1.

0 Introduction and History of Building Materials

History of Materials as Used in Building Construction, Materials Properties and Its Application

 Construction, also called building construction, the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection
of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. Human shelters were at first very simple and perhaps lasted
only a few days or months. Over time, however, even temporary structures evolved into such highly refined forms
as the igloo. Gradually more durable structures began to appear, particularly after the advent of agriculture, when
people began to stay in one place for long periods. The first shelters were dwellings, but later other functions,
such as food storage and ceremony, were housed in separate buildings. Some structures began to have symbolic as
well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction between architecture and building

Building Material refers to any material used for construction purposes. Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks,
concrete, clay are the most common type of building material used in construction usually because of their cost
effectiveness and durability.

Types of Materials in Building Construction:

1. Natural Construction Materials –these materials are raw materials from nature or those that are minimally processed
by the industry such as lumber. Mud, stone and fibrous plants (e.g. bamboo and anahaw) are the most commonly used
materials to build dwellings in consideration of the local weather conditions.

2. Fabrics - nomadic groups used tent as a home of choice, two of which are known as the conical tepee and the circular
yurt. It has then become an inspiration of the development of tensile architecture as well a synthetic fabrics

3. Mud and Clay - are commonly used in western and northern Europe and some of the buildings that are made with
these materials are still habitable in the present time.

4. Rock- is the longest lasting and readily available material. It is good for protection but it has draw-backs such as its
weight and energy density. The pyramids of Egypt, the Inca Civilization and the Aztec pyramids are examples of
stone/rock buildings.

5. Thatch - is one of the oldest of materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested was used in Europe but
then fell out of favour when Industrialization increased the availability of other materials.

6. Brush- components of this structure are built entirely form plant parts that are generally found in tropical and
subtropical areas. The structure is mostly built with branches, bark leaves and twigs and were variously named as pickups,
lean-tos etc.

7. Ice- was used for igloos by the Inuit and is used for hotels as tourist attraction in the northern areas.

8. Wood - is a very flexible material and was historically used as unprocessed logs for building large structures. The
invention of mechanizing saws gave way to the mass production of dimensional lumber resulting into quicker and more
uniform buildings.

9. Brick and Block -A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of lower quality
mud, etc. Clay bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or in commercial manufacture (the stiff mud
process).

10. Glass- generally made from mixture of sand and silicates and is very brittle, today, modern glass “curtain walls “can
be used to cover the facade of the building.
11. Cement- is used in various ways such as in buildings, bridges, tanks, domes, flyovers, dockyard etc. It is discovered
that it is used as early as 12-10,000 BC. The Romans is said to use a mixture of lime and pozzolan-crushed volcanic ash-
to create hydraulic cements, which could set under water. John Smeaton made an important contribution in the Industrial
Revolution in Europe in the late 18th century when he discovered that the hydraulicity of lime was directly related to the
limestone's clay content. The precursor to modern-day cement was created in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, who experimented
with heating limestone and clay until the mixture calcined, grinding it and then mixing it with water, and thus named as
Portland cement.

12. Sand- is a naturally available material and is well known for its durability. There are two types of sand which are the
Natural or sand that is obtained in river banks and sea beds; and the Artificial sand or sand that is formed by
decomposition of sandstone due to various weathering effects.

13. Aggregate- are strong and durable, known to its resistance to scratches and decay, it is used in construction of beams,
columns, slab, lintel etc. Fine aggregates are used to prepare cement mortar, lime mortar and cement concrete; Coarse
Aggregates are used to prepare cement concrete bituminous pavement, rigid pavement etc.

14. Mortar- is used to bind the bricks and stones firmly in wall construction work and is even used in plaster work as
finishing material. Mortar is known for its water retention but should be set quickly to avoid developing of cracks
15. Ceramics- are mostly used for finishing in buildings as floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. In the past it is
labelled as a form of clay-pottery but has evolved into more technical areas.

16. Metal- provides sufficient strength for bearing the building load. There are two types of Metals, the Ferrous and Non
Ferrous.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION HISTORY

 ⬗ A reconstruction of a pit-house type
dwelling made with mammoth
bones

Church in Kizhi, Russia is listed as

UNESCO world heritage site as a
building constructed entirely out of
wood, in the log building technique
22

People have constructed buildings and other structures since prehistory, including bridges, amphitheatres, dams,
roads and canals. Building materials in present use have a long history and some of the structures built thousands of years
ago are regarded as remarkable. The history of
construction overlaps that of structural engineering and many other fields. To understand why things were constructed the
way they were in prehistory, we also need to rely on archaeology to record the form of the parts that survive and the tools
used, and other branches of history and architecture to investigate how the builders lived and recorded their
accomplishments.

The Chronological Development

The history of construction is a complex subject encom- passing the history of building materials, the history of
engineering, the history of building techniques, economic and social history of builders and workmen, the history of
construction machinery and temporary works, etc. Each of these has a complex literature devoted to it.

1.1 Neolithic Construction

A reconstruction of a neolithic fortified village
showing apalisade wall and stilt houses at the Pfahlbau
Museum Unteruhldingen,Germany.
Image: Andreas F. Borchert
⬗ The history of construction is a complex
subject encompassing the history of
building materials, the history of
engineering, the history of
⬗ building techniques, economic
⬗ and social history of builders
⬗ and workmen,
⬗ the history of construction
⬗ machinery and
⬗ temporary works, etc.

⬗ Neolithic buildings in
Skara Brae, Skara Brae is
listed as a
⬗ UNESCO world heritage
Thesite
most common materials
used during the period
included thick timber posts,
reeds, clay, stone, and tree
trunks. The building techniques
varied from culture to culture with
central Asia predominately using
mud-brick and Europe building
structures using the wattle and
daub method

1.2 Gallery of Neolithic tools

 Man using a hand axe
  A Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle.  A chisel made of bone, Sechseläutenplatz,
Foundat Ehenside Tarn, now in the British Zürich
Museum  A sledge for moving heavy materials.
 A stone adze not from the neolithic period but  A stone drill
similar in concept. Attribution: Brooklyn  A bow drill (this example is from a much later
Museum period).
 A sickle for harvesting crops and thatching  An example of how fire was used as a tool to
materials. work wood, these Native Americans are making
 Various bone tools from China a dugout canoe. Note in the background a fire
 Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture arranged around the base of a tree to fell the tree

2 . Copper Age and Bronze Age construction

The Copper Age is the early part of the Bronze Age. Bronze is made when tin is added to copper and brass is
copper with zinc. Copper came into use before 5,000BC and bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times vary by region.
Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone such as axes and chisels, but the new, less brittle, more
durable material cut better. Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if damaged could be re-cast.
A new tool developed in the copper age is the saw. Other uses of copper and bronze were to “harden” the cutting
edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks
and making rock-cut architecture.

3. Construction in Iron Age

3.1 Construction in ancient Mesopotamia

3.2 Construction in ancient Egypt
Houses in Mesopotamia
Pyramid at Saqqara: Djoser’s step pyramid

Sphinx of Giza

3.4 Roman Construction

Arch of Septimius Severus

Roman Colosseum
3.5 Chinese Construction
The Yingzao Fashi is the oldest
complete technical man- ual on Chinese
architecture. The Chinese followed the
state rules for thousands of years so
many of the ancient, surviving buildings
were built with the methods and ma-
terials used in the 11th century.
Chinese temples are typically wooden
timber frames on an earth and stone
base. The oldest wooden building is the
Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating from
782 CE. However, Chinese temple
builders regularly rebuild the wooden
temples so some parts of these ancient
buildings are of different ages. Tra-
ditional Chinese timber frames do not
use trusses but rely only on post and
lintel construction.

MATERIALS OF ANCIENT ROME

The hand plane developed in the Iron Age and
was known to be used by the Romans. These
Roman planes were found in Ger- many and
date to the 1st to 3rd century AD

Reconstructed Roman treadwheel

crane at Bonn, Germany

36

4 . Medieval Construction

Bodiam Castle, England

Notre Dame, Paris

Milan Cathedral, Italy

37
 5 . Construction in the Renaissance The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore ,
designed by Filippo
4000 Brunelleschi.

3000

2000

1000

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

6. Construction in the seventeenth century

The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects on building
construction in the centuries to come. The major breakthroughs were towards the end of the century when architect-
engineers began to use experimental science to inform the form of their buildings. However it was not until the eighteenth
century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated. Seventeenth-century
structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models.

7 . Construction in the Eighteenth Century

The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late seventeenth century.
The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalized.

9. Construction in the Twentieth Century

With the Second Industrial
Revolution in the early
20th century, elevators
and cranes made high rise
buildings and skyscrapers
possible, while heavy
equipment and power tools
decreased the workforce
needed. Other new tech-
n o l o g i e s w e r e
prefabrication and
computer-aided design.
Woolworth Building under construction in 1912

10 .Construction History as an Academic Discipline

There is no established academic discipline of construc- tion history but a growing number of researchers and
academics are working in this field, including structural engineers, archaeologists, architects, historians of tech- nology
and architectural historians.

11. Early Writers on Construction History

The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius,
but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance, Vasari mentions Filippo
Brunelleschi's interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not
survive.

