1.

INTRODUCTION

Festo Didactic’s Learning System for process automation and technology is based on
various training prerequisites and vocational requirements. The station Compact Workstation of
the modular Production System for Process Automation (MPS® PA) allows vocational and
continuing training that is highly practice-oriented. The hardware comprises industrial
components that have been didactically prepared.

The courseware – in combination with the Compact Workstation of the MPS® PA Compact
Workstation – provides a system that is suitable for practice-oriented training of new key
competencies:

 Social skills
 Technical competence
 Methodological competence

Teamwork, cooperation, and organizational skills can be trained at the same time.

Real project phases can be trained during the learning projects, including:

 Planning: Learning how to design and structure a process automation project from
start to finish.
 Assembly: Hands-on experience in putting together components of the system.
 Programming: Understanding the coding and control systems that manage automated
processes.
 Commissioning: Bringing a system online and ensuring it functions as expected.
 Operation: Running the system and ensuring its processes work efficiently.
 Maintenance: Keeping the system in optimal condition, including routine checks and
adjustments.
 Troubleshooting: Diagnosing and fixing issues that arise, an essential skill in
maintaining any automation system.
1.1
Material from the following areas can be
Material covered
covered:
• Mechanical engineering
• Mechanical design of a station
• Process engineering
• Reading and creating PI diagrams and documentation.
• Installation of piping for process components
• Electrical engineering
• Correct wiring of electrical components
• Sensors
• Correct use of sensors
• Measurement of non-electrical, process-engineering and control-
engineering variables
• Learning to use and parameterize fieldbus technology such as
PROFIBUS
• Closed-loop control engineering
• Fundamentals of closed-loop control engineering
• Expanding measuring chains to closed control loops
• Analysis of controlled systems
• P, I, D controls
• Optimization of a control loop
• Controlling system (industrial controller)
• Configuration, parameterization, and optimization of an industrial
controller
• Commissioning
• Commissioning a control loop
• Commissioning a processing plant
• Troubleshooting
• Checking, maintaining, and repairing process plants
• Controlling and monitoring processes with a PC
• Systematic troubleshooting a processing plant
 The basic prerequisite for safe handing and fault-free operation of a
1.2
MPS® PA Compact Workstation station is knowledge of the basic safety
Important notes
instructions and regulations.

These operating instructions contain the most important safety

instructions for safe operation of a station.

In particular, the safety instructions are to be observed by all persons

working at the workstation.

In addition, local rules and accident-prevention regulations must be

observed.

The operator is responsible for ensuring that people working at the

1.3 workstation are limited to:
Operator’s
• Those with a basic knowledge of work safety and accident prevention
responsibilities
and who have been instructed in the operation of the station.
• Those who have read and understood the safety chapter and warning
notices in these operating instructions and have signed to this effect.

1.4 All persons assigned to working with the workstation are required to
Trainees’ carry out the following before starting work:
responsibilities
• To observe the basic regulations for work safety and accident
prevention.
• To read and understand the safety chapter and warning notices in
these operating instructions and sign to this effect.
1.5

Hazards associated with Operating the MPS® PA compact Workstation

The workstation has been built in accordance with the state of the art and recognized safety
regulations. Nonetheless, operation of the station can result in the danger of injury or death to
the user or third parties or damage to the machine or other property.

The station is only to be used

• For the intended purpose and

• When in perfect condition from a safety point of view.

Any faults that could compromise safety must be eliminated

immediately!
 2. PROJECT PLANNING

Project planning of a process plant should include the following documents:

• Specifications
• Process description, associated conditions such as environmental protection
• Start of scheduling and schedule monitoring
• Planning of PI diagrams
• Basic PI diagram
• Process PI diagram
• Piping and instrumentation diagram (PI diagram)
• Function diagrams
• Design of process plant
• Environmental protection requirements
• Specification of all equipment, Instrumentation and Control (EMCS) point list
• Instrument loop diagram – outline
• Instrument loop diagram – detailed
• Wiring and terminal diagrams
• Assembly plans
• Installation planning
• Acquisition
• Assembly, commissioning and acceptance of the system

The planning of a process-engineering project should be practiced using a PI diagram, an

Instrument loop list and an Instrument loop diagram for a controlled system.

2.1 PI diagram
The development of a PI diagram is a significant part of the project work. A PI diagram explains
the EMCS functions using measuring points and final control elements.

EMCS point designation

LIC The process-related functions in an EMCS plan (Electrical,

102 Instrumentation & Control) are described by EMCS points. The
designation indicates the measured variables or other input variables,
their processing, the direction of control action, and location.

A EMCS point consists of an EMCS circle and is designated by code

letters (A-Z) and a code number. The code letters are entered in the
upper half of the EMCS circle, the number in the lower half. The
sequence of the code letters is based on the following table “EMCS
code letters DIN 19227”.
Example L I C
:
Supplementary 1st following
First letter
letter letter
Level Display Automatic
closed-loop
control

The coding system for the EMCS points can be freely selected.
Sequential numbering makes sense, as an EMCS points code must
only occur once, even if there are several measuring points with the
same measured variable.

