EMOTIONS, STRESS AND HEALTH.

SOCIAL BEHAVIORS
EMOTIONS
Introduction
 According to Morris and Maisto (2005) the ancient Greek rationalists thought emotions,
if not held in check, would cause chaos on higher mental abilities such as rational thought
and decision making.
 In the past, psychologists too viewed emotion as a sign of our evolutionary heritage that
needed to be repressed. More recently however, scientists have begun to see emotions in
a more positive way.
 Today they are thought as essential to survival and a major source of personal
enrichment.

Definition of the concept emotion:

 A state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence
thought and behavior.
 A feeling/state involving conscious experience and internal and external physical
responses that tend to facilitate or prevent behaviour.
 Outward expression of inner feelings.
 A motivated state marked by physiological arousal, expressive behaviour, and mental
experience.
For example –an angry man: His heart might pound (physiological arousal) Feel enraged
(mental/cognitive experience) Grit his teeth (expressive behaviour)
Kosslyn and Rosenberg (2006) propose that emotions have four components: a positive or
negative bodily arousal, the activation of specific mental processes and stored information, and
characteristic behaviour. A feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal (a fast
heartbeat for example), conscious experience (thinking about being in love with someone, for
example), and behavioural expression (a smile or grimace, for example).
Emotion is often associated and considered reciprocally influential with mood, temperament,
personality, disposition, and motivation. It also is influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters
such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin and cortisol.
Functions of emotions
1.Adaptive Functions
 Survival: Emotions like fear trigger fight-or-flight responses, which are crucial for
avoiding danger.
 Decision-Making: Emotions influence our choices by helping us evaluate the potential
outcomes of different actions. For example, feeling anxious about a risky decision may
prompt caution.
2. Social Functions
  Communication: Emotions are essential for non-verbal communication. Facial
expressions, body language, and tone of voice convey feelings, which helps others
understand our emotional state.
 Social Bonding: Emotions like love and empathy strengthen relationships by fostering
connections and encouraging supportive behavior.
3. Cognitive Functions
 Memory: Emotions play a critical role in memory formation. Emotional experiences are
often better remembered due to the strong arousal they induce.
 Learning: Emotions can facilitate learning by making experiences more memorable or
by associating certain emotions with specific behaviors, leading to reinforced or avoided
behaviors.
4. Health and Well-being
 Stress Regulation: Emotions like joy and contentment contribute to stress relief and
overall well-being.
 Mental Health: Emotions are closely linked to mental health. Proper emotional
regulation is crucial for maintaining psychological balance and well-being.
Theories of emotion
Contemporary theories
The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories:
 Physiological theories- suggest that responses within the body are responsible for
emotions.
 Neurological theories- propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional
responses
 Cognitive theories- these theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an
essential role in the formation of emotions.
Physiological theories
a) The James-Lange Theory of Emotion
It was proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange. It suggests that
emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. Emotions occur when individuals
become aware of a physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulus. James believed
that you feel emotions after your body reacts. For example, if a soldier raised his gun the
moment he saw you coming, James would say that you would first run, and then feel afraid.
In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions
were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of
what he called an "exciting fact" led directly to a physiological response, known as "emotion."
To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger
activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the
brain.
The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and
therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception
of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because
we cry, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry,
angry, or fearful, as the case may be."
An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake)
triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is
interpreted as a particular emotion (fear).
The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and
being a priori)
The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places
on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants
of emotions can alter their experienced intensity.
b) The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
This theory suggests that the thalamus simultaneously sends an emotion-provoking stimulus to
the brain providing feeling of an emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing
physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously.
For example, you perceive the threat of being shot, and the results of that perception marshal the
body’s resources for fleeing or fighting at the same time as they generate an emotion.
Bodily emotions and the experience of emotion arise in tandem/simultaneously.
Cognitive theories
a) Schachter-Singer Theory/ the two-factor theory of emotion.
This theory suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must
identify the reason behind this arousal in order to experience and label it as an emotion.
Schathter and Jerome Singer (1962) developed a theory of emotion that gave cognition a greater
role in emotion. They proposed that emotion is determined by two main factors: Physiological
arousal and Cognitive labeling. They argue that we look to the external world for an explanation
of why we are aroused. We interpret the external cues present and label the emotion.
For example, if you feel good after someone has made a pleasant comment to you, you might
label the emotion “happy.” If you feel bad after you have done something wrong, you may label
the feeling “guilty.”
Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that
physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive
appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the
subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two stage process: general
physiological arousal, and experience of emotion.
For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the
sight of a lion in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and
notices the lion. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of
fearing the lion.
b) Richard Lazarus
Lazarus (1991) believes cognitive activity is a precondition for emotion. He said we cognitively
appraise ourselves and our social circumstances. These appraisals which include values, goals,
commitments, beliefs, and expectations determine our emotions.
People may feel happy because they have a deep religious commitment, angry because they did
not get the raise they expected, or fearful because they expect to fail an exam.
Richard Lazarus argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive
activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious
and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Lazarus' theory is very influential;
emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:
a) Cognitive appraisal—the individual assesses the event cognitively, which signals the emotion.
b) Physiological changes—the cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased
heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.
c) Action—the individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.
For example: Jenny sees a snake. 1.Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence.
Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.
2.Her brain activates Adrenaline gland which pumps Adrenaline through her blood stream
resulting in increased heartbeat.
3.Jenny screams and runs away.
Behavioral dimension
The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as
reflect them. In this view, facial muscles send signals to the brain, which helps individuals
recognize the emotion they are experiencing. Particular facial expressions alter the flow of blood
to particular regions of the brain, thereby evoking particular emotional experiences.
Sociocultural dimension
Paul Ekman’s (1980,1996) careful observations reveal that our many faces of emotion do not
vary significantly from culture to culture. Paul eight basic or primary emotions are Joy, Trust,
Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Anticipation, Anger, and Disgust. Each primary emotion has a polar
opposite, so that:
• Joy is the opposite of Sadness
• Fear is the opposite of Anger
• Anticipation is the opposite of Surprise
• Disgust is the opposite of Trust
Paul created the wheel of emotions in order to illustrate the various relationships among the
emotions
STRESS AND HEALTH
Definition:
Stress is the body's natural response to challenges or demands, often causing physical, emotional,
or mental strain. It can be triggered by various factors like work, relationships, or significant life
changes, and can affect overall well-being if not managed effectively.
Stress is a broader and more complex response to demands or pressures that exceed an
individual’s coping abilities. It can be triggered by a wide range of factors, both external and
internal, and can affect a person physically, mentally, and emotionally.
Sources of Stress/ stressors
1. Work-related stress: Deadlines, heavy workloads, job insecurity, and conflicts with
colleagues or supervisors.
2. Financial stress: Concerns about money, debt, unexpected expenses, or loss of income.
3. Relationship stress: Conflicts with family members, partners, or friends, as well as
issues like divorce or breakups.
4. Health-related stress: Chronic illness, injury, or concerns about one’s own or a loved
one’s health.
5. Life changes: Significant events such as moving, starting a new job, getting married, or
experiencing a loss.
6. Environmental stress: Noise, pollution, overcrowding, or living in unsafe areas.
7. Academic stress: Pressure from exams, assignments, and the expectations of teachers,
parents, or oneself.
8. Daily hassles: Minor irritations like traffic jams, long lines, or minor disagreements.
9. Emotional stress: Coping with emotions like fear, anger, or sadness.
10. Social stress: Pressure to fit in, maintain appearances, or manage social obligations.

Types of conflicts
a) Approach – Approach Conflict
This type of conflict is also known as conflicting attraction. It results from the existence of two
or more equally attractive goals. These goals are mutually exclusive, that is, we must choose one
at the expense of the other. In this kind of conflict, the period of indecision is dependent on the
degree of goal equivalence, in that the longer the period of indecision, the greater the amount of
stress and frustration. Most individuals will move from one goal to the other in an attempt to
evaluate them. This process is called vacillation. It is the perceived importance of either goal that
helps to decide. In order to escape this conflict, an individual must do the following:
A decision must be made promptly regarding one of the alternatives, making sure that no
feelings of frustration are left behind.
In some cases, it is possible to satisfy one goal at once, leaving the other goal open for
satisfaction at a later date.
b) Approach – Avoidance Conflict
A choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and
unattractive aspects.
For example, a journalist may enjoy his work, but may fear the prospect of being injured while
covering a story during university students’ riot; risking rejection by approaching an attractive
person in class; risking your savings by investing in a new business that could fail; wanting to
join a high status group but can do so only by endorsing views contrary to one’s values.
An individual need to make a decision promptly to minimize stress. The decision will involve
acceptance of the consequences of one’s decision
c)Avoidance – Avoidance Conflict
This conflict occurs when an individual is faced with two unpleasant alternatives. In this case, it
is impossible to avoid one alternative without experiencing the other. One confronts two
undesirable or threatening possibilities, neither of which has any positive attributes i.e. “caught
between a rock and a hard place”e.g. a person with a toothache must choose between the pain of
the tooth and the anticipated discomfort of going to the dentist; choosing between finishing a job
one intensely dislikes or quitting and being called a failure; a person who has been admitted to
the university to pursue a course he does not like- the alternative is to pursue the course of his
choice in a less prestigious institution; fear of punishment in school vs. fear of punishment at
home etc.
Values and one’s character are required to resolve the conflict. Some people resort to defense
mechanisms to postpone making a decision, simply because all the alternatives are unpleasant.

d) Double Approach – Avoidance Conflict

This type of conflict involves two or more alternatives, each of which has both attractive and
repulsive qualities- each alternative has both negative and positive qualities For example, you are
offered two jobs; one has good pay but poor hours and dull work; the second has interesting
work and excellent hours but low pay; a person may get an offer of a highly paying job abroad
but is not allowed to go with his family- the alternative is to stay with his family and continue
with the unattractive local job.
An individual must make his choice after careful analysis of the consequences of his decision.
This conflict is difficult to cope with because one is never sure that the correct choice has been
made.
How Do People React to Stress?
(Differently due to type of personality, alternatives, level of stress etc)
Withdrawal
Hostile feelings directed at the wrong people/scapegoating
Poor grooming
Alcoholism
Workaholics
Excessive smoking
Vulgar expressions
Over religiosity/subservience
May also lead to creativity (new ways of doing things) for those with a strong will.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS
The reaction stages of stress, often referred to as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), were
first described by Hans Selye. This model outlines three stages: alarm, resistance, and
exhaustion.
In the alarm stage, the body detects the presence of a stressor, triggering the "fight or flight"
response. Hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released, causing an increase in heart rate
and energy levels to prepare for immediate action.
During the resistance stage, if the stressor persists, the body attempts to adapt by maintaining a
heightened state of alertness. This stage involves coping mechanisms to manage the stress, but
prolonged exposure can deplete the body's resources.
Finally, the exhaustion stage occurs when the body's energy reserves are exhausted, leading to a
decreased ability to cope. Prolonged stress in this stage can result in physical and mental health
issues, such as burnout, anxiety, or depression. Understanding these stages is crucial for effective
stress management.
Consequences of Stress
1. Physical Health Issues:
 Cardiovascular Problems: Chronic stress can lead to high blood pressure, heart disease,
and an increased risk of heart attacks and strokes.
 Weakened Immune System: Prolonged stress can suppress the immune system, making
the body more susceptible to infections and illnesses.
 Gastrointestinal Issues: Stress can cause or exacerbate conditions like irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS), stomach ulcers, and indigestion.
 Sleep Disturbances: Stress often leads to insomnia or poor-quality sleep, which can
further affect overall health.
2. Mental Health Problems:
  Anxiety and Depression: Chronic stress is a significant risk factor for the development of
anxiety disorders and depression.
 Burnout: Long-term exposure to stress can lead to burnout, characterized by emotional
exhaustion, reduced performance, and detachment.
 Cognitive Impairments: Stress can negatively impact memory, concentration, and
decision-making abilities.
3. Behavioral Changes:
 Unhealthy Coping Mechanisms: Stress may lead to behaviors such as overeating,
excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, or drug use as ways to cope.
 Social Withdrawal: People under stress might withdraw from social interactions, leading
to isolation and strained relationships.
 Aggression or Irritability: Stress can increase irritability and aggression, affecting
personal and professional relationships.
Stress Management
Stress management involves various techniques and strategies designed to help individuals cope
with and reduce stress effectively. Here are some key approaches:
1. Healthy Lifestyle Choices:
 Exercise Regularly: Physical activity helps reduce stress by releasing endorphins,
improving mood, and promoting relaxation. Activities like walking, jogging, yoga, or
swimming are beneficial.
 Balanced Diet: Eating a healthy, balanced diet can help stabilize mood and energy levels.
Avoiding excessive caffeine, sugar, and alcohol can also reduce stress.
 Adequate Sleep: Ensuring you get enough quality sleep is crucial for managing stress.
Establish a regular sleep schedule and create a relaxing bedtime routine.
2. Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques:
 Deep Breathing: Practicing deep breathing exercises can quickly calm the nervous system
and reduce stress.
 Meditation: Regular meditation can help reduce stress by promoting mindfulness and
helping you stay focused on the present moment.
 Progressive Muscle Relaxation: This technique involves tensing and then slowly
releasing each muscle group in the body, helping to relieve physical tension.
3. Time Management:
 Prioritize Tasks: Organize your tasks by importance and urgency to avoid feeling
overwhelmed. Breaking tasks into smaller, manageable steps can make them seem less
daunting.
  Set Boundaries: Learn to say no when necessary and avoid overcommitting. Setting
boundaries between work and personal life can help maintain a healthy balance.
4. Social Support:
 Talk to Someone: Sharing your feelings with a trusted friend, family member, or
counselor can provide emotional support and perspective.
 Build a Support Network: Surround yourself with supportive and positive people who can
help you cope with stress.
SOCIAL BEHAVIORS
Social behaviors are actions and interactions that individuals engage in when they communicate
and relate with others within a society or group. These behaviors play a crucial role in how
individuals form relationships, build communities, and maintain social order. Here are some key
aspects of social behaviors:
1. Cooperation:
 Cooperation involves working together towards a common goal or mutual benefit. It is a
fundamental aspect of social interaction that promotes group cohesion and success.
Example: Teamwork in a workplace, collaborating on a group project, or participating in
community service.
2. Communication:
 Effective communication is the exchange of information, thoughts, and feelings through
verbal, non-verbal, and written means. It is essential for building and maintaining
relationships.
 Example: Speaking clearly and respectfully, using body language to convey emotions, or
listening actively to others.
3. Altruism:
 Altruism refers to selfless behavior where an individual act in the interest of others, often
at a personal cost. It strengthens social bonds and fosters a sense of community.
 Example: Donating to charity, helping a stranger in need, or volunteering time for a
cause.
4. Social Norms and Conformity:
 Social norms are unwritten rules that govern acceptable behavior in a society.
Conformity involves aligning one's behavior with these norms to fit in with a group.
 Example: Dressing appropriately for different occasions, following traffic rules, or
behaving politely in social settings.
5. Empathy:
  Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It is critical for
fostering emotional connections and maintaining healthy relationships.
 Example: Comforting a friend who is upset, understanding a colleague's perspective
during a disagreement, or showing compassion to someone in distress.
6. Aggression:
 Aggression is a behavior intended to harm or assert dominance over others. While it can
be a natural response to certain situations, excessive aggression can lead to conflict and
social discord.
 Example: Verbal insults, physical violence, or hostile actions in competitive situations.
7. Social Facilitation:
 Social facilitation refers to the tendency for individuals to perform better on simple tasks
or worse on complex tasks when in the presence of others.
Example: Athletes performing better in front of a crowd, or students finding it harder to
solve difficult problems when observed by peers.