12. Nineteenth Century Studies on Construction History

In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustrated their lectures with images of building techniques used
in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction text books, such as Rondelet’s. The greatest
advances however were made by English and French (and later German) architects attempting to un- derstand, record and
analyse Gothic buildings.
13. The early Twentieth Century Studies of the Construction History
Santiago Heurta has suggested that it was modernism, with its emphasis on the employment of new materials,
that abruptly ended the interest in construction history that appeared to have been growing in the last few decades of the
nineteenth century and the early years of the twen- tieth. With the advent of concrete and steel frame con- struction,
architects, who had been the chief audience for such studies, were no longer as interested as they had been in
understanding traditional construction, which suddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thus published be- tween
1920 and 1950. The revival of interest started in archaeology with the studies of Roman construction in the 1950s, but it
was not until the 1980s that construction history began to emerge as an independent field.

2.0 Wood and Wood Products

WOOD MATERIALS
Wood has durability and beauty. It has great ability to absorb shocks from sudden load and light in weight which
adaptable in a countless variety of purposes.

Two major classification of wood:

 Soft wood- these are used gor general construction.
 Hardwood- these are used gor flooring, stairs, panelling, funitures and interior trim.

THE GROWTH OF WOOD

As the tree trunk and branches thicken, a series of concentric layers of wood cells are laid down around a central core
called the pith. These appear as growth rings. The pith is the remnant of the growing shoot that gives the tree its height

Properties of Wood

 Hardness- measured by the compression, which a piece undergoes when is applied.

 Flexibility- the amount a piece will bend before breaking.
 Strength- to the grain
 Durability- the relative value.
Types of Wrapping

 Cupping- is a distortion of the board in which the face is convex.

 Bowing- is a distortion of the board in which the face covex/ longitudinally.
 Twisting- is a distortion of the board in which one corner is raised.
3. STRUCTURAL LUMBER- IS INTENDED FOR
USE IN HEAVY CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-
BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO TIMBERS
OF LARGER SIZE.
SEASONINGS OF LUMBER:
 AIR DRING-
LUMBER IS  KILN DRYING- MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS
STRIP-PILED REQUIRED FOR MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD
AT ASLOPE WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE
ON A SOLID CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT.
FOUNDATIO
N.

WOOD MATERIALS

MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS :
 PLYWOOD- IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER
VENEER SHEETS GLUED TOGETHER WITH
THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE
TO EACH OTHER.

3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

1. SOFT PLYWOOD
2. HARDWOOD
3. EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD

+
 2. PARTICLE BOARD- IS
MANUFACTURED FROM WOOD CHIPS,
CURLS, FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS,
SHAVING, SILVER. BOUND TOGETHER
AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND
OTHER MOLDED SHAPED.

WOOD MATERIALS

Four categories of philippine timber:

High Strength Group Moderate HSG Medium SG Moderate Low SG

Agoho Antipolo Apitong Bayer
Malabayabas Binggas Bagtikan Linga-Linga
Manggacahpui Bokbok Dangkalan Raintree
Molave Dao Gisab Yemane
Narig Gatasan Lanutan- Bagyo
Sasalit Guijo Lauan
Yakal Kamagong Malasaging
Kamalog Malugai
Kato Nato
Lomaraw Palosapis
Mahogany Pine
Makaaslim Salakin
Malakauayan Malavidal Lanu An
Narra
Dahutan

3.0 Building Stones

3.1 Classification Of Building Stones

Building Stones is a sound rock that can be safely used in some situation in the construction as a massive dressed or
undressed unit.... Similarly, sandstones and limestones used in forts, retaining walls and boundary walls and also as blocks
in stone houses and bungalows are typical building stones.

Characteristics of Good Building Stones

There is no single stone which satisfies all the characteristics or qualities of good building stones. The qualities of the
stones which are used for different purpose varies based on the nature of work for which the stones are selected.

1. Appearance & Color

The stones which are to be used for face work must be decent in appearance. The stones used for architectural
purposes must be capable of preserving the 2 uniformity of colour for a longer time.

2. Durability
A good building stone must be durable. The durability of a stone depends upon the structural formation, chemical
composition and cementing material. A good building stone must be capable of resisting the adverse effects of
natural forces like wind rain and heat.
3. Hardness
The stones used in floors, pavements, aprons of bridges and weirs of rivers must be able to resist abrasive forces
caused by movement of men and materials over them. Such stones are to be tested for hardness.
A good building stone must be sufficiently hard. Most scale of hardness aids in finding the hardness of the stone.

4. Crushing Strength
Stones used in the structures are usually subjected to compressive load. Hence, a good building stone must be
strong in compression. A good building stone must possess high strength to resist the load coming over it.

5. Toughness
A good building stone must possess sufficient toughness to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The
vibrations in the structure may be due to the presence of machineries or due to the moving loads.

6. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of building stone depends on its weight and strength. The heavier and stronger the stone,
more is its specific gravity.

7. Dressing
Dressing is the process of giving definite shape to the stones. The process of dressing a good building stone must
be easy and also the cost of dressing must below. A good stone must possess uniform texture and softness so that
it can be easily dressed.

8. Seasoning
Good stones must be free from quarry sap. This process of removing quarry sap by the action of nature is termed
as seasoning. Seasoning of stones is essential before use.

9. Workability
Stones are said to be workable if the work involved in cutting, dressing and shaping of stones is economical and
easy to conduct. But, the property of workability is opposing to strength, durability and hardness.

10. Cost
A good building stone must be economical. The location of quarry site from the construction site influences the
cost of the stones. Hence, quarry site must be in a considerable distance from the construction site.

11. Fire Resistance

A good building stone must be fire resistant. For a stone to be fire resistant, it must be free from calcium
carbonate, oxides of iron and minerals having different coefficients of thermal expansion.

Igneous rocks possess less fire resistance than sedimentary rocks due to the presence of quartz. The sandstone
containing silicates as binding material has better fire resisting property. The argillaceous stones have lesser
strength, but they can resist fire quite well.

12. Structure
A good stone must be such that when broken in any direction other than that of cleavage, the appearance of the
stone must not be dull and must possess uniform texture.

13. Heaviness
Heavier stones are more compact, less porous and possess high specific gravity. A good building stone must be
heavy. This is because, the weight of stone indirectly represents the porosity of the stone.

14. Porosity
A good building stone must be less porous as lesser the porosity greater will be the compactness.

15. Water absorption

The water absorption of a good building stone must be less than 0.6% by weight.
Stone is classified geological as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

3 Kinds of Rocks
Igneous rock -is the product of heat and pressure, such as those caused by volcanic activity

Types of Igneous Rocks

Extrusive Intrusive Plutonic
Cooling time Seconds to months Thousands of years Millions of years
Sedi
Texture Invisible or microscopic Small to medium grains Large grains
men
grains
tary
rock -is made up of silt or skeletal remains of marine life deposited by ancient seas.

Metamorphic -formed by gradual change in the character and structure of igneous and sedimentary rocks i.e. granite,
sandstone, slate, marble, limestone.

Stone is not manufactured but quarried.

Stone or rock is a natural substance that is quarried and mined from the earth and used in a variety of applications in
construction, including:

* Masonry, including decorative elements such as pillars, swags and porticos.

* Floor and wall tiles and cladding.
* Paving.
* Roof coverings.
* Kitchen work surfaces and table tops.
* Bathroom countertops, shower trays and basins.
* Fire surrounds, staircase sand other decorative elements.
* Aggregate.
* Ballast.
* As a component of concrete, mortar, cement, asphalt and some bricks.

The major rock groups are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The unique characteristics of stone are due to the
complex geological processes that have impacted upon it, creating many different types of structure, texture and color.

Different types of stone end themselves to different uses depending on their characteristics. It is important to get the right
advice to ensure that the correct kind of stone is used.

Granite is suitable for use where strength and hardness are required.
OTHER USES OF STONE

STONE ARCH

ROOFING STONE

STONE PATH RETAINING

WALL
BUILDING STONES

FLOORING STONE
STONE FOUNDATION

STONE PIER STONE SCULPTURE

STONE FACE
STONE BALLAST

AGGREGATES
DECORATIVE STONE
4.0 METALS: 4.1 FERROUS - 4.2 NON-FERROUS

TYPES OF METALS

FERROUS METALS

A MALLEABLE OF IRON, AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND REFINING PIG

IRON AND OR/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON CONTENT. IT IS THE
MAIN ELEMENT IN STEEL.

PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW INGREDIENTS OF IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE
PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE
WASTE ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE FORMATION OF
CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH-GRADE BLAST FURNACE CHARGE
MATERIALS.

FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN MOLDS, A GREAT
VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE THEY INCLUDED.

* COLD-ROLLED SHEETS- ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS USED TO
MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW IN TENSILE STRENGTH
AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION.

* WROUGHT IRON- IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO REMOVE
NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND
DUCTILE.

* STAINLESS STEEL- ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL AND

CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS, EXPANSION
JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA, AND GRAVEL STOPS

* STAINLESS STEEL

* COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED FOR MAKING
SHEET AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS

• ROLLED STRUCTURAL PIPE-IS AVAILABLE IN A VARIETY OF SIZES AND GRADES SO THAT IT CAN BE
USED FOR A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL USES AND APPLICATIONS.

• SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL
SHAPE.

• SHEET PILING

• STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL

DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE
DIAMETER PIPE
 • REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR
AXLES OR RAILS.

REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS

SIZES START WITH N0.2 OR ¼ (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT
IN INCH DIAMETER.