For more information, please see DIN standard 19227 Part

1.
 EMCS code letters DIN 19227

Measured variable or other input variable,

Letter final control element “Processing letter
Sequence: O,I,R,C,S,Z,A”
First letter Supplementary letter
F Flow rate, throughput Difference Control or display

F Flow rate, throughput Ratio Ratio or control

F Upper Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Flow rate, throughput
(High)
F Lower Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Flow rate, throughput
(Low)
F Flow rate, throughput Display Indicator, Yes/No Output
F Flow rate, through put Switching function Switching
F Flow rate, total flow Total Recording

F Flow rate, mass flow Difference Indicator

F Flow rate, variable flow Automatic control Switching
control
F Flow rate, flow control Pressure Alarm
valve
F Flow rate, batching Recording Automatic Control
control
F Flow rate, flow rate Average Indicator
averaging
F Flow rate, flow No output Indicator
measurement device
Flow rate, flow meter
F Manual intervention Manual
calibration
F Flow rate, control loop Control variable Automatic control
F Flow rate, flow alarm Alarm Alarm
F Flow rate, two-phase flow Difference Automatic control
control
F Flow rate, emergency Emergency Switching
shutdown intervention
 EMCS code letters DIN 19227

Measured variable or other input variable,

Letter final control element “Processing letter
Supplementary Sequence: O,I,R,C,S,Z,A”
First letter
letter
L Level Difference Indicator, Yes or No Output
L Level Display Indicator, Yes or No Output
L Upper Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Level
(High)
L Lower Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Level
(Low)
L Level Total Recording, Logs Data
L Level No Output Indicator, Yes or No Output
L Level Manual intervention Manual, Requires Human Input
Automatic Control, Feedback
L Level Control variable
Loop
L Level Emergency Switching, Activates Safety
intervention Mechanism
L Level (interface level Interface Indicator, Yes/No Output
measurement)
L Level in silos or tanks Continuous Automatic Control, Continuous
Regulation
L Level in process tanks Recording Recording, Logs Data
L Level detection in open Difference Indicator, Yes/No Output
channels
L Level in cryogenic tanks Manual intervention Manual, Requires Human Input
L Level control with pump Pressure Switching, Activates Pumps
systems
L Level control with Alarm Alarm, Triggers Alert
overflow protection
 EMCS code letters DIN 19227

Measured variable or other input variable,

Letter final control element “Processing letter
Supplementary Sequence: O,I,R,C,S,Z,A”
First letter
letter
P Pressure Difference Indicator, Yes or No Output
P Pressure Display Indicator, Yes or No Output
P Upper Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Pressure
(High)
P Lower Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Pressure
(Low)
P Pressure Total Recording, Logs Data
P Pressure No Output Indicator, Yes or No Output
P Temperature Manual intervention Manual, Requires Human Input
Automatic Control, Feedback
P Temperature Control variable
Loop
P Pressure in safety relief Emergency Switching, Activates Safety
systems intervention Mechanism
P Pressure control in Continuous Automatic Control, Continuous
process systems Regulation
P Pressure monitoring in Recording Recording, Logs Data
pipelines
P Pressure detection in Difference Indicator, Yes/No Output
hydraulic systems
P Pressure control with Pressure Switching, Activates Pumps
pumps
Pressure monitoring for
P Alarm Alarm, Triggers Alert
safety systems

EMCS code letters DIN 19227

Measured variable or other input variable,

Letter final control element “Processing letter
Supplementary Sequence: O,I,R,C,S,Z,A”
First letter
letter
T Temperature
EMCS symbols DIN 19227 Difference Indicator, Yes or No Output
T Temperature Display Indicator, Yes or No Output
Pipe
T Upper Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Temperature
Pipe with direction
(High) of flow
T Lower Limit Value Alarm, Triggers Alert
Temperature Pump, controlled, flange-mounted motor
(Low)
T M
Temperature Total Recording, Logs Data
P101
T Temperature No Output Indicator, Yes or No Output
T Temperature Manual intervention Manual, Requires Human Input
Container, top open
Automatic Control, Feedback
T Temperature
B101 Control variable
Loop
T Emergency
Temperature inContainer, closed Switching, Activates Safety
heating/cooling systems intervention Mechanism
T Temperature control in Continuous Automatic Control, Continuous
B303
reactors Regulation
T Temperature detection in Recording Recording, Logs Data
HVAC systems
Valve, manually operated
T Temperature in cryogenic Difference Indicator, Yes/No Output
V102
applications
T Control
Temperature control valvePressure
with with actuator Switching, Activates Heating
heating element Elements
V206
Temperature monitoring
T Alarm Alarm, Triggers Alert
Heating element
for safety systems
Temperature (interface
T Interface Indicator, Yes/No Output
temperature
E401 measurement)
LIC EMCS task with process master display
102 Level display automatic closed-loop control

EMCS task with process master display

FIC
Flowrate display automatic closed-loop control
201

PIC EMCS task with process master display

303 Pressure display automatic closed-loop control
TIC EMCS task with process master display Temperature display
401
automatic closed-loop control
Pipe input (output)
2.2 An equipment list provides a first indication which controlled system
Equipment list should be used for the measurement and which components are relevant to it.
Exercise 2.2

Equipment list

Name: Date:
Controlled system:

Task: Create an equipment list Sheet 1 of 2

Task

• Draw up an equipment list for the controlled system based on the

information given. Consider which of the items of equipment and
elements listed in the worksheet you need for setup of the system or
controlled system and mark these in the worksheet.
• View the individual components and the data sheets and acquaint
yourself with the variables used in the system.

Resources

• Worksheet 2.2.1 Equipment list

• Compact Workstation Manual, Chapter “Function and design”
• Collection of data sheets

Worksheet 2.2.1

Equipment list

Name: Date:
 Controlled system:

Task: How to plan a equipment list Page 2 of 2

• Which components are necessary for the chosen close-loop control system?

Equipment list

Components F L P T
PLC / controller

Tank
pressure gauge
pump
ultrasonic sensor
pressure sensor
flow rate sensor
temperature sensor

proportional valve

industrial controller

proximity switch
float switch, overflow

float switch for raising level

pressure tank

SCADA

piping and hand valves

heating
2.3
Project planning – Draw up a PI diagram, an Instrument loop list and an
Controlled system Instrument loop diagram for a controlled system.

The MPS® PA Compact Workstation comprises the following

controlled systems (controls):

• Level
• Flow rate
• Pressure
• Temperature

For use of the individual controlled systems, please use the manual
valve settings given in the manual.

Exercise 2.3.1
Project planning for a controlled system
– PI diagram
Name: Date:

Controlled system:

Task: Draw up a PI diagrams for a

Sheet 1 of 3
controlled system

Preparation

Read the documentation for the MPS® PA Compact Workstation.

Task

Based on the overall PI diagram of the MPS® PA Compact

Workstation, draw the PI diagram for the selected controlled system
with all components relevant to the controlled system.

Worksheets

• Worksheet 2.3.1 – PI diagram

Resources

• Electrical circuit diagram, MPS® PA Compact Workstation

• Pipe and instrument PI diagram, MPS® PA Compact Workstation
• Data sheets, MPS® PA Compact Workstation
• Workbook “Control of temperature, flow rate and level”, Festo,
170677
• Standard DIN ISO EN 10628 “PI diagrams for process plants –
general rules” (replaces DIN 28004)
• Standard DIN 19227 Part 1 “Graphical symbols and code letters for
process control” (ISO3511)

INSTRUMENT LOOP DIAGRAM

FLOW RATE
 Wiring Diagram 1

Piping Diagram 1

Piping Diagram 1 shows that the system circulates fluid through a tank using a pump
(P101), with flow controlled by valves (V104, V105) and monitored by a flow controller (FIC-
B102). Level switches (LS-B11, LS+ B114) and a level transmitter (S111) ensure the tank does
not overfill or run dry. The temperature inside the tank is regulated by a temperature controller
(TIC B104) linked to a heat exchanger (E104). The wiring connects these devices to a control
system, enabling automated adjustments based on sensor feedback. This integration ensures
efficient, safe operation of the fluid control system.

LEVEL
Wiring Diagram 2

Piping Diagram 2

Piping Diagram 2 shows fluid transfer between tanks B102 and B101, regulated
by valves V101, V112, and V102. Level sensors (LS-S112, LA+ S111, LS+ B114)
monitor fluid levels, while the Level Indicator Controller (LIC B101) automatically
adjusts valves to maintain proper levels. The pump P101 moves fluid from B101, with
flow rate control managed by valve V105 downstream of the pump. Wiring connects the
sensors, controller, valves, and pump for automated operation. The system maintains
controlled fluid flow and prevents overfilling or emptying of the tanks.
PRESSURE
Wiring Diagram 3

Piping Diagram 3

The Wiring and Piping diagram 3 shows a fluid transfer system between three tanks
(B101, B102, and B103) with controlled flow through valves like V105. The pump P101
circulates fluid from B101, while the pressure in B103 is monitored by a pressure indicator, PIC
B103. Level switches in B101 and B101 ensure that fluid levels are maintained within safe
limits. Valves such as V107 and V109 manage the flow between tanks, regulated by sensor
feedback. The wiring diagram connects all components to a control system, automating flow and
ensuring safety through real-time monitoring and adjustments.
.
TEMPERATURE
 Wiring Diagram 4

Piping Diagram 4

The Wiring and Piping diagram 4 illustrates the flow of fluid into vessel B101 through
valve V104, which can be controlled to regulate flow. Level sensors (LS-B113, LS+B114, and
LS-S117) monitor the fluid level within the vessel, ensuring it remains within specified limits.
The temperature is controlled by TIC B104, which adjusts heating or cooling through heat
exchanger E104 based on the measured temperature. Pump P101 facilitates the movement of
fluid out of B101 through valve V105, allowing for precise flow rate management. This
integration of sensors, controllers, and actuators ensures efficient operation and maintenance of
desired fluid parameters in the system.
Exercise 2.3.2
Project planning for a controlled system
– Instrument loop