Decolonization in Africa and Asia:

A Resource Guide
Compiled by Cheyenne Pettit, Ph.D. Candidate in History, University of Michigan

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Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 2
Topic 1: Nigeria.................................................................................................................................. 3
Topic 2: The Congo............................................................................................................................ 7
Topic 3: Algeria................................................................................................................................ 10
Topic 4: Indonesia........................................................................................................................... 12
Topic 5: India.................................................................................................................................... 13
Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 16

Introduction and exploitation, former colonies continue to fight for

equal access to their own resources and to find revenue
European colonization and exploitation from the 1500s
for infrastructural repairs made necessary by centuries of
to the 20th century have profoundly shaped the cultural,
imperial neglect.
social, and geographic contours of the present world.
Under imperial rule, colonized peoples suffered gravely. This resource guide examines decolonization and anti-
Colonization decimated vulnerable communities and their colonial efforts in 5 countries and 2 regions across the world.
cultures in order to harvest valuable resources and exploit These regions represent colonization efforts perpetrated
indigenous labor for the benefit of European markets. by a variety of European powers and span several decades.
However, for as long as colonialism has gripped the world, This guide includes documents that demonstrate early
there have also been successful indigenous efforts of anti-colonial and decolonial efforts, as well as those events
resistance. These efforts culminated in the 20th century in and efforts that took place during and after self-rule was
anti-colonial movements and decolonization. achieved by indigenous groups. This guide will provide
students with a brief overview of what some decolonization
Following the conclusions of both World War I and World
efforts looked like after World War II and how indigenous
War II, formerly powerful European countries struggled to
citizens rebuilt their own countries following the retreat of
regain control over colonized areas. Struggling economies
imperial policies. Although it is not possible to provide an
and the devastation visited upon Europe by the wars
exhaustive overview of all the forms and expressions of
rendered these efforts unlikely to succeed in the face
decolonization, this guide can act as a starting point for
of indigenous resistance. Decolonization efforts were
students newly interested in the history of decolonization
reinvigorated in colonized areas across the globe. These
and continuing efforts to decolonize the world.
movements successfully agitated for the separation of
colonized peoples from imperial rule to be replaced by self-
rule of their own design. But decolonization didn’t happen
for all colonized areas at the same time or in the same
ways. Formerly colonized areas in the Pacific and Asia
were especially early to assert full control over themselves.
One reason for this is that European colonizers had often
been thrown out by Japanese occupiers during World
War II. As Japanese forces pulled out of colonized areas,
indigenous groups attempted to retake control over their
lands and resources. In most cases, Europeans attempted
to reassert their colonial influence, but often these efforts
were not successful. After these Asian colonies were ‘lost,’
European empires redoubled their efforts to maintain
control over colonized peoples in Africa. Decolonization
efforts continue across the globe today. The structural
inequalities baked into the imperial system are difficult
to dismantle and former colonizers continue to try and
impede decolonization processes. After centuries of abuse

2 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

It is important to note that decolonization efforts are to the interests of the indigenous groups struggling
not limited to formerly colonized areas. Indigenous toward decolonization. The term decolonization is used to
communities in the United States and Canada still struggle describe a vast array of particular decolonizing activities
with the effects of colonization. As a result, their efforts at and theories. This guide will help acclimate students to
decolonization look much different than those mentioned in decolonization as both historical events and continuing
this guide. efforts toward greater global equity.
The resources listed below are written in English and thus
are often told from the perspective of colonizing countries. Topic 1: Nigeria
It is not possible to tell the whole story of decolonization
The region we now refer to as Nigeria was first exploited
only through these sources because of their inherent
by a British corporation called the Royal Niger Company,
biases. However, they are a useful resource for students
with the first forays into the area starting in the 1830s. The
with limited language abilities who want to begin their own
British government assumed direct control of this area
investigations of decolonization. To that end, the guide
in 1900 and divided it in half giving the area the title of
also includes sections that detail some helpful ‘keywords’
Protectorate. In 1914, the two Protectorates were merged
or alternative search words to use when trying to find
and put under the control of a single governor-general in
additional documentation on decolonization. A large part
Lagos. During this time, the governor utilized a system
of colonial efforts to eradicate local indigenous traditions
called “indirect rule” wherein traditional regional chiefs
involved renaming events and places. Decolonization
were left to govern with European supervision. This two-
efforts often include trying to reclaim those names. This
tier system involved a more powerful central authority
is an important part of anti-colonial recovery, but it does
overseen by the governor-general in London and a local
lead to some difficulties when researching these topics.
administration run through “indirect rule.” British agents
When applicable, the guide notes the differing names so
intentionally fueled regional conflict between indigenous
that students can locate as many resources that might be
groups to limit resistance to imperial rule as much as
useful to them as possible.
possible. This region became embroiled in German and
The resources noted in this guide highlight the ways that British proxy wars during the First World War which
different regions approached decolonization differently resulted in regional devastation and mass death.
based on their needs. It also demonstrates the ways that
colonization and decolonization were global endeavors that
relied on international webs of commerce and connection
to function. These resources also address the social
movements and efforts of women that accompanied
and complemented decolonization efforts. Through the
analysis of U.S. federal documents and British periodicals,
students can learn about the demographics of anti-colonial
and decolonization movements in these countries and
the ways anti-colonial groups approached decolonization
differently. Students can also learn about the priorities of
European empires and their allies as they worked against
decolonial enterprises. These resources are valuable
and require students to remember that many of these
documents originate from the perspectives of Empires with
clear stakes in the question of decolonial legitimacy. When
read this way, these resources highlight the variety and
richness of decolonial activities across the world. These
documents allow students to practice “reading against
the grain” which is valuable for improving critical thinking
skills and are a crucial part of learning to do historical work.
The documents following decolonization efforts in each
of these regions should be read with the understanding
that the United States had its own reasons for collecting
this information and it was often done with the intention of
allowing the U.S. to shape the geopolitical environment to
suit its own interests. These interests were often contrary