NO.2= ¼” = 6MM

NO.3= 3/8” = 10MM

NO.4= ½” = 12MM

NO.5= 5/8” = 16MM

NO.6= ¾” = 20MM

NO.7= 7/8” = 22MM

NO.8= 1” = 25MM

NO.9= 1 1/8” = 30MM

• WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT CONSIST OF

PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WEDLDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR
INTERVALS.
• STEEL WIRE- OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES, NAILS, BOLTS
CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES
• BOLTS AND NUTS- FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE
WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS, POINTS AND IN MANY ROLLS THREAD.
• STEEL STRAPPING- MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER OF SIZES.
• OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS- LIGHT WEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE IN SEVERAL
DIFFERENT STYLES.
• SHEET STEEL- BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CA BE USED TO MANUFACTURE COORUGATED
ROOFING AND SIDINING.
• STEEL STUDS- LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND DOES NOT
WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED MUCH FASTER TO
INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION.
• PANS AND DONES- MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY
RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.
NON-FERROUS METAL- USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE:

• ALUMINUM- HIGH PURITY ALUMINUM IS SOFT AND DUCTILE, HIGHLY CORROSION

RESISTANT BUT LACKING STRENGTH.
• LEAD- EXTREMELY DENSE METAL, EASILY WORKED, AND CORROSIVE RESITANT.
 - IT IS A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL, WITH A DENSITY THAT EXCEEDS THAT OF MOST COMMON
MATERIALS. IT HAS A NUMBER OF PROPERTIES THAT HAVE MADE IT A USEFUL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
FOR HUNDREDS OF YEARS

 ZINC- ALTHOUGH CORROSION RESISTANT IN WATER AND AIR, IS BRITTLE AND LOW IN
STRENGTH.
 CHROMIUM AND NICKEL- ARE ALSO USED PRIMARILY AS ALLOYING ELEMENTS.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ARE THE
AMERICAN STANDARDFORMS SUCH AS;

1. SQUARE
2. ROUND BARS
3. PLATE BARS
4. ANGLE BARS
5. CHANNELS
6. I-BEAM
7. TEE BEAM
8. H-COLUMN
9. WIDE FLANGES
10. ZEE
STANDARD CHANNEL - THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL
BALANCE CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE.THE CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIED AS C
15 X 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS DEPTH OF 20CM AND WEIGHTS 15 KG PER METER
LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE - WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 X 24 WHICH MEANS THAT
THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 CM AND IT WEIGHTS 12 KG PER METER LENGTH.

H-BEARING PILES - H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP
EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.

STRUCTURAL WELDING/ JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

WELDING- IS A FABRICATION PROCESS WHEREBY TWO OR MORE PARTS ARE FUSED

TOGETHER BY MEANS OF HEAT, PRESSURE OR BOTH FORMING A JOIN AS THE PARTS COOL.

FILLET WELD JOINTS- JOIN TWO SURFACES APPROXIMATELY AT RIGHT ANGLES TO EACH
OTHER IN LAP, TEE, AND CORNER JOINTS

FILLET WELD NOMENCLATURE - THE LENGTH OF A FILLET WELD IS THE DISTANCE

FROM END-TO-END OF THE FULL-SIZE FILLET.
 DOUBLE FILLET WELD -IS REPRESENTED BY ONE OR TWO RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
WITH THE HYPOTHENUSE FACING TO THE RIGHT. IN A DOUBLE FILLET WELD, A FILLET WELD
IS DRAWN FROM BOTH SIDES OF A WORK PIECE.

DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD -A TYPE OF GROOVE WELD IN WHICH ONE

MEMBER HAS A JOINT EDGE BEVELED ON BOTH SIDES. ALSO KNOWN AS DOUBLE-V GROOVE
WELD.

SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACK-UP BAR

V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACK-UP BAR

PUDDLE WELD

PARTIAL PENETRATION

SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

BOLTS- COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO TWO

GENERAL CATEGORIES:

1. CARBON STEEL BOLTS- OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE

ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN HARDWARE
STORES.
2. HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS- ARE HEAT TRAETED DURING MANUFACTIRE
TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH.

SEVERAL WAYS TO ACHIVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

1. TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
2. LOAD INDICATOR WASHER
3. TENSION CONTROL BOLTS
RIVETS- A HEADED PIN OR BOLT OF METAL USED FOR UNITING TWO OR MORE PIECES BY
PASSING THE SHANK THROUGH A HOLE IN EACH PIECE AND THEN BEATING OR PRESSING
DOWN THE PLAIN END SO AS TO MAKE A SECOND HEAD.

5.0 GLASS AND GLAZING

GLASS - THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD BRITTLE
INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY MELTING
OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILKE MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED,
PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.

DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED, COOLED SLOWLY

UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE
IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.

THICKNESS OF GLASS

GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESS RANGING FROM

APPROXIMATELY 2.5MM, THROUGH 3MM, IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6MM TO 22MM, IS
CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER, 25MM IS AVAILABLE

TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS

1. TEMPERED GLASS-
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO THE REQUIRED SIZES
FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS
SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY.

2. HEAT-STRENGTH GLASS
THE HEAT-STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING, BUT ITS ABOUT ONE-
THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF BENDING AND STRENGTH.

3. LAMINATED GLASS
IT IS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAYER BETWEEN SHEETS OF
GALSS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER HEAT AND PRESSURE WHEN ITS
BREAKS. THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING
THEM TO FALL OUT OF THE FRAME.

4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE
PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE
OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY

5. SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL AREA IN
GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST THE
THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT BEHIND THE
SPANDREL.

6. WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GALSS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE PROCESS
OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO SHATERRING
THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OF
THE YEAR.

TINTED AND REFLECTED COATED GLASS

1. TINTED GLASS
 TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED HUE AND
INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN, AND GOLDS.

2. REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A BRIGHT
DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS DARK BUT
TRANSPARENT.

3. INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE BETWEEN THE
SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED
GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND ORGANIC SEALANT.

GLASS PRODUCTS

1. GLASS BLOCKS- COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE
ADDED FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE
HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER FROM TO FORM A HALLOW UNIT WITH
REASONABLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION.

TWO TYPES OF GLASS BLOCKS

1.) FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS- DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES THROUGH
THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION ON THE BUILDING INTERIOR.
THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL GLASS BLOCKS:

LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK- DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD THE

A.)
CEILING.

A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK- DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY THROUGHOUT

B.)
THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.

`C.) DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS- AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF

STYLES AND PATTERNS.

6.0 CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS

- CONCRETE AND MASONRY

CONCRETE- IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND GRAVEL
AND WATER.

MORTAR- IS AN CEMENT, SAND AND WATER

SPECIAL CEMENT

* WHITE PORTLAND- SAME AS NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT EXCEPT IN COLOR.

* MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES.

 * WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT

TYPES OF AGGREGATES

SAND

* FINE AGGREGATES * COARSE AGGREGATE

• DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.

• 0.68 LB OF WATER
• LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE
• MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH

SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR:

- 40 KG CEMENT- 300MM X 300MM X 300MM
- 50 KG CEMENT- 320MM X 320MM X 330MM

CONCRETE MIXTURES

CLASS MIXTURES: 40 KG 50 KG SAND GRAVEL

“AA”------1:1 ½“:3 12.0 9.5 0.50 CU.M 1.0 CU.M

“A”---------1:2:4 9.0 7.0 0.50 CU.M 1.0 CU.M

“B”---------1:2 ½:6 7.5 6.0 0.50 CU.M 1.0 CU.M

“C”---------1:3:6 6.0 5.0 0.50 CU.M 1.0 CU.M

MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40 KG 50 KG SAND

“A” --------1:2 18 14.5 1.0 CU.M

“B” --------1:3 12 9.5 1.0 CU.M

“C” --------1:4 9 7.0 1.0 CU.M

“D” --------1:5 7.5 6.0 1.0 CU.M

• ADMIXTURE-

-ADMIXTURE ARE VARIOUS COMPOUNDS, OTHER THAN CEMENT, WATER AND AGGREGATES,
 ADDED TO A MIXTURE TO MODIGY THE FRESH OR HARDENED PROPERTIES ODF CONCRETE.
-ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING

DIFFERENT CONCRETE ADMIXTURES

*CHEMICAL ADMIXTURE *PORTLAND CEMENT *FLY ASH

*SLAG CEMENT *WATER * SAND * STONE

APPROXIMATELY TIME LIMIT BEFORE THE REMOVAL OF FORMS AND SUPPORT

ARCH CENTER 14-21 DAYS

CENTERING UNDER BEAMS 14 DAYS

FLOOR SLABS 3-10 DAYS

WALLS 7-14 DAYS

COLUMN, SIDES OF BEAMS AND GIIRDER 3-10 DAYS

TYPES OF CONCRETE ADMIXTURES

*AIR ENTRAINERS- THE PRIMARY USE OF AIR-ENTRAINING CONCRETE IS FOR FREEZE-

THAW RESISTANCE

*WATER REDUCERS- WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES ESSENTIALLY NEUTRALIZE SURFACE CHARGES ON

SOLID PARTICLES AND CAUSE ALL SURFACES TO CARRY LIKE CHARGES. SINCE PARTICLES WITH LIKE CHARGES
REPEL EACH OTHER, THEY REDUCE FLOCCULATION OF THE CEMENT PARTICLES AND ALLOW FOR BETTER
DISPERSION

*SET RETARDERS - FOR CONCRETE ARE USED TO DELAY THE INITIAL SETTING TIME OF THE CONCRETE UP TO
AN HOUR.

