3.

2 Study Site Selection

The selection of study sites was based on specific criteria to distinguish between organic and
conventional agroecosystems.

3.2.1 Organic Agroecosystem Criteria

 Certified organic farms, as verified by organic accreditation bodies.

 Absence of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers for a minimum of
three years.

 Implementation of natural pest control methods, s Recommended Publications

Chapters and Articles
You might find these chapters and articles relevant to this topic.

Improving soil micronutrient availability under

organic farming
Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, ... Gayatri Verma, in Advances in Organic Farming, 2021
7.1 Introduction
Organic farming is defined as a production system which sustained
agricultural productivity, maintained soil health and ecosystem by relaying
ecological processes, biodiversity and natural cycles (Anand et al., 2019). In
organic farming, soil health and nutrient availability is sustained by the
addition of local organic inputs, i.e., waste, dungs, biofertilizers, crop
residues, green manures followed by crop rotation system. In organic
farming, the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators is
completed prohibited. The menace of disease pest and weeds is managed
through biological measures. Organic farming is a primitive practice of
using wastes of farm and cattle-shed while cultivating local cultivars for
crop production. Presently, the concept of organic farming has been
improved for use of organic waste products of rural and urban areas,
enriched bioproducts and various bioinoculants. According to FAO,
Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which
promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity,
biological cycles and soil biological activity, which is accomplished by using
location specific agronomic, biological and mechanical techniques by
obliterating the use all synthetic inputs. Globally, the area under organic
agriculture is 57 million hectares with the largest areas in Australia
followed by Argentina and China. The area under organic agriculture in
India is 1.49 m ha (0.8% of total agricultural land) and 4.20 m ha including
wilds areas. India stands in first position regarding the number of
producers, i.e., 8.35 lakh producers followed by Uganda and Mexico (Willer
and Lernoud, 2018). Due to the better quality, organic produce has an
enormous unexploited export potential which is growing at rate of 10–15%
per annum (Anand, 2017). The organic farming systems are found to be
more profitable and environmentally friendly (Reganold and Wachter,
2016). Although, the use of chemical fertilizers contributed 40% of total
crop production but the continuous use of chemicals in agriculture have
threatened the soil health and environment. The use of high yielding
varieties (HYVs), high analysis fertilizers, limited use organic manures and
imbalanced fertilization has caused in micronutrient deficiencies (Yadav et
al., 2015). Similar to plant systems, micronutrients are also important for
sustainable human and animal health. Deficient/inadequate supply of any
nutrient affects the plant metabolisms which results in reduction yield and
quality of the produce (Rattan et al., 2009).
Out of 17 essential plant nutrients, micronutrients consist of eight essential
elements viz., zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn),
molybdenum (Mo), boron (B), nickel (Ni) and chlorine (Cl). The term
micronutrient denotes the elements which are required in small amounts
(< 0.5 g per kg plant dry matter) and essential for plant growth. These
elements are equally essential as primary or secondary plant nutrients. The
plant growth, crop yield and quality are directly linked to the status of
micronutrients in soils. Mostly the chemically manufactured micronutrients
are available in market are in synthetic forms which are costly. These
micronutrients sources, when applied injudiciously, it pollutes the
environment and decrease the quality of grains, vegetables, fruits, etc. The
cheap and environmentally safe sources of micronutrients in field are
organic manures which include FYM, compost, dungs of various
animals, poultry manure, green manure and crop residues in farm fields. All
the above essential micronutrients except B and Cl are metals. There are
certain elements which help in plant growth and development but not
essential (in the absence, plant can live a normal life) termed as beneficial
elements, e.g., aluminum (Al), cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), selenium (Se) and
Silicon (Si). Micronutrient availability in soil is managed by the parent
materials which is influenced by edaphic (pH, redox potential, interaction
with coexisting ions) and biological factors (organic matter and soil
microbial activity). The improved agricultural practices such as soil organic
amendments and soil water management play vital role in soil micronutrient
availability. Addition of organic fertilizers supply nutrients and irrigation
methods managed the soil moisture regime, aeration and redox potential
(Masunaga and Fong, 2018). The availability of micronutrient status in soil
changes with the changes in basic soil properties viz. pH, cation exchange
capacity, and soil organic carbon (Moharana et al., 2017). In this chapter,
micronutrients behavior and availability in soils was discussed with special
reference to organic farming.
Read more
View chapterExplore book
Concept and global scenario of organic farming
Dibakar Mahanta, ... Lakshmi Kant, in Advances in Organic Farming, 2021
1.2.2 Definition of organic farming

uch as the use of compost, biological controls, or organic fertilizers.
 Presence of crop diversity or polyculture practices.