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 3

Women in Nigeria have a long history of organizing and Newly independent Nigeria was created by a new
participating in anti-colonial revolts. In 1929, the Nigerian constitution that established a federal system with an
Women’s War (known at the time as the Aba women’s elected prime minister and a ceremonial head of state.
riots by British audiences) broke out in Nigeria. This was Balewa served as the Prime Minister and Azikiwe Nnamdi
an anti-colonial movement that targeted “warrant chiefs,” served as the president of the senate, which was largely
which were an element of the “indirect rule” system. ceremonial. After a 1961 referendum, the Cameroons joined
Nigerian women claimed that these warrant chiefs Nigeria and in 1963 Nigeria became a republic. The regional
intentionally reduced the role that women were allowed conflicts, which had long been stoked by British agents,
to play in the government. Women had traditionally continued to cause strife in the new republic resulting in
held government and community leadership roles until the eventual partitioning of Nigeria into 3 regions which
the new European “indirect rule” system began, which were overseen by the Yoruba, the Igbo, and the Hausa-
discouraged women’s participation in government based Fulani. Tensions continued to simmer and eventually
on Europe’s patriarchal belief that women were inferior Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was installed after
and incapable of leading. In 1928, a series of direct taxes a military coup and the assassination of Balewa. This
were levied against men. The following year, there was government too was plagued by in-fighting and was
some talk that women would now also be asked to pay eventually overthrown resulting in a civil war beginning in
taxes despite this lack of representation and the fact that 1967. Ojukwu declared the succession of three states which
these taxes had devastated many families. In response, were then called Biafra. But Biafra collapsed two short
women gathered at Oloko (estimates say around 10,000 years later through military intervention by General Gowon.
gathered) to demonstrate against this British incursion. Gowon held power until 1975 after he postponed a return
These demonstrations spread and eventually targeted to civilian rule. In his place, Brig. General Murtala Ramat
and destroyed Native Courts, which were part of the took office. Ramat ushered in many important changes to
system oppressing Nigerian women. In 1930, the warrant address government instability before being assassinated
chieftains were abolished, and women were appointed during an unsuccessful coup and replaced by his top aid,
to sit on the Native Court. These kinds of anti-colonial Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo. Obasanjo continued
activities continued and became overwhelming until the attempts to return to civilian rule and created a new
Nigerian independence was achieved in 1960. constitution, which replaced the British parliamentary
system with a presidential one. Five political parties
emerged to engage in this new republican movement.
Power has since oscillated between military and civilian
hands. In the most recent election (2019), Buhari was re-
elected for a second term with 56% of the vote.

4 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

Key Terms:
• “Aba Riots” for Nigerian Women’s War
• Ojukwu or Chukwuemeka Odumegwu “Emeka”
• Try searching Nigerian capital cities such as “Lagos”
• Biafra or Biafra government

Books:
• Abegunrin, Olayiwola. The Political Philosophy of Chief
Obafemi Awolowo. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015.
ProQuest Ebook Central.
° This book examines the life and ideologies of an
important figure in Decolonial history in Nigeria. It
focuses on Chief Awolowo’s interests in democratic
socialism and his attempts to aid decolonization and
the populace of Nigeria.
• Creary, Nicholas M., ed. African Intellectuals and
Decolonization. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2012.
ProQuest Ebook Central.
° Decades after independence for most African states,
the struggle for decolonization is still incomplete,
as demonstrated by the fact that Africa remains
associated in many Western minds with chaos,
illness, and disorder. As this book shows, Africa’s
decolonization is an ongoing process across a range of
fronts, and intellectuals—both African and non-African—
have significant roles to play in that process.
• Falola, Toyin. Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009. °E
 xamines the Women’s War and the events and
ProQuest Ebook Central. https://www.proquest.com/ legacies that led up to it. The intriguing thing about
legacydocview/EBC/474474?accountid=131239 this book is that it brings together the perspectives
° This book seeks to answer an often-asked question of colonized and colonial participants within a gender
about why Nigerian democracy has been so difficult studies frame to discuss these events in a new light.
to establish following imperial rule. Falola analyzes the • Okeke-Agulu, Chika. Postcolonial Modernism: Art and
history of colonial violence and instability to explain how Decolonization in Twentieth-Century Nigeria. North Carolina:
Nigeria. Duke University Press, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central.
• Writing the Nigeria-Biafra War, edited by Toyin Falola, and ° This book includes beautiful color images of African art
Ogechukwu Ezekwem, Boydell & Brewer, Limited, 2016. to tell the history of artistic modernism in response to
ProQuest Ebook Central. https://www.proquest.com/ decolonial struggles in Nigeria.
legacydocview/EBC/4529812?accountid=131239
Newspaper and Magazine Articles:
° Focuses on the fictional and non-fiction writings of
the Civil War period. These essays will help students • “ The Native in Parliament.” The Anti-Slavery Reporter and
understand the context of the Civil War and the ways Aborigines’ Friend 20, no. 1 (04, 1930): 11–43. https://www.
that participants understood their participation and the proquest.com/historical-periodicals/native-parliament/
needs of Nigeria at the time. This includes discussions docview/3048773/se-2?accountid=14667
about well-known author Chinua Achebe. ° This has a good discussion about how the riots started
• Matera, Marc, et al. The Women’s War Of 1929: Gender and (from the British perspective). I find it interesting that
Violence in Colonial Nigeria, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2011. the individuals in question (ministers and parliament
ProQuest Ebook Central. https://www.proquest.com/ members) have no clue which areas in African have
legacydocview/EBC/815884?accountid=131239 ‘always been’ British holding and which were war gains
from Germany.