*SET ACCELERATORS- A CEMENT ACCELERATOR IS AN ADMIXTURE FOR THE USE IN CONCRETE,

MORTAR, RENDERING OR SCREEDS.

*SUPERPLASTICIZERS- (SPS), ALSO KNOWN AS HIGH RANGE WATER REDUCERS, ARE ADDITIVES USED IN
MAKING HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE.

*SPECIALTY ADMIXTURES: WHICH INCLUDE CORROSION INHIBITORS, SHRINKAGE CONTROL, ALKALI-SILICA

REACTIVITY INHIBITORS, AND COLORING.

RELEASED AGENT

- ANY VARIOUS MATERIALS, AS OIL OR SILICONE FOR PREVENTING THE BONDING OF

CONCRETE TO A SURFACE, ALSO CALLED PARTING COMPOUND

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE (FOR CONTROLLED MIXES):

• CONSISTENCY • WORKABILITY

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

 *SLUMP TEST - A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY MIXED
CONCRETE.

*COMPRESSIVE TEST- A TEST FOR DETERMINING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF A

CONCRETE BATCH.

CAST-IN-CONCRETE- CONCRETE DEPOSITED, FORMED, CURED AND FINISHED IN ITS

FINAL POSITION AS PART OF THE STRUCTURE.

PRECAST CONCRETE - IS A CONSTRUCTION PRODUCT PRODUCED BY CASTING CONCRETE IN A

REUSABLE MOLD OR "FORM" WHICH IS THEN CURED IN A CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT, TRANSPORTED TO THE
CONSTRUCTION SITE AND LIFTED INTO PLACE ("TILT UP"). IN CONTRAST, CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE IS POURED INTO
SITE-SPECIFIC FORMS AND CURED ON SITE. PRECAST STONE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM PRECAST CONCRETE USING A
FINE AGGREGATE IN THE MIXTURE, SO THE FINAL PRODUCT APPROACHES THE APPEARANCE OF NATURALLY OCCURRING
ROCK OR STONE.

PLACEMENT - THE PROCESS OF DEPOSITING AND CONSOLIDATING FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE

IN A FORM OR IN THE FINAL POSITION WHERE TO IS TO BE HARDEN.

DIRECT PLACEMENT - DISCHARGING OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE

SEGREGATION OF CONCRETE

*FREE FALL *DROP CHUTE *CHUTE *CONSOLIDATION

FINISHING (TOOLS)

*SCREED *TROWEL *DARBY *PAVEMENT SAW

FORMWORK – THE TEMPORARY STRUCTURE REQUIRED TO SUPPORT NEWLY PLACED CONCRETE,

INCLUDING THE FORMS AND ALL NECESSARY SUPPORTING MEMBERS, BRACING AND HARDWARE.

FORM- BOARDING OR SHEETING OF WOOD, METAL, PLASTIC OR FIBERGLASSFOR CONTAINING

AND GIVING A DESIRED SHAPE.

FORM TIE- A FORM TIE HAVING NOTCHES OR CRIMPS WHICH ALLOW ITS ENDS TO BE SNAPPED
OFF BELOW THE CONCRETE SURFACE AFTER STRIPPING OF THE FORMS.

*AGITATOR TRUCK *CONCRETE MIXER *BUGGY

*PNEUMATIC PLACEMENT *GUNITE *PAVEMENT SAW

MASONRY

REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND HARDENED INTO MODULAR
BUILDING UNITS.

MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40 KG 50 KG SAND

“A” --------1:2 18 14.5 1.0 CU.M

 “B” --------1:3 12 9.5 1.0 CU.M

“C” --------1:4 9 7.0 1.0 CU.M

“D” --------1:5 7.5 6.0 1.0 CU.M

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY

COURSE

BED JOINT

HEAD JOINT

STRETCHER
HEADER WYTHE

SOLDIER ROWLOCK
RUNNING BOND

COMMON BOND ENGLISH

BOND FLEMISH BOND

BRICK BOUNDS

• * THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME DISTINCTIVE

PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFFERED TO AS THE PATTERN BOND.
• * THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE ARE TIED
TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL
BOND.
* THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT USED IN
CONSTRUCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS (CHB) HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH
ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

SAMPLE COMPUTATION FOR CONCRETE MORTAR

MIXTURE

SOLUTION:

1.) FIND THE

AREA:

A= 35 X 7.0

A= 275 SQ.M

REINFORCED CONCRETE

- CONSISTS OF CONCRETE AND REONFORCING FOR CEMENT MORTAR:

STEEL, THE CONCRETE RESISTS THE
a.) REFERRING TO TABLE USING Class “B”
COMPRESSIVE STRESSES AND THE REINFORCING
STEEL RESISTS THE TENSILE STRESSES. MIXTURE 40 kg CEMENT

4 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT BARS USED IN FOR CEMENT: 275 x 1.013= 278.56 say 279
CONSTRUCTION.

1. HOT ROLLED
2. DEFORMED BARS
3. STEEL BARS
4. COLD WORKED STEEL BARS

CONCRETE IN WHICH STEEL REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER

THAT THE 2 MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES.

REINFORCEMENT
 REINFORCING BAR

DEFORMED BAR

TENSION REINFORCEMENT
- REINFORMENT DESIGNED TO ABSORD
TENSILE STRESSES.

COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT
-DESIGNED TO ABSORB COMPRESSIVE STRESSES

EFFECTIVE DEPTH- “H”

BAR SPACING

COVER

FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE

- CONCRETE REINFORCED WITH DISPERSED RANDOMLY ORIENTED OF GLASS OR PLASTIC.

WELDED-WIRE FABRIC
WOVEN-WIRE FABRIC

VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT LAP SPLICE

BUTT SPLICE- A JOINT MADE WITHIN THE LENGTH OF A STANCHION, A BEAM OR ANY OTHER
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

WELDED SPLICE- A BUTT SPLICE MADE BY THE BUTTED ENDS TO

REINFORCING BARS

COMPRESSIVE SPLICE

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM –

A CONCRETE BEAM DESIGNED TO ACT TOGETHER WITH AND WEB REINFORCEMENT.

 DEEP BEAM- DEPTH SPAN RATIO GREATER THAN 2.5 FOR CONTINOUS SPAN
 T-BEAM- A MONOLITH RC CONSTRUCTION IN WHICH PORTION OF THE SLAB ON EACH
SIDE OF A BEAM ACTS A FLANGE IN RESISTING COMPRESSIVE STRESSES
REINFORCED COLUMN

 COMPOUND COLUMN- A STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN ENCASED IN CONCRETE AT LEAST 2

½” THK REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESH
 COMPOSITE COLUMN- A STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN THOROUGHLY ENCASED IN
CONCRETE REINFORCED WITH BOTH VERTICAL AND SPIRAL REINFORCEMENT.
 SPIRAL COLUMN- A CONCRETE COLUMN WITH SPIRAL REINFORECEMENT ENCLOSING A
CIRCULAR CORE WITH VERTICAL BARS.
 TIED COLUMN- A CONCRETE COLUMN REINFORCED WITH VERTICAL BARS AND
INDIVIDUAL LATERAL TIES.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB

• ONE- WAY SLAB- A CONCRETE SLAB UNIFORM THICKNESS REINFORCED IN ONE

DIRECTION AND CAST INTEGRALLY WITH PARALLEL SUPPORTING BEAMS.
• TWO- WAY SLAB- A CONCRETE SLAB UNIFORM THICKNESS REINFORCED IN TWO
DIRECTION AND CAST INTEGRALLY WITH EDGE SUPPORTING BEAMS OR BEARING WALLS ON
FOUR SIDES.
 • PRINCIPAL REINFORCEMENT- DESIGNED TO ABSORB STRESSES FROM APPLIED LOADS
AND BENDING MOMENTS
• SHRINKAGE REINFORCEMENT- PLACE PERPENDICULAR TO THE PRINCIPAL
REINFORCEMENT IN A ONE-WAY SLAB TO ABSORB STRESSES
• RIBBED SLAB- A CONCRETE SLAB CAST INTEGRALLY WITH A SERIES OF CLOSELY SPACED
JOISTS WHICH IN TURN ARE SUPPORTED BY A PARALLEL STE OF BEAMS.
• CONTINUOUS SLAB- A CONCRETE SLAB EXTENDING AS A STRUCTURAL UNIT OVER THREE
OR MORE SUPPORTS IN A GIVEN DIRECTION.
• FLAT SLAB- A FLAT THICKENED AT ITS COLUMN SUPPORTSWITH COLUMN CAPITALS AND
DROP PANELS TO INCREASE ITS SHEAR STRENGTH AND MOMENT-RESISTING CAPACITY.

• WAFFLE SLAB- A TWO-WAY CONCRETE SLAB REINFORCED BY RIBS IN TWO DIRECTIONS..