3.2.2 Conventional Agroecosystem Criteria

 Farms employing synthetic chemicals, including fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.

 Predominance of monoculture cropping systems or minimal crop rotation practices.
 Reliance on industrial farming techniques, including mechanization.

Site Selection Process

 Consultation with Local Agricultural Authorities: Lists of certified organic and

conventional farms were obtained from local agricultural offices.
 Field Validation and Surveys: Preliminary site visits and surveys with farm owners
were conducted to confirm farm management practices and validate site classification.

Both study sites were selected to ensure comparability in terms of crop type, farm size, and
geographic proximity, minimizing external variability.

3.3 Sampling Period

Sampling was conducted over a four-week period during peak pollination times. Observations
were made during the early morning (6:00 AM to 9:00 AM) and late afternoon (3:00 PM to 5:00
PM), when pollinator activity is at its highest.

3.4 Sampling Methodology

3.4.1 Pollinator Observation

 Transect Walks: A 50-meter transect line was established in each study site. Observers
walked along the transect at a consistent pace, recording all visible pollinators interacting
with flowering plants within a 2-meter radius.
 Observation Duration: Each transect was observed for 30 minutes per session,
conducted twice daily.

3.4.2 Pollinator Collection

 Pan Traps: Yellow, blue, and white pan traps filled with soapy water were deployed
along transects to attract and capture pollinators. Traps were left in place for 24 hours
before collection.
 Net Sweeping: Aerial nets were used to capture fast-moving pollinators that were
difficult to observe or trap.
3.5 Survey for Farm Owners
A structured survey was conducted with farm owners or managers to collect additional data on
farm management practices and validate the classification of sites.

3.5.1 Survey Content

The survey focused on the following aspects:

1. Farm Management Practices:

o Use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers.
o Adoption of organic alternatives, such as compost or biopesticides.
o Crop rotation and intercropping practices.
2. Pollinator-Friendly Practices:
o Presence of flowering plants, hedgerows, or wildflower strips.
o Use of cover crops or buffer zones.
o Strategies to protect pollinators, such as timing pesticide application to avoid
flowering periods.
3. Farm Characteristics:
o Farm size.
o Crop types cultivated.
o Number of years under organic or conventional management.

3.5.2 Survey Administration

Surveys were conducted during farm visits through face-to-face interviews or self-administered
questionnaires. Responses were recorded and analyzed qualitatively to provide context for
pollinator diversity findings.

3.6 Identification and Classification

Collected pollinator specimens were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level (species or
genus) using entomological field guides and expert consultation. Specimens were stored in
labeled vials and preserved in 70% ethanol for later analysis.

3.7 Data Analysis

3.7.1 Diversity Indices

 The Shannon-Wiener Index (H') and Simpson’s Diversity Index (D) were used to
measure pollinator diversity in each ecosystem.
 Species richness and evenness were calculated to assess the distribution of pollinator
species.

3.7.2 Statistical Comparison

A t-test was performed to compare diversity indices between the organic and conventional
agroecosystems.
3.7.3 Survey Data Utilization
Survey responses were analyzed to identify potential correlations between farm management
practices and pollinator diversity metrics.

3.8 Ethical Considerations

Permission was secured from farm owners prior to conducting fieldwork and administering
surveys. Captured pollinators were released after identification whenever feasible to minimize
environmental disturbance.

3.9 Limitations
This study is limited to two agroecosystems within Davao City and may not fully represent all
organic and conventional systems. Furthermore, environmental factors, such as weather
conditions and seasonal variations, may influence pollinator activity and diversity.