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 5

• GEARY, WILLIAM N. M., SIR. “NIGERIA UNDER BRITISH ProQuest History Vault
RULE.” The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines’ Friend •B
 iafra-Nigeria military operations: Truce, Ceasefire,
18, no. 2 (07, 1928): 93–95. https://www.proquest. Armistice (Sept. 1968– Dec. 1968) from ProQuest
com/historical-periodicals/nigeria-under-british-rule/ History Vault https://congressional.proquest.com/
docview/3036551/se-2?accountid=14667 histvault?q=101146-020-0615&accountid=14667
° This article predates the Nigerian women’s war, but °T
 hese documents come from U.S. government memos
it does give an impression of what British audiences and intelligence. They discuss the current civil war
thought of Nigerian history and its present “happy” in Nigeria and the ways that the U.S. is advised to
existence under British rule. intercede. These include ‘updates’ on both sides of the
Government and Organizational Records: Nigerian civil war, which might be useful for students
interested in a timeline of events and the connections to
Women and Social Movements, International the greater Cold War context.
• Valien, Bonita H. Leadership Training for Nigerian Women: • Biafra Government: Executive Branch (June 1967–
Some Impressions With Recommendations. Women’s Nov. 1969). https://congressional.proquest.com/
Africa Committee Records, 1958–1978 (Box 1, Folder histvault?q=101146-001-0304&accountid=14667
6, 11pp.), Sophia Smith Collection. Women’s History
Archive, December 1962. https://search.alexanderstreet. ° These documents discuss the ways that U.S. intelligence
com/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cbibliographic_ were and were not willing to engage with leaders like
details%7C1518190 Ojukwu openly. If read against the grain this information
shows what ways decolonization efforts were sabotaged
° This document discusses Nigerian women’s role in through lack of response and resources.
‘representing’ Nigeria as ONE nation rather than tribes
or groups. This is a stark sign of the role nationalism ° The two folders identified above from History Vault are
played in decolonization. part of the collection in History Vault called Confidential
U.S. State Department Central Files, Biafra-Nigeria:
Subject-Numeric Files, Political Affairs, 1967–1969.
This collection establishes the political background to
the Nigerian Civil War and introduces the individuals
and issues covered throughout the collection. In
addition to extensive documentation on Gowon, Ojukwu,
and other military and government officials on both
sides of the conflict, the files detail the involvement of
missionaries and mercenaries, European and African
diplomats, non-governmental organizations and private
citizens, and the oil industry, principally Shell-British
Petroleum and the French state company Societe
Anonyme Francaise des Recherches et d’Exploitation
de Petrole (SAFRAP; now Elf Petroleum Nigeria
Limited), both with critical interests in their Nigerian
operations threatened by the war. This collection also
provides day-by-day, month-by-month accounts of
military actions, diplomatic maneuverings, and the
international reach of the Nigerian Civil War. The United
Kingdom and Soviet Union—an unlikely collaboration
amidst global Cold War tensions—supplied arms
to Gowon’s FMG, Britain only a few years removed
from colonial control over Nigeria, the Soviet Union
attempting to gain influence on the African continent.
Ojukwu relied on France and Portugal for military
aid and succeeded in gaining diplomatic recognition
from only five small countries—Tanzania, Gabon, Ivory
Coast, Zambia, and Haiti. To view this full collection,
use the following URL: https://search.proquest.com/
histvault?q=73157:101146&accountid=131239

