors such as investment groups or transnational corporations
(TNCs). (De Martino and Grabel, 2003)
 Origins and History of Globalization

Hardwired
It is because of our basic human need to make our lives better that made globalization
possible. Therefore, one can trace the beginning of globalization from our ancestors in
Africa who walked out from the said continent in the late Ice Age. This long journey finally
led them to all- known continents today, roughly after 50,000 years. Nayan Chanda 2007
Chanda mentioned that commerce, religion, politics, and warfare are the “urges” of people
toward a better life. These are respectively connected to four aspects of globalization and
they can be traced all throughout history: trade, missionary work, adventures, and
conquest.

Cycles
Globalization is a long- term cyclical process and thus, finding its origin will be a daunting
task. What is important is the cycles that globalization has gone through. Scholte 2005

Epoch
Epochs are also called waves.
Sequential occurrence of epochs:
1. Globalization of religion (fourth to seventh centuries)
2. European colonial conquests (late fifteenth century)
3. Intra-European wars (late eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries)
4. Heyday of European imperialism (mid-nineteenth century to 1918)
5. Post-World War II period
6. Post-Cold War period

Events
Specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of
globalization.
Roman conquests centuries before Christ were its origin. Gibbon 1998
Considered the rampage of the armies of Genghis Khan into Eastern Europe in the
thirteenth century. Economist 2006, January 12
Christopher Columbus 1942 – Discovery of America
Vasco de Gama 1498 – Cape of Good Hope
Ferdinand Magellan 1522 – completed circumnavigation of the globe
1956 – first transatlantic phone
1962 – first Atlantic television broadcast
1988 – founding of the modern internet
2001 – terrorist attack on the Twin Tower in New York

Broader and More Recent Changes

Three notable changes as the origin of globalization that we know today:
1. The emergence of the United States as the global power (post-World War II)
2. The emergence of multinational corporations (MNCs)
3. The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War
Through its dominant military and economic power after WWII, the United States
was able to outrun Germany and Japan in terms of industry. Because of this, the United
States soon began to progress in different aspects like in diplomacy, media, film (as in
the Hollywood), and many more. Many global processes- immigration, tourism, media,
diplomacy, and MNCs- spread throughout the planet. This paved way for the so-called
“free” world.
China, even though the government remains communist, is on its way to becoming
a major force in global capitalism (Fishman, 2006). Moreover, China is also globalizing in
terms of other aspects such as their hosting of the Olympics in 2008.
 Global Demography

Demographic Transition is a singular historical period during which mortality and fertility
rates decline from high to low levels in a particular country or region.
The transition started in mid- or late 1700s in Europe.
Life expectancy in India was only 24 years in the early twentieth century while the same
life expectancy occurred in China in 1929 until 1931. Maddison 2001
Total fertility rate in Japan did not drop below five births per woman. Shigeyuki 2002
A remarkable effect of the demographic transition is the enormous gap in life expectancy
that emerged between Japan and the West on the one hand and the rest of the world on
the other. Shigeyuki 2002
 Global Migration

The nuances of the movement of people around the world can be seen through the
categories of migrants- “vagabonds” and “tourist”. Bauman 1998

Vagabonds
Are on the move “because they have to be”.
They are not faring well in their home countries and are forced to move in the hope that
their circumstances will improve.
Refugees are vagabonds forced to flee their home countries due to safety concerns.
Haddad 2003
Asylum seekers are refugees who seek to remain in the country to which they flee.
Those who migrate to find work are involved in labor migration. Labor migration is driven
by “push” factors (e.g., lack of employment opportunities in home countries), as well as
“pull” factors (work available elsewhere). Kritz 2008
Labor migration mainly involves the flow of less-skilled and unskilled workers, as well as
illegal immigrants who live on the margins of the host society. Landler 2007

Tourist
Are on the move “because they want to be” and because they can afford it.
The state may seek to control migration because it involves the loss of part of the
workforce. An influx of migrants can lead to conflicts with local residents. Shamir 2005
Concerns about terrorism also affect the desire of the state to restrict population flows.
Moses 2006
Migration is traditionally governed either by “push” factors such as political persecution,
economic depression, war, and famine in the home country or by “pull” factors such as
favorable immigration policy, a labor shortage, and a similarity of language and culture in
the country of destination. Ritzer 2015
Tighter borders have also had the effect of “locking in” people who might otherwise have
left the country. Fears 2006
Diaspora is a term used to describe migrant communities.
Diaspora is a transnational process, which involves dialogue to both imagined and real
locales. Paul Gilroy 1993
Diasporization and globalization are closely interconnected and the expansion of the latter
will lead to an increase in the former. Dufoix 2007
Virtual diaspora utilizes technology such as the internet to maintain the community
network. Laguerre 2002