WAFFLE SLABS ARE ABLE TO CARRY HEAVIER LOADS AND SPAN LONGER DISTANCES THAN
FLAT SLABS.
REINFORCED CONCRETE

 PUNCHING SHEAR- THE POTENTIAL HIGH-SHEARING STRESS DEVELOP BY THE REACTIVE

FORCE OF A COLUMN ON A REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
 PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE- A CONCRETE MEMBER OR PRODUCT THAT IS CURED AND
CAST IN A PLACE OTHER THAN WHERE IS TO BE INSTALLED IN A STRUCTURE.
 HALLOW-CORE SLAB- A PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PLANK INTERNALLY CORED
TO REDUCE DEAD WEIGHT.
 SINGLE TEE- A PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLAB HAVING A BROAD T-SHAPED
CROSS SECTION.
 DOUBLE TEE- A PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLAB HAVING TWO STEMS AND BROAD
T-SHAPED CROSS SECTION RESEMBLING THE CAPITAL LETTERS “T T”.

POST TENSION

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1
7.0 AGGREGATES

AGGREGATE - MATERIAL FORMED BY THE COLLECTION OF UNITS OR PARTICLES INTO A

BODY, MASS, OR AMOUNT; COMPOSED OF MINERAL CRYSTALS OF ONE OR MORE KINDS OR
MINERAL ROCK FRAGMENTS

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AGGREGATE

 CRUSHED CONCRETE - MOSTLY RECYCLED MATERIAL GATHERED FROM DEMOLISHED SITES OR EXCESS FROM
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS; USED FOR TRENCH FILLS, BACKFILLS, OVERSITE FILLS, AND AS GRANULAR SUB-BASE
FOR DEEPER AREAS OVER 150MM.
O A. TYPE 1 CRUSHED CONCRETE - 50MM DOWN TO DUST. BEST USED AS A SUB-BASE
FOR ROADS, UNDERNEATH BLOCKS, AS WELL AS LAYERING IN BETWEEN CONCRETE
OR TARMAC AND AS A HARD CORE FOR PROJECTS SUCH AS CAR PARKS.
O B. 6F2
 O C. TYPE 3 CRUSHED CONCRETE - 0MM-63MM REDUCED FINES
O D. OVERSIZED CLEAN CRUSHED CONCRETE - 75MM-100MM (NO FINES)
O E. TARMAC PLAININGS (SCREENED AND UNSCREENED TYPES)
O F. GABION FILL GRANITE - 75MM- 200MM

SAND - COMPOSED OF SILICON DIOXIDE IN THE FORM OF QUARTZ; USED FOR BRICK
MANUFACTURING, LANDSCAPING, CONCRETE COMPONENT, WATER FILTRATION,
AGRICULTURE.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAND:

A.) SHARP SAND - 0MM-4MM USED MAINLY FOR BLOCK PAVING AND SLAB LAYING

B.) BUILDING SAND - LAYING BRICK AND BLOCK WORK, AND PAVING SLABS

C.) WASHED RECYCLED SHARP SAND - USED FOR BLOCK PAVING, SLAB LAYING, AND
THE LIKE

D. 0MM-4MM REJECTED SAND - FOR PIPE BLENDING

E.)
CONCRETE SAND - A KEY INGREDIENT IN CEMENT, BUT CAN ALSO BE USED AS PIPE
SAND, A BASE LAYER, AND A LEVELING MEDIUM

F.) SOFT WASHED SAND - RENDERING BRICK AND BLOCK WORK

G.) PLAY SAND - USUALLY FOR CHILDREN'S SANDBOXES

GRAVEL - A TOUGH WEARING MATERIAL; LOOSE AGGREGATION OF SMALL WATER-WORN OR

POUNDED STONES; A GROUP OF UNCONSOLIDATED ROCK FRAGMENTS, FORMED NATURALLY IN
RIVERBEDS, STREAMS, AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL FORMATIONS, OR BY CRUSHING A GROUP OF
LARGE ROCKS TOGETHER TO GET IRREGULAR-SHAPED FRAGMENTS WHICH ARE USED AS
CONSTRUCTION- GRADE GRAVEL; USED FOR GARDEN PATHS, BORDERS, DRIVEWAYS, DRAINAGE,
PEBBLE DASHING.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAND:

A. 6MM & 10MM GOLD AND 10MM WHITE – GREAT FOR GARDEN DECORATION AND
FOOTPATHS.
B. 20MM GOLD, 20MM & 40MM WHITE, 20MM RECYCLED - ALSO FOR GARDEN DECORATION
AND FOOTPATHS BUT WILL WORK FOR DRIVEWAYS AND DRAINAGE AS WELL.

C.10MM RECYCLED - USED FOR GARDEN DECORATION, FOORPATHS AND ISEAL FOR PIPE
BEDDING

TYPE 1 MOT (MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT) –

AN APPROVED GRANULAR SUB-BASE MATERIAL; A SUM OF ROCKS SUCH AS GRANITE OR

GRITSTONE, AS WELL AS OTHER HARD, INERT MATERIALS; USED FOR TRENCH FILLS,
BACKFILLS, OVERSITE FILLS, OR AS A SUB-BASE FOR

PATHWAYS, DRIVEWAYS, PATIOS, ETC.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TYPE 1 MOT:

A. LIMESTONE - 30MM DOWN TO DUST

B. TYPE 1 CRUSHED CONCRETE
C. TYPE 1 CRUSHED HARDCORE - 30MM DOWN TO DUST

D. TYPE 3 GRANITE 0MM-63MM- (REDUCED FINES PERMEABLE)

E. TYPE 1 GRANITE

F. 0MM-2MM GRANITE DUST

G. 0MM-5MM GRANITE DUST
H. 2MM-6MM GRANITE
I. 4MM-10MM GRANITE
J. 4MM-20MM GRANITE
K. 10MM-20MM GRANITE
L. 6MM-14MM GRANITE
M. 20MM-32MM GRANITE
N. N. 10MM-63MM GRANITE
O. O. 0MM-4MM LIMESTONE/GRIT
P. SAND
Q. TYPE 1 GRANITE 0MM-40MM-
R. (REDUCED FINES PERMEABLE)
S. Q. GABION FILL GRANITE - 75MM-200MM

BALLAST - COARSEST FORM OF AGGREGATE; TYPICALLY MADE OF CRUSHED STONE, ALTHOUGH BALLAST
HAS OFTEN CONSISTED OF LESS SUITABLE MATERIALS SUCH AS BURNT CLAY; USED FOR CONCRETE MIXES,
FILLING GAPS IN HARD CORE, AS A CONCRETE COMPONENT, PATHWAYS, OR MAJOR FOOTINGS.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BALLAST:

A. 0MM-10MM BALLAST & 0MM-20MM BALLAST - CONCRETING FOUNDATIONS AND AS A SUB- BASE.

B. 20MM SCREENED BALLAST& RECYCLED 20MM SCREENED BALLAST - DRIVEWAYS, FOOTPATHS, OVERSITE
FILLS, AND SUB-BASES.

C. AS RAISED BALLAST - BLINDING HARDCORE, BACKFILL, AND DRIVEWAYS.

QUALITIES OF AGGREGATES

THE MOST VITAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE ARE GIVEN BELOW:

1. IT SHOULD BE CHEMICALLY INERT THAT MEANS THEY SHOULD NOT RESPOND TO CEMENT OR ANY OTHER
AGGREGATE OR ADMIXTURE.
2. IT SHOULD CONTAIN ADEQUATE RIGIDITY TO GET RID OF SCRATCHING AND EROSION IN THE HARDENED
STATE.
 3. IT SHOULD CONTAIN ENOUGH TOUGHNESS TO TOLERATE IMPACT AND VIBRATORY LOADS.
4. IT SHOULD BE SUFFICIENTLY STRONG TO WITHSTAND COMPRESSIVE AND NORMAL TENSILE LOADS IN
ORDINARY MIXTURE.
5. THERE SHOULD BE NO IMPURITIES, INORGANIC OR ORGANIC IN NATURE, WHICH MAY PROVIDE SIGNIFICANT
IMPACT ON ITS QUALITY.
6. IT SHOULD HAVE THE CAPABILITY OF DEVELOPING AN EASILY EXECUTABLE PLASTIC MIXTURE ON
AMALGATING WITH CEMENT AND WATER.

CATEGORIZATION OF AGGREGATE
BASED ON THE GRAIN SIZE, ORIGIN AND VOLUME-WEIGHT, THE AGGREGATES ARE CATEGORIZED AS FOLLOWS:
TYPES OF AGGREGATES ON THE BASIS OF GRAIN SIZE
IT IS MOSTLY RECOGNIZED CLASSIFICATION METHOD, WHERE THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF AGGREGATES LIKE FINE AND
COARSE.

(I) IN THE FINE AGGREGATES, THE GRAIN-SIZE REMAINS AMONG 4.75 MM AND 0.15 MM. CONVERSELY, THESE
GO THROUGH FROM SIEVE HAVING MESH SIZE OF 4.75 MM AND ARE KEPT ON A SIEVE OF 0.15 MESH SIZE.
SAND IS CONSIDERED AS GLOBALLY RECOGNIZED NATURAL FINE AGGREGATE.

(II) COARSE AGGREGATES: THESE TYPES OF AGGREGATES ARE KEPT ON THE SIEVE OF MESH SIZE 4.75 MM.
THEIR UPPER SIZE IS NORMALLY AROUND 7.5 MM. GRAVELS OBTAINED FROM RIVERBED ARE TREATED AS THE
BEST COARSE AGGREGATES IN THE FORMATION OF COMMON CONCRETE.
UNDER THESE SITUATIONS, IF THEY ARE NOT ACCESSIBLE EASILY, APPROPRIATE ROCK TYPES ARE CRUSHED TO
THE PREFERRED PARTICLE SIZES FOR FORMING COARSE AGGREGATES.

TYPES ON THE BASIS OF DENSITY

BASED ON THE WEIGHT PER UNIT VOLUME, THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF AGGREGATES.
(I) STANDARD OR NORMAL: THESE TYPES OF AGGREGATES PROVIDE STRENGTH AND WEIGHTING TO THE
CONCRETE OF AROUND 2300 TO 2500 KG/M3.
GRAVELS, SAND AND CRUSHED STONE ARE CONSIDERED AS STANDARD OR NORMAL AGGREGATES.

8.0 ADHESIVES AND SEALANT

SEALANTS- ARE DESIGNED TO SEAL THE JOINTS BETWEEN ADJACENT BUILDING

COMPONENTS WHILE REMAINING SUFFICIENTLY FLEXIBLE TO ACCOMMODATE ANY
RELATIVE MOVEMENT. THEY MAY BE REQUIRED TO EXCLUDE WIND, RAIN AND

AIRBORNE SOUND. A WIDE RANGE OF PRODUCTS IS AVAILABLE MATCHING THE

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEALANT TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE JOINT.
INCORRECT SPECIFICATION OR APPLICATION, POOR JOINT DESIGN OR PREPARATION, ARE
LIKELY TO LEAD TO PREMATURE FAILURE OF THE SEALANT.

KEY FACTORS IN SPECIFYING THE APPROPRIATE SEALANT ARE:

• UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSE AND NATURE OF THE RELATIVE MOVEMENT.

• MATCHING THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF MOVEMENT TO AN APPROPRIATE SEALANT.

 • APPROPRIATE JOINT DESIGN, SURFACE PREPARATION AND SEALANT APPLICATION.

• THE SERVICE LIFE OF THE SEALANT.

RELATIVE MOVEMENT WITHIN BUILDINGS

THE MOST COMMON CAUSES OF MOVEMENT IN BUILDINGS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH SETTLEMENT, DEAD AND
LIVE LOAD INCLUDING WIND LOADING, FLUCTUATIONS IN TEMPERATURE, CHANGES IN MOISTURE CONTENT
AND, IN SOME CASES, THE DETERIORATIVE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL OR ELECTROLYTIC ACTION. DEPENDING
UPON THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS, THE VARIOUS EFFECTS MAY BE ADDITIVE OR COMPENSATORY.

SETTLEMENT

SETTLEMENT IS PRIMARILY ASSOCIATED WITH CHANGES IN LOADINGS ON THE

FOUNDATIONS DURING THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS ALTHOUGH IT MAY CONTINUE FOR
SOME TIME, FREQUENTLY UP TO FIVE YEARS, AFTER THE CONSTRUCTION IS COMPLETE.
SUBSEQUENT MODIFICATIONS TO A BUILDING OR ITS CONTENTS MAY CAUSE FURTHER
RELATIVE MOVEMENT.

THERMAL MOVEMENT

ALL BUILDING MATERIALS EXPAND AND CONTRACT TO SOME DEGREE WITH CHANGES IN
TEMPERATURE. FOR TIMBER THE MOVEMENT IS LOW, BUT FOR GLASS, STEEL, BRICK,
STONE AND CONCRETE IT IS MODERATE, AND RELATIVELY HIGH FOR PLASTICS

AND ALUMINIUM. THE EFFECTS OF COLOUR, INSULATION AND THE THICKNESS OF THE
MATERIAL ACCENTUATE THERMAL MOVEMENTS. DARK MATERIALS ABSORB SOLAR
RADIATION AND HEAT MORE QUICKLY THAN LIGHT REFLECTIVE MATERIALS.

MOISTURE
MOVEMENT
 MOISTURE MOVEMENT FALLS INTO TWO CATEGORIES: IRREVERSIBLE MOVEMENTS AS NEW MATERIALS
ACCLIMATIZE TO THE ENVIRONMENT.

REVERSIBLE CYCLICAL MOVEMENTS DUE TO CLIMATIC VARIATIONS.

MANY BUILDING MATERIALS, ESPECIALLY CONCRETE AND MORTARS, EXHIBIT AN INITIAL CONTRACTION
DURING THE DRYING-OUT PROCESS. INCORRECTLY SEASONED TIMBER WILL ALSO SHRINK BUT NEW BRICKS
USED TOO QUICKLY AFTER MANUFACTURE WILL EXPAND. AFTER THESE INITIAL EFFECTS, ALL MATERIALS
WHICH ABSORB MOISTURE WILL EXPAND AND CONTRACT TO VARYING DEGREES IN RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN
THEIR MOISTURE CONTENT.

LOADING AND DETERIORATION

MOVEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH LIVE LOADS SUCH AS MACHINERY, TRAFFIC AND WIND CAN CAUSE RAPID
CYCLICAL MOVEMENTS WITHIN BUILDING COMPONENTS. THE DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS, SUCH AS THE
CORROSION OF STEEL OR SULFATE ATTACK ON CONCRETE, IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH IRREVERSIBLE
EXPANSION, CAUSING MOVEMENT OF ADJACENT COMPONENTS.

TYPES OF SEALANTS

1. PLASTIC SEALANTS

PLASTIC SEALANTS, WHICH INCLUDE GENERAL-PURPOSE MASTICS, ALLOW ONLY A LIMITED AMOUNT OF
MOVEMENT, BUT WHEN HELD IN A DEFORMED STATE THEY STRESS-RELAX. ELASTIC RECOVERY IS LIMITED TO A
MAXIMUM OF 40%. PLASTIC SEALANTS DRY BY THE FORMATION OF A SURFACE SKIN, LEAVING LIQUID
MATERIAL ENCASED TO RETAIN FLEXIBILITY.

* OIL-BASED MASTICS

FOR OIL-BASED MASTICS A 10 MM DEPTH IS REQUIRED FOR OPTIMUM DURABILITY WITH A TYPICAL
LIFE EXPECTANCY OF 2TO 10 YEARS. THE EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET DEGRADATION ARE REDUCED BY PAINTING.
TYPICAL USES INCLUDE SEALING AROUND WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES IN TRADITIONAL LOW-RISE BUILDING.
(THE TYPICAL MOVEMENT ACCOMMODATION FOR OIL-BASED MASTICS IS 10%.)

* BUTYL SEALANTS

BUTYL SEALANTS ARE PLASTIC BUT WITH A SLIGHTLY RUBBERY TEXTURE. THEY ARE USED IN SMALL
JOINTS AS A GAP FILLER

* ACRYLIC SEALANTS

WATER-BASED ACRYLIC SEALANTS ARE FREQUENTLY USED FOR INTERNAL SEALING SUCH AS BETWEEN
PLASTER AND NEW WINDOWS. THE SOLVENT-BASED ACRYLIC SEALANTS ARE DURABLE FOR UP TO 20 YEARS,
WITH GOOD ADHESION TO SLIGHTLY CONTAMINATED SURFACES.

* POLYMER/BITUMEN SEALANTS
 SOLVENT-BASED BITUMEN SEALANTS ARE GENERALLY SUITABLE FOR LOW-MOVEMENT JOINTS IN
GUTTERS AND FLASHINGS. HOT-POURED BITUMEN IS USED FOR SEALING MOVEMENT JOINTS IN ASPHALT AND
CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS.

* LINSEED OIL PUTTY

TRADITIONAL PUTTY CONTAINS A MIXTURE OF LINSEED OIL AND INORGANIC FILLERS (BS 544: 1969),
WHICH SETS BY A COMBINATION OF AERIAL OXIDATION OF THE OIL AND SOME ABSORPTION INTO THE TIMBER.
A SKIN IS PRODUCED INITIALLY, BUT THE MASS ULTIMATELY SETS TO A SEMI-RIGID MATERIAL.

2. ELASTOPLASTIC SEALANTS

ELASTOPLASTIC SEALANTS WILL ACCOMMODATE BOTH SLOW CYCLICAL MOVEMENTS AND

PERMANENT DEFORMATIONS. A RANGE OF PRODUCTS OFFER APPROPRIATELY BALANCED
STRENGTH, PLASTIC FLOW AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES FOR VARIOUS

APPLICATIONS.

* POLYSULFIDE SEALANTS

POLYSULFIDE SEALANTS ARE AVAILABLE AS ONE-OR TWO COMPONENT SYSTEMS. THE ONE-COMPONENT
SYSTEMS HAVE THE ADVANTAGE THAT THEY ARE READY FOR IMMEDIATE USE. THEY CURE RELATIVELY SLOWLY
BY ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE FROM THE ATMOSPHERE, INITIALLY FORMING A SKIN AND FULL CURING WITHIN
2–5 WEEKS.

3. ELASTIC SEALANTS

ELASTIC SEALANTS ARE APPROPRIATE FOR SEALING DYNAMIC JOINTS WHERE RAPID CYCLIC MOVEMENT OCCURS.
THEY ARE OFTEN SUB-CLASSIFIED AS LOW- OR HIGH-MODULUS DEPENDING UPON THEIR STIFFNESS. LOW
MODULUS SEALANTS SHOULD BE USED WHERE JOINTS ARE EXPOSED TO LONG PERIODS OF COMPRESSION OR
EXTENSION AND WHERE THE SUBSTRATE MATERIAL IS WEAK.

* POLYURETHANE SEALANTS

POLYURETHANE SEALANTS ARE AVAILABLE AS ONE- OR TWO COMPONENT SYSTEMS. THE PRODUCTS
ARE HIGHLY ELASTIC
BUT SURFACES SHOULD BE CAREFULLY PREPARED AND USUALLY PRIMED TO ENSURE GOOD ADHESION.
DURABILITY IS GOOD, RANGING FROM 20 TO 25 YEARS. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ARE JOINTS WITHIN
GLAZING, CURTAIN WALLING AND LIGHTWEIGHT CLADDING PANELS. (THE TYPICAL MOVEMENT
ACCOMMODATION FOR
POLYURETHANE SEALANTS IS BETWEEN 10% AND 30% DEPENDING ON THE MODULUS.)

* SILICONE SEALANTS

SILICONE SEALANTS ARE USUALLY ONE-COMPONENT SYSTEMS WHICH CURE RELATIVELY QUICKLY IN
AIR, FREQUENTLY WITH THE EVOLUTION OF CHARACTERISTIC SMELLS SUCH AS ACETIC ACID.
 GENERALLY, SILICONE SEALANTS ADHERE WELL TO METALS AND GLASS, BUT PRIMERS MAY BE
NECESSARY ON FRIABLE OR POROUS SURFACES SUCH AS CONCRETE OR STONE. HIGH-MODULUS
SILICONE SEALANTS ARE RESILIENT. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS INCLUDE GLAZING AND CURTAIN-WALL
SYSTEMS, MOVEMENT JOINTS IN CERAMIC TILING AND AROUND SANITARY WARE.

* EPOXY SEALANTS

EPOXY SEALANTS ARE APPROPRIATE FOR STRESS-RELIEVING JOINTS WHERE LARGER MOVEMENTS IN
COMPRESSION THAN TENSION ARE ANTICIPATED. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS INCLUDE FLOOR JOINTS AND
THE WATER-SEALING OF TILING JOINTS WITHIN SWIMMING POOLS. EPOXY SEALANTS HAVE A LIFE
EXPECTANCY OF 10 TO 20 YEARS. (THE TYPICAL MOVEMENT ACCOMMODATION OF EPOXY SEALANTS IS
WITHIN THE RANGE5% TO 15%.).

JOINT DESIGN

THERE ARE THREE FORMS OF JOINT: BUTT, LAP AND FILLET (FIG. 16.2). HOWEVER, ONLY
BUTT AND LAP JOINTS WILL ACCOMMODATE MOVEMENT. GENERALLY, LAP JOINTS IN
WHICH THE SEALANT IS STRESSED IN SHEAR WILL ACCOMMODATE DOUBLE THE
MOVEMENT OF BUTT JOINTS IN WHICH THE SEALANT IS UNDER TENSION OR COMPRESSION.
FURTHERMORE, LAP JOINTS TEND TO BE MORE DURABLE AS THE SEALANT IS PARTIALLY
PROTECTED FROM THE EFFECTS OF WEATHERING.

HOWEVER, LAP JOINTS ARE GENERALLY MORE DIFFICULT TO SEAL THAN BUTT JOINTS. FREQUENTLY, JOINTS ARE MADE
TOO NARROW, EITHER FOR AESTHETIC REASONS OR DUE TO MISCALCULATION OF COMPONENT TOLERANCES. THE
EFFECT IS THAT EXTENT OF MOVEMENT IS EXCESSIVE IN PROPORTION TO THE WIDTH OF SEALANT, CAUSING RAPID
FAILURE.

WHERE INSUFFICIENT DEPTH IS AVAILABLE TO INSERT A POLYETHYLENE FOAM STRIP, A TAPE BOND-BREAKER SHOULD
BE INSERTED AT THE BACK OF THE JOINT.

SEALANTS TO FLOOR JOINTS NEED TO BE TOUGH, THEREFORE WIDER TO ACCOMMODATE THE NECESSARY MOVEMENTS
AND RECESSED TO PREVENT MECHANICAL DAMAGE. ALTERNATIVELY PROPRIETARY MECHANICAL JOINTING SYSTEMS
SHOULD BE USED.
* COLOUR MATCHING

WHILE MOST SEALANTS, EXCEPT THE BLACK BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS, ARE AVAILABLE IN WHITE, TRANSLUCENT,
GREYS AND BROWNS, THE SILICONE SEALANTS APPROPRIATE FOR USE AROUND KITCHEN AND BATHROOM UNITS
ARE AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF COLOURS. FOR THESE PURPOSES, FUNGICIDES ARE OFTEN INCLUDED
WITHIN THE FORMULATION.

FOAM SEALANTS

COMPRESSIBLE STRIPS OF CLOSED-CELL PVC AND POLYETHYLENE, OR OPEN-CELL POLYURETHANE FOAMS,

COATED ON ONE OR BOTH EDGES WITH PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVE ARE USED IN AIR-CONDITIONING
DUCTWORK AND TO SEAL THERMAL MOVEMENT AND DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT JOINTS, GAPS AROUND
WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES. STRIPS MAY BE UNIFORM IN SECTION OR PROFILED FOR PARTICULAR
APPLICATIONS. AEROSOL-DISPENSED POLYURETHANE FOAM IS WIDELY USED AS AN ALL-PURPOSE FILLER. IT IS
AVAILABLE EITHER AS FOAM OR AS EXPANDING FOAM, AND ACTS AS AN ADHESIVE, SEALANT, FILLER, AND
INSULATOR.

FOAM SEALANTS

COMPRESSIBLE STRIPS OF CLOSED-CELL PVC AND POLYETHYLENE, OR OPEN-CELL POLYURETHANE FOAMS,

COATED ON ONE OR BOTH EDGES WITH PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVE ARE USED IN AIR-CONDITIONING
DUCTWORK AND TO SEAL THERMAL MOVEMENT AND DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT JOINTS, GAPS AROUND
WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES. STRIPS MAY BE UNIFORM IN SECTION OR PROFILED FOR PARTICULAR
APPLICATIONS. AEROSOL-DISPENSED POLYURETHANE FOAM IS WIDELY USED AS AN ALL-PURPOSE FILLER. IT IS
AVAILABLE EITHER AS FOAM OR AS EXPANDING FOAM, AND ACTS AS AN ADHESIVE, SEALANT, FILLER, AND
INSULATOR.

CONCRETE JOINT FILLERS AND SEALANTS

CONCRETE JOINT FILLERS FOR USE IN PAVEMENTS ARE SPECIFIED BY THE STANDARDS BS EN 14188: 2004,
PARTS 1 AND 2 FOR HOT AND COLD APPLICATION SEALANTS RESPECTIVELY. SEALANTS FOR COLD APPLICATION
ARE CLASSIFIED AS SINGLE-COMPONENT SYSTEMS (S) OR MULTI0COMPONENT SYSTEMS (M) AND SUB-DIVIDED
INTO SELF-LEVELLING (SL) OR NON-SAG (NS) TYPES. AN ADDITIONAL CLASSIFICATION A, B, C OR D RELATES
TO INCREASING LEVEL OF RESISTANCE TO CHEMICALS.

8.0 ADHESIVES AND SEALANT

ADHESIVE -ANY SUBSTANCE THAT IS CAPABLE OF HOLDING MATERIALS TOGETHER IN A FUNCTIONAL

MANNER BY SURFACE ATTACHMENT THAT RESISTS SEPARATION.

“ADHESIVE” AS A GENERAL TERM INCLUDES CEMENT, MUCILAGE, GLUE, AND PASTE—TERMS THAT
ARE OFTEN USED INTERCHANGEABLY FOR ANY ORGANIC MATERIAL THAT FORMS AN ADHESIVE
BOND

TILE ADHESIVES- THE STANDARD BS EN 12004: 2001 CLASSIFIES ADHESIVES FOR TILES INTO THREE TYPES:

A.) CEMENTITIOUS (C);

B.) DISPERSION (D); AND

C.) REACTION RESIN (R)

 EACH OF THESE TYPES MAY HAVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS DEFINED BY CLASSES RELATING TO ENHANCED
ADHESIVE PROPERTIES, FASTER SETTING, REDUCED SLIP OR EXTENDED OPEN TIME (THE TIME BETWEEN
SPREADING THE ADHESIVE AND APPLYING THE TILES) (TABLE 16.4).

TABLE 16.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TILE ADHESIVES BY COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

CLASSIFICATION COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

TYPE C CEMENTITIOUS ADHESIVE – HYDRAULIC BINDING RESIN

TYPE D DISPERSION ADHESIVE– AQUEOUS ORGANIC POLYMER RESIN

TYPE R REACTION RESIN ADHESIVE – ONE OR TWO COMPONENTS SYNTHETIC RESIN

CLASS 1 NORMAL ADHESIVE

CLASS 2 IMPROVED ADHESIVE

CLASS F FAST SETTING ADHESIVE

CLASS T REDUCED SLIP ADHESIVE

CLASS E EXTENDED OPEN TIME ADHESIVE

DISPERSION ADHESIVES ARE THE READY-FOR-USE AQUEOUS POLYMER DISPERSIONS, WHILST THE REACTION RESIN
ADHESIVES ARE ONE- OR TWO-COMPONENT SYSTEMS WHICH SET BY CHEMICAL REACTION.

CERAMIC WALL TILE ADHESIVES

WALL TILE ADHESIVES ARE USUALLY PVA (POLYVINYL ACETATE), ACRYLIC OR CEMENT-BASED COMPOSITIONS.
THE STANDARD PVA THIN-BED ADHESIVES, TYPICALLY TO 3 MM, WILL ONLY TOLERATE MOISTURE, WHEREAS
THE THIN-BED WATER-RESISTANT ACRYLIC-BASED ADHESIVES ARE SUITABLE FOR FIXING WALL TILES AND
MOSAICS IN DAMP AND WET CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED FOR EXAMPLE WITH DOMESTIC SHOWERS.

CONTACT ADHESIVES

BASED ON POLYCHLOROPRENE RUBBER, EITHER IN ORGANIC SOLVENTS OR AQUEOUS EMULSIONS, ARE

NORMALLY SUITABLE FOR BONDING DECORATIVE LAMINATES AND OTHER RIGID PLASTICS SUCH AS PVC AND
ABS TO TIMBER, TIMBER PRODUCTS AND METALS. THE ADHESIVE IS USUALLY APPLIED TO BOTH SURFACES,
THE SOLVENT OR EMULSION ALLOWED TO BECOME TOUCH DRY, PRIOR TO BRINGING THE TWO SURFACES INTO
CONTACT WHEN AN IMMEDIATE STRONG BOND IS PRODUCED.

VINYL FLOOR TILE AND WOOD BLOCK ADHESIVES

MOST VINYL FLOOR TILE AND WOOD BLOCK ADHESIVES ARE BASED ON EITHER RUBBER/BITUMEN
RUBBER/RESIN OR MODIFIED BITUMEN EMULSIONS. IN ALL CASES IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT THE SUB-FLOOR IS
DRY, SOUND, SMOOTH AND FREE FROM ANY CONTAMINATION WHICH WOULD AFFECT THE ADHESION. WHERE
NECESSARY CEMENT/ACRYLIC OR CEMENT/LATEX FLOOR LEVELLING COMPOUND SHOULD BE APPLIED TO
CONCRETE, ASPHALT OR OLD CERAMIC TILED FLOORS. SOME CEMENT/LATEX MATERIALS EVOLVE AMMONIA
DURING APPLICATION.

WOOD ADHESIVES

WOOD JOINTS GENERALLY SHOULD BE CLOSE CONTACT WITH A GAP OF LESS THAN 0.15 MM, BUT SO-CALLED
GAP-FILLING ADHESIVES SATISFACTORILY BOND UP TO 1.3 MM. POLYVINYL ACETATE (PVA) WOOD GLUES ARE
WIDELY USED FOR MOST ON-SITE WORK AND IN THE FACTORY ASSEMBLY OF MORTICE AND TENON JOINTS FOR
DOORS, WINDOWS, AND FURNITURE. THE WHITE EMULSION SETS TO A COLORLESS TRANSLUCENT
 THERMOPLASTIC FILM, GIVING A BOND OF SIMILAR STRENGTH TO THE TIMBER ITSELF, BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR
BONDING LOADBEARING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS.

WALLPAPER ADHESIVES

STANDARD WALLPAPER ADHESIVES ARE BASED ON METHYL CELLULOSE, A WHITE POWDER WHICH IS WATER
SOLUBLE GIVING A COLORLESS SOLUTION. FOR FIXING THE HEAVIER PAPERS AND DECORATIVE DADO STRIPS,
POLYVINYL ACETATE (PVA) IS AN ADDED COMPONENT. COLD WATER STARCH IS ALSO AVAILABLE AS BOTH A
WALL SIZING AGENT AND WALLPAPER ADHESIVE. MOST WALLPAPER PASTES CONTAIN FUNGICIDE TO INHIBIT
MOLD GROWTH. THE STANDARD BS 3046: 1981 DESCRIBES FIVE TYPES OF ADHESIVE RANGING FROM LOW
SOLIDS TO HIGH WET AND DRY STRENGTH WITH ADDED FUNGICIDE.

EPOXY RESIN ADHESIVES

EPOXY RESINS ARE TWO-COMPONENT COLD-CURING

ADHESIVES WHICH PRODUCE HIGH STRENGTH DURABLE BONDS. MOST REQUIRE EQUAL QUANTITIES OF
THE RESIN AND HARDENER TO BE MIXED AND VARIOUS FORMULATIONS ARE AVAILABLE GIVING CURING
TIMES RANGING FROM MINUTES TO HOURS. STRONG BONDS CAN BE OBTAINED TO TIMBER, METAL,
GLASS, CONCRETE, CERAMICS AND RIGID PLASTICS. EPOXY RESINS MAY BE USED INTERNALLY OR
EXTERNALLY AND THEY ARE RESISTANT TO OILS, WATER, DILUTE ACIDS, ALKALIS, AND MOST SOLVENTS
EXCEPT CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS.

CYANOACRYLATE ADHESIVES

CYANOACRYLATES ARE SINGLE-COMPONENT ADHESIVES WHICH BOND COMPONENTS HELD IN TIGHT CONTACT
WITHIN SECONDS. A HIGH TENSILE BOND IS PRODUCED BETWEEN METALS, CERAMICS, MOST PLASTICS AND
RUBBER. THE CURING IS ACTIVATED BY ADSORBED MOISTURE ON THE MATERIAL SURFACES, AND ONLY SMALL
QUANTITIES OF THE CLEAR ADHESIVE ARE REQUIRED. THE BOND IS RESISTANT TO OIL, WATER, SOLVENTS, ACID
AND ALKALIS BUT DOES NOT EXHIBIT HIGH IMPACT RESISTANCE. A RANGE OF ADHESIVE VISCOSITIES IS
MANUFACTURED TO MATCH TO PARTICULAR APPLICATIONS.

HOT-MELT ADHESIVES

HOT-MELT ADHESIVES FOR APPLICATION BY GLUE-GUN ARE USUALLY BASED ON THE THERMOPLASTIC
COPOLYMER, ETHYLENE VINYL ACETATE (EVA). FORMULATIONS ARE AVAILABLE FOR JOINING MATERIALS TO
EITHER FLEXIBLE OR RIGID SUBSTRATES. GENERALLY, THE ADHESIVE SHOULD BE APPLIED TO THE LESS EASILY
BONDED SURFACE FIRST (E.G. THE HARDER OR SMOOTHER SURFACE) AND THEN THE TWO COMPONENTS
SHOULD BE PRESSED TOGETHER FOR AT LEAST ONE MINUTE. WHERE METALS ARE TO BE BONDED, THEY
SHOULD BE PRE-WARMED TO PREVENT RAPID DISSIPATION OF THE HEAT. SIMILAR ADHESIVES ARE USED IN
IRON-ON EDGING VENEERS FOR PLASTIC- AND WOOD-FACED PARTICLEBOARD.

BITUMEN SHEET ROOFING ADHESIVES

BITUMEN ADHESIVES ARE AVAILABLE FOR HOT APPLICATION, EMULSION OR IN HYDROCARBON SOLVENT FOR
THE COLD BONDING BITUMINOUS SHEET ROOFING. THE ADHESIVES SHOULD BE POURED AND SPREAD BY
TROWEL TO AVOID AIR POCKETS, WHICH MAY CAUSE PREMATURE DELAMINATION OF THE SHEET FROM THE
SUBSTRATE. EXCESS BITUMEN SHOULD BE REMOVED AS IT MAY STAIN ADJACENT MATERIALS.

PLASTIC PIPE ADHESIVES

SOLVENT-BASED VINYL RESIN ADHESIVES ARE USED FOR BONDING PVC-U AND ABS PIPES AND FITTINGS. THE
ADHESIVE IS BRUSH-APPLIED TO BOTH COMPONENTS WHICH ARE THEN UNITED AND SLIGHTLY ROTATED TO
COMPLETE THE SEAL. CURING IS RAPID BUT IN COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS WATER PRESSURE SHOULD NOT
BE APPLIED FOR SEVERAL HOURS.

GAP-FILLING ADHESIVE

GUN-GRADE GAP-FILLING ADHESIVES, USUALLY BASED ON SOLVENT-BORNE RUBBER OR SYNTHETIC RUBBER

RESINS WITH FILLER REINFORCEMENT, ARE VERSATILE IN THEIR APPLICATIONS. THEY ARE GENERALLY
 FORMULATED TO BOND TIMBER, TIMBER PRODUCTS, DECORATIVE LAMINATES, SHEET METALS, PVC-U AND
RIGID INSULATING MATERIALS (EXCEPT POLYSTYRENE), TO THEMSELVES AND ALSO TO BRICKWORK,
BLOCKWORK, CONCRETE, PLASTER AND GRP. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS INCLUDE THE FIXING OF DECORATIVE
WALL PANELS, DADO RAILS, ARCHITRAVES AND SKIRTING BOARDS WITHOUT NAILING OR SCREWING.

PVA BONDING AGENT AND SEALANT

PVA (POLYVINYL ACETATE) IS A VERSATILE MATERIAL WHICH WILL NOT ONLY ACT AS AN ADHESIVE AS
DESCRIBED, BUT ALSO AS A BONDING AGENT OR SURFACE SEALANT. AS A BONDING AGENT IT WILL BOND
CEMENT SCREEDS, RENDERING AND PLASTER TO SUITABLE SOUND SURFACES WITHOUT THE REQUIREMENT FOR
A GOOD MECHANICAL KEY. PVA WILL SEAL POROUS CONCRETE SURFACES TO PREVENT DUSTING.