6 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

Topic 2: The Congo
Congo was originally known as the Kongo Kingdom and
was ruled by a king and a series of local chiefs. This
region was greatly disrupted by the incursion of European
slavery and the slave trade. Like many other colonial
beginnings, Congo was originally ‘opened’ to European
power through the creation of stations for markets and
commerce along the Congo River. The Committee for
Studies of the Upper Congo (later, Association international
du Congo) was created to negotiate with local chiefs for
these stations. By 1884, they had accumulated enough
of these station contracts for King Leopold of Belgium
to assert his right to govern the whole territory as one
state. During the Berlin West Africa Conference 1884–85,
European leaders negotiated the ‘rules’ that each must
follow in the colonization of Africa. After that, from 1885–
1908, this region was known as the Congo Free State
and was overseen by King Leopold under the guide of a
humanitarian mission to end slavery. Leopold’s brutality
and crimes against humanity are many. Congo is now well-
known for its especially cruel imperial period. Congolese
citizens and laborers were tortured and murdered
indiscriminately for the sake of the economic gain of
European countries. Leopold’s private army, the Force
Publique, was engineered and administered by Europeans.
They were responsible for kidnappings and burning villages
to the ground. This brutal occupation is now infamous The first months of Congolese independence were
among African historians and historians of empire. challenging. The MNC and the ABAKO were unable to
Belgian rule was inflexible and gave no official or “indirect” form a Parliamentary coalition and the Prime Minister
forms of self-rule to the Congolese. This paternalistic (Lumumba)and President (Kasavubu) were pitted against
system was based on the flawed belief that Africans were one another due to the constitutional impasse this created.
intellectually and culturally incapable of ruling themselves. Eventually Kasavubu relieved Lumumba of his duties
This African exclusion from governance continued until sparking a situation where both groups claimed to be
1957 when minor reforms were instituted. These reforms the legal central government. Simultaneously, the richest
were largely limited to ‘westernized’ Africans and came province, Katanga, declared itself independent of the
about because of the neighboring French colonies’ rest of Congo with support from Belgium. Kasavubu and
democratic reforms. In 1956, a manifesto from the Alliance Lumumba were at odds on how to handle this situation.
des Bakongo (ABAKO) was circulated, which called for the Kasavubu appealed to the UN to militarily reunite the
immediate emancipation of Congo from Belgium. ABAKO country while Lumumba sought Soviet aid to quell the
was led by Joseph Kasavubu and became a major anti- crisis. This “Congo Crisis” became entangled in the East-
colonial force in Congo. Like many other colonies, Congo West divide of the Cold War.
experienced a wave of nationalist sentiment following After the country was cut into 4 regions, army Chief of Staff
the World Wars resulting in the creation of the nationalist Joseph Mobutu (later, Mobutu Sese Seko) led a coup and
party the Congolese National Movement (MNC). MNC is took control of the country in 1960. In 1964, following the
the party that allowed pan-Africanist Patrice Lumumba to convening of parliament, a civilian government headed by
rise to fame. After an incident in Leopoldville on January Cyrille Adoul gained power in 1961. However, the Katanga
4th, 1959, which resulted in the deaths of many Africans succession continued until 1963, which undermined
by security forces, Belgium was forced to reconsider their Adoul’s credibility as a leader. Mobutu carried off a second
ultimate goals for the colony. On January 13th, Belgium coup in 1965 and renamed Congo Zaire in 1971. Mobutu
officially stated that the ultimate goal was the removal and the MPR party continued to lead Zaire until his death
of Belgian governance and Congolese independence. Six in 1997. Currently, the country is known as the Democratic
months later, Congo was able to officially take control of Republic of the Congo with Martin Fayulu serving as
their own governance. President after a contentious 2019 election.

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 7

Key Terms: •N
 zongola-Ntalaja, Georges. Patrice Lumumba. Athens, OH:
• “The Congo Question” for sources referring to Congo’s Ohio University Press, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central.
apparent economic disorder and the resulting economic ° Traces the life and decolonial activities of Patrice
crises (according to the British/European perspective) Lumumba.
• This region is often called The Democratic Republic of the • Vansina, Jan. Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural
Congo, Congo Free State, the Belgian Congo, Zaire, and Congo, 1880–1960. Madison: University of Wisconsin
the Kongo Kingdom in literature depending on the time Press, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central.
period you’re researching.
° Focuses on the Kuba experiences of colonization using
• Joseph Mobutu can also be searched by using Mobutu oral interviews and material culture to forefront the
Sese Seko. indigenous perspective.

Books: Newspaper and Magazine Articles:

• Kent, John. America, the UN and Decolonisation: Cold War • “THE DUTCH AND BELGIANS ON THE CONGO.” The Review
Conflict in the Congo. Florence: Taylor & Francis Group, of Reviews 3, no. 17 (05, 1891): 459. https://www.proquest.
2010. ProQuest Ebook Central. com/historical-periodicals/dutch-belgians-on-congo/
docview/4056911/se-2?accountid=14667
° Tells the story of Congo decolonization in the context of
the Cold War and the geopolitical climate of the 60s. ° This is a very early article from the British perspective
talking about the Congo as warlike and being distressed
that new tariffs were put up despite constant shipping
disruptions due to ‘free fighting.’

8 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

• “THE CONGO QUESTION AND THE ENTENTE CORDIALE.”
The Review of Reviews 40, no. 240 (12, 1909): 551.
https://www.proquest.com/historical-periodicals/
congo-question-entente-cordiale/docview/4112575/se-
2?accountid=14667
° This document is about the Imperial rule of Congo and
that ways that Britain is attempting to change the ways
that Belgium rules the Congo, but Belgium is supported
by France. This piece uses what is referred to now as
“white man’s burden” rhetoric. A good piece for showing
how these colonial holdings were tossed around
between different nations and were often proxy sites for
European squabbles.

Government Records in ProQuest History Vault:

• Republic of Congo Political Affairs (Sept. 1960).
Confidential U.S. State Department Central Files, Congo:
Internal Affairs and Foreign Affairs, 1960–January 1963
https://congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=009249-
005-0001&accountid=14667
°T
 hese U.S. documents give a timeline of events during
Kasavubu’s coup and the Congolese government
response. These includes conversations about the
Congo situation with other African Presidents (like
President Nkrumah of Ghana). “President [Nkrumah]
said word during the day disturbed him greatly because
it looked like the cold war was coming to Africa. He
had tried to restrain Lumumba, but Lumumba replied
establishment of the Patrice Lumumba government
he could expect no direct help from Ghana because
and subsequent political anarchy; the secession of
Ghana was totally committed to UN.” Through these
Katanga; and the role of the United Nations, first as
communications, students can get an idea of how
a peacekeeping force and ultimately as the chosen
communities across Africa struggled together with their
instrument for bringing Katanga back into the fold of
own decolonization efforts and the ways they interacted
the central government.
with other such efforts.
•C
 ongo Political Situation, including an Analytical
• Republic of Congo Political Affairs: Cabinets and
Chronology of Congo Crisis, March 9, 1961. John
Ministries (July 1960–May 1961). Confidential U.S.
F. Kennedy National Security Files, 1961–1963,
State Department Central Files, Congo: Internal Affairs
Africa https://congressional.proquest.com/
and Foreign Affairs, 1960–January 1963 https://
histvault?q=003362-003-0635
congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=009249-027-
0569&accountid=14667 °T
 his chronology includes beyond those discussions of
the U.S. President seeking an update on the situation-
° These documents can illuminate the growing and an indication that the “Congo situation” had caught the
changing administrative structures within the Republic
attention of the U.S. The purpose of this is “to permit a
of Congo. They also include public statements from
review of the Congo crisis from its inception, to see if
Brussels about Congo.
there are any patterns that can be discerned and which
° The two folders described above form part of the could point the way to future policy decisions.” Students
collection in History Vault called Confidential U.S. State can use this to track what events the U.S. thought were
Department Central Files, Congo: Internal Affairs and important. They can also see areas where Tunisian
Foreign Affairs, 1960–January 1963. This collection, as and Ghanaian troops and governments attempted to
the folders described here indicate, chronicles in detail intercede in the crisis.
the period from 1960–1963 in the Congo, including
reporting on the Congolese independence movement;

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 9

 This combination of migration and war service stoked
nationalist sentiments in Algeria. Many Algerians hoped
France would extend them more rights or greater liberty for
their service.
Algeria contained many different ethnic and racial groups
and not all enjoyed the same access to upward mobility
and citizenship. Algerians could access French education
and vocations. Because this group already had the greatest
access to upward mobility, they tended to be less radical and
more in favor of reforms. The second group were the Muslims.
This group strongly favored Muslim Nationalism and founded
the Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama (AUMA). The third
group was the most radical of all and was primarily comprised
of laborers and other marginalized members.
Algeria gained independence in 1962 after a long, bloody
war for independence. Following WWII, the French
government had promised to extend greater access to self-
rule in Algeria because of its services during the war. The
Algerian War erupted after these promises went unfulfilled
many years later. Algeria had long been home to a diversity
of ethnic and religious groups and each had differing levels
of access to French citizenship and rights. This caused a
great deal of discord in the country– especially between
Jews and Muslims. These disparities made political life
very challenging in Algeria. France was desperate to hold
on to Algeria and waged a brutal battle in Algiers (the Battle
of Algiers) which the French ultimately won. The resistance
was so great that Charles De Gaulle eventually declared
that Algerians had the right to self-determination in 1959.
Following this decree there was massive French resistance
and terrorism that hoped to derail Algerian attempts at self-
Topic 3: Algeria rule. Algeria gained independence in 1962.
Algeria is a North African country that was colonized by the
Key Terms:
French from 1830–47. Algeria was largely ruled by military
occupation with a military commander serving as governor. • Algerian War or Algerian War of Independence
Arab Bureaus were staffed by officers with local knowledge • Young Algerians
and no financial interest in the colony. As a result, Algeria
was an unusual example of European imperialism in Books:
Africa. The solidification of French governance didn’t •A
 dams, Geoffrey. The Call of Conscience: French Protestant
occur until 1870 with the Third Republic and Napoleon Responses to the Algerian War, 1954–1962. Waterloo, ON:
III. Napoleon hoped to cement French control of Algeria Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1998. ProQuest Ebook
through settlement. However, control was difficult because Central.
of Algeria’s multiculturalism and unequal access to
certain rights. During the Franco-Prussian War, Algerians °T
 his book tells the story of the changing French
response to Algerian decolonization and anti-colonial
hoped to take independence while the French army was
attempts. The French Army’s poor treatment of
busy protecting France from Prussian aggression. This
Algerians swayed many French to disavow their support
was referred to as the Kabylia uprising and this uprising
of keeping Algeria through force.
ultimately failed. In general, Algerians suffered immensely
from poverty and starvation during French occupation. • Lyons, Amelia H. The Civilizing Mission in the Metropole:
During WWI, Algerians (and troops from other French Algerian Families and the French Welfare State During
African colonies) served in the French army and factories Decolonization. Redwood City: Stanford University Press,
and many settled in France following the War. This was an 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central.
important period of migration between France and Algeria.

10 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

 ° Examines the exclusionary practices against Muslims in
France and Algeria and explains the role of colonization
in cementing inequality.
• Howell, Jennifer. The Algerian War in French-Language
Comics: Postcolonial Memory, History, and Subjectivity.
Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015. ProQuest Ebook
Central.
° This book offers comics as a way to differently
understand the experience of the Algerian War and
independence.

Newspaper and Magazine Articles:

• BRIDGES, T., EDWARD. “ALGERIAN COLONISATION.”
The St. James’s Magazine ser.3. 1, (04, 1875): 255–264.
https://www.proquest.com/historical-periodicals/algerian-
colonisation/docview/6047175/se-2?accountid=14667
° This article is written from the British perspective and it
outlines the ways that French and British colonization
efforts are different. The article makes the case
that British imperialism is superior. This is useful for
students because they can better understand the roots
of colonization and thus understand the politics around
decolonization and why European countries often
exacerbated tensions prior to decolonization, which
made unification extremely difficult.
• DIMNET, ERNEST. “THE ALGERIANS.” Saturday Review
of Politics, Literature, Science and Art 119, no. 3113
(Jun 26, 1915): 649–650. https://www.proquest.com/
historical-periodicals/algerians/docview/876924473/se-
2?accountid=14667
•S
 peculations on Algerian Post-Independence Conditions.
° This article is written about the fact that France has
John F. Kennedy National Security Files, 1961–1963,
allowed soldiers from Algeria to fight in the First World
Africa, First Supplement https://congressional.proquest.
War. Many Europeans balked at this idea. They were
com/histvault?q=009251-002-0124&accountid=14667
uncomfortable with France giving soldiers of color
permission to kill white men (even if they were Germans ° This is a great way to show the overlap between
and an enemy to France at the time). This service to processes of decolonization and Cold War era politics.
France was later cited by Algerian nationalists and Here, the U.S. is trying to decipher if Ben Bella means
assimilationists alike for reasons that Algeria has ‘socialist’ in a way that sides them with the USSR.
earned self-rule and self-determination. This is a crucial There are also documents that mention the factions
aspect of early anti-colonial sentiments and critical to that are potentially causing strife in forming a wholly
understanding the racial underpinnings of colonization. independent nation after colonialism.
• The French Student Movement and the Algerian Crisis.
Government and Organizational Records in
(Jan 1961–Dec 1961). Socialist Party of America Papers,
ProQuest History Vault:
https://congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=201902-
• Algerian Military Coup memos and President Mohammad 038-0749&accountid=14667
Ahmed Ben Bella’s relations with communist bloc. Lyndon
B. Johnson National Security Files, 1963–1969, Africa ° This series of papers discusses JFK’s interest in Algeria
and his assertion that it is “no longer just a French
https://congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=003364-
problem.” This pamphlet is meant to show how Algerian
003-0001&accountid=14667
civil liberties have been restricted and the impacts of
° This is an excellent series to discuss decolonization the crisis on both Algeria and France. This would be
because it discusses the aftermath of the 1962 very useful for students interested in the restrictions
independence and the factions that made that difficult. and crackdowns perpetrated by the French in Algeria.

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 11

 themselves. In 1942, the Japanese occupation began, and
Dutch civil servants were interred. Initially, the Japanese
were welcomed as liberators. Unfortunately, Japanese
occupation was brutal in Indonesia. But after three
years, on August 17, 1945, the Japanese surrendered,
and Indonesian leaders Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed
Indonesian independence. As British forces arrived to
oversee Japanese departures, anti-colonial incidents
broke out across Indonesia. British forces soon realized
that, despite their own desires, Indonesian citizens
were serious about their calls for independence. These
incidents resulted in the Linggadjati Agreement signed
March 25, 1947, which proclaimed the Dutch intent to
transfer Indonesian sovereignty to a federal Indonesia.
Federalism was not popular amongst Indonesians and
opposition mounted. In response, the Dutch retaliated
in what they termed a “police action” against the new
republic. The UN stepped in and this led to the Renville
Agreement in 1948. Despite this agreement, a few months
later the Dutch participated in a second “police action.”
Growing domestic agitation worried American forces and
resulted in them supporting Indonesian independence.
This cemented the anti-colonial movement’s legitimacy
and allowed for a constitutional democracy to rule
Indonesia until 1965. During this time there were a
series of governmental successions and later a “guided
Topic 4: Indonesia
democracy.” Currently, Joko Widodo serves as President.
Indonesia originally caught the attention of Britain and
Dutch imperialists and trading companies in the late 16th Keywords:
century. The Dutch East India Company received a charter • Culture system
in 1602 to control trade by indigenous traders in an effort to
• Padri War
establish a commercial monopoly. Despite this, indigenous
traders largely continued their traditional trading paths. • Java War
There was a minor disruption in Dutch hegemony (among • Budi Utomo
European groups) from 1799–1815. Beginning in 1815, the
Dutch redoubled their efforts at making the colony self- • Linggadjati Agreement
supporting. To these ends, they created a culture system • Sarekat Islam
that required villages to set aside 1/5th of their land for the
cultivation of export crops. This was fiscally successful Books:
for the Dutch, but burdensome for the Javanese. This •J
 ones, Tod. Culture, Power, and Authoritarianism in the
economic success led to a greater desire for Dutch Indonesian State: Cultural Policy Across the Twentieth
territorial expansion. This required greater migration of Century to the Reform Era. Leiden: BRILL, 2013. ProQuest
Dutch civil servants to the islands and with them, a greater Ebook Central.
degree of colonial oversight. Unlike some other settlers in
° This book is a more general account of Indonesian
the colonial period, the Dutch in Indonesia fully intended to history with a focus on Indonesian diversity and culture.
make the land their home. This led to a great deal of Dutch
opposition to Indonesian independence following WWII. • Lindblad, J. Th. Bridges to New Business: The Economic
Decolonization of Indonesia. Leiden: BRILL, 2008. ProQuest
Dutch nationalist and prenationalist movements began Ebook Central.
at the beginning of the 20th century. Budi Utomo, headed
by Wahidin Sudirohusodo, was one of the first. This group ° This monograph focuses on the economic policies
hoped to merge traditional culture with contemporary in Indonesia that were meant to aid in decolonization
Java society. Following WWI, such groups proliferated in efforts. This book traces these policies from the late-
Java including the Indies Social Democratic Association colonial period through Japanese occupation and into
and Sarekat Islam attempted to make a name for independence.

12 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

• Steedly, Mary Margaret. Rifle Reports: A Story of Indonesian demonstrates the huge variety of kinds of sources and
Independence. Berkeley: University of California Press, information that one can find about other nations in U.S.
2013. ProQuest Ebook Central. government documents from the 20th century.
° This book features ethnographic interviews of • Japan Programs in Java and Bali (Jan 1945–Dec. 1945).
Karo Batak villagers who experienced the violence Office of Strategic Services (OSS)-State Department
and upheaval of the movement for Indonesian Intelligence and Research Reports, Part 01: Japan and
independence. Its Occupied Territories During World War II https://
congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=002797-011-
Government and Organizational Records in 0009&accountid=14667
ProQuest History Vault:
°T
 his collection will help students understand Japanese
• Indonesian Independence and U.S. support. Papers of occupation in Indonesia. This is a list of changes and
the NAACP, Part 14: Race Relations in the International programs that the Japanese ordered in Indonesia. It
Arena, 1940–1955 https://congressional.proquest.com/ will aid students in understanding how Indonesian
histvault?q=001439-009-0816&accountid=14667 decolonization was influenced by the European and
° This file of documents is really fascinating. It discusses the Asian occupiers it survived.
U.S. policy of backing Dutch colonialism after Japanese
surrender and the groups advocating for Indonesian
Topic 5: India
independence. The U.S. shifted to support Indonesia and
this largely settled the issue. It illustrates the ways that The British Raj was a period of direct rule over the
decolonization was often ‘decided’ by the U.S./European Indian subcontinent from 1858 to Pakistani and Indian
powers in areas without anti-colonial violence. independence in 1947. The Raj took over management of
the subcontinent from the British East India Company after
• Indonesian Conferences and the Joint Action of
the Sepoy Mutiny. The Raj was meant to allow for a greater
Netherlands Women (Jan 1948–May 1949). Papers of
amount of Indian self-governance, but this ended up being
the NAACP, Part 14: Race Relations in the International
a failed promise. The Raj was despotic and unpopular.
Arena, 1940–1955 https://congressional.proquest.com/
This resulted in the creation of multiple nationalist groups
histvault?q=001439-009-0816&accountid=14667
and a strong nationalist movement in India. The Indian
° “The United States bears considerable responsibility National Congress met for the first time in Bombay in 1885.
for continue warfare in Indonesia.” This claim is based
on the astounding amount of training and funding the
U.S. gave to the Netherlands to help ‘put down’ the
revolution. This series of documents details how and
why the U.S. was swayed to support Indonesia and the
consequences of that on the global level.
• US Foreign Assistance to Indonesia (May 1966–June
1967). Lyndon B. Johnson National Security Files, 1963–
1969, Asia and the Pacific. https://congressional.proquest.
com/histvault?q=002785-009-0100&accountid=14667
° These documents follow the U.S./Indonesian
relationship through Indonesia’s decolonization efforts.
This collection is a mix of documents relating to various
Asian and South Asian countries.
• Indonesian Social Matters: Dictionary of Common
Indonesian Abbreviations (March 1960). Confidential
U.S. State Department Central Files, Indonesia: Internal
Affairs and Foreign Affairs, 1960–January 1963 https://
congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=009217-017-
0672&accountid=14667
° This is useful for decolonization studies in that it allows
English-language students an opportunity to see some
Indonesian abbreviations that they might come across
in their research and be unable to decipher. It also

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 13

 Its logistic importance was based both on its access to
resources and manufacturing as well as its central location
in Asia. Axis powers attempted to exacerbate anti-British
sentiment to improve their own chances of winning. This
targeted propaganda scheme combined with Britain’s
resistance to home-rule and greater representation for
India resulted in post-war demands for independence.
In June 1945, a conference was held in Simla to discuss
issues of governance. However, the Muslim League and
the Congress failed to find mutual ground. Meanwhile, in
Britain, the conservatives were voted out and the Labour
party was voted in. Unlike the Conservatives, the Labour
Party saw India as unstable and a burden to British growth
and well-being. In 1947, British Parliament passed the
Indian Independence Act. This act made India and Pakistan
independent as of midnight on August 15th, 1947. This
meant that they had a month to demarcate the boundaries
between Punjab and Bengal. Once these borders were
This was an elite gathering of largely Brahmans meant to drawn Muslims fled toward Pakistan and Hindus toward
discuss political agitation for self-rule. These meetings India for shelter. Ethnic tensions continued well after this
continued and calls for national self-determination only initial migration, known as the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, and
increased as the 20th century dawned. During the first half can be attributed to tensions created by the British Raj.
of the twentieth century these calls became increasingly
militant as British authorities refused to relent. These Key Terms:
movements were complicated by Hindu-Muslim animosity • Indian National Congress
which had been exacerbated by imperial policies. The
• Muslim League
Muslim League was founded in 1906 and was meant
to serve as a Muslim alternative to the Indian National • Bengal
Congress. During the period following the First World War, • Sepoy Mutiny
Britain attempted to quell anti-colonial sentiment in the
subcontinent through minimal periodic reforms. This was • Amritsar “riot” or “Amritsar incident” or “Amritsar massacre”
also when the Congress was following Gandhian ideals • India-Pakistan War, Indo-Pakistan War
of peaceful protest and launched the noncooperation
movement in 1920. However, these rarely went far enough Books:
to address systemic inequalities and calls for independence •G
 upta, Swarupa. Notions of Nationhood in Bengal:
continued to mount. Perspectives on Samaj, C. 1867–1905. Boston: BRILL, 2009.
Complications following the Second World War resulted in ProQuest Ebook Central.
the end of British occupation of the subcontinent. During °F
 ocuses on the specific growth and changes to
the war, India was hugely important to the allied war effort. nationalist ideas and framing in Bengal.

14 Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide

• Gould, William. Hindu Nationalism and the Language of
Politics in Late Colonial India. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2004. ProQuest Ebook Central.
° This book dives into an important discussion about the
ways the Indian National Congress and their purportedly
secularist approaches to nationalism impacted and was
impacted by Muslims.
• Burton, Antoinette M. Dwelling in the Archive: Women
Writing House, Home, and History in Late Colonial India.
New York: Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2003.
ProQuest Ebook Central.
° This book offers the reader some primary sources and
focuses on women in late colonial India.

Newspaper and Magazine Articles:

• Bradlaugh, Charles. “The Indian National Congress: What
It Is and What It Demands.” The New Review 2, no. 10 (03,
1890): 242–253. https://www.proquest.com/historical-
periodicals/indian-national-congress-what-is-demands/
docview/6950811/se-2?accountid=14667
° This article is from the British perspective. This article
discusses the most recent meeting of the Congress and
the “numerous expressions of loyalty to British rule.” It is
important to note that British colonizers were especially
fervent about framing their colonial exploitation as
favorable to the colonized individuals. This is valuable
for students seeking to understand the relationship of
British media to colonizing efforts and the ways that
they downplayed decolonizing and anti-colonial efforts
and sentiments.
• O’Dwyer, M.F. “Anarchy in India.” Fortnightly Review, May • “Amritsar Quiet After Riot: Sixty Injured Police
1865–June 1934 109, no. 650 (02, 1921): 177-191. https:// Precautionary Measures.” The Times of India (1861–
www.proquest.com/historical-periodicals/anarchy-india/ Current), Jun 21, 1937. https://www.proquest.com/
docview/2487724/se-2?accountid=14667 historical-newspapers/amritsar-quiet-after-riot/
° This article discusses the passing of limited self- docview/250773740/se-2?accountid=14667
government for India and the general British “apathy” ° This is useful for students who are trying to
toward the subcontinent. This is a discussion of recent understand the role that British colonization played
and historical events and a justification of brutal British in stoking ethnic tensions in the Indian subcontinent,
occupation and colonization policies in India. which is an issue that plagued decolonization efforts
• “The Amritsar Tragedy: Through Associated Press.” The and government structuring.
Times of India (1861–Current), Apr 12, 1919. https://www.
Government Records in ProQuest History Vault:
proquest.com/historical-newspapers/amritsar-tragedy/
docview/603230864/se-2?accountid=14667 • India social conditions, attitudes, and propaganda with
suggestions for American orientation toward the Indians.
° This article tells the tragic story of the massacre at
Office of Strategic Services (OSS)-State Department
Amritsar. The article indicates the level of anti-colonial
Intelligence and Research Reports, Part 03: China and
sentiment that existed in the decades preceding
India, 1941–1949 https://congressional.proquest.com/
decolonization in India. It also makes clear how anti-
histvault?q=002799-005-0007&accountid=14667
colonial violence was framed by western media.
° This file contains U.S. foreign service reports on India
during World War II and the impacts of axis propaganda
on Indian desire to continue British rule. This is also a

Decolonization in Africa and Asia: A Resource Guide 15

 demographic report that is meant to help guide U.S. Conclusion
policy going forward in India-policies that were pro-
This resource guide is meant to provide information for
British and anti-Indian self-rule.
students interested in decolonization and anti-colonial
• Survey of Indian Population, Social Conditions, Politics, movements across Africa and Asia. It is especially useful
and economics with “Who’s Who” Biography (Nov. 1943). for English-language students hoping to learn more about
Office of Strategic Services (OSS)-State Department the ways that the Cold War and geopolitical networks
Intelligence and Research Reports, Part 03: China and impacted decolonization efforts. It is important to center
India, 1941–1949 https://congressional.proquest.com/ the voices of indigenous groups when discussing the
histvault?q=002799-006-0004&accountid=14667 ways that colonialism and decolonization impacted
° These demographics collected for U.S. use can help their lives. But it is possible to read sources “against
students distinguish between regions in India. As a the grain” to illuminate anti-colonial resistance and the
subcontinent, India is and was full of diverse language, ways that powerful (mostly) western nations interrupted
ethnic, and religious identities. These documents also decolonization efforts and why they did so. One of the
lay out the various political parties and governing bodies goals of this resource guide is to give students a peek into
in India. the larger context of decolonization so they might begin
their own, more specific, journey into the areas that most
• Congressional Criticism of US Military Aid to Pakistan
interest them. Colonization shaped our world in so many
(April 1971–Nov. 1971). Richard M. Nixon National
ways and cost the lives of countless people. Studying
Security Files, 1969–1974, India-Pakistan War of 1971
the history of decolonization and anti-colonial resistance
https://congressional.proquest.com/histvault?q=102679-
allows students to bring new perspectives to the history
004-0303&accountid=14667
of imperialism and to uncover the voices of historically
° This document is a printed copy of the Congressional marginalized people.
Record describing the ways that U.S. intervention on
behalf of Pakistan was understood by U.S. governing
bodies. This document helps students understand the
ways that the successes or failures of decolonization
efforts were often entangled with who did and did not
receive global aid or recognition.

DATABASES COVERED IN THIS GUIDE

• British Periodicals • ProQuest History Vault

• ProQuest Congressional °C
 onfidential U.S. State Department Central Files on
• ProQuest Ebook Central Africa and the Middle East, 1960–1969

• ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Times of India ° NAACP Papers: Board of Directors, Annual
Conferences, Major Speeches, and National
Staff Files
° Office of Strategic Services (OSS)-State Department
Intelligence and Research Reports, 1941–1961
°S
 ocialist Party of America Papers
° Vietnam War and American Foreign Policy,
1960–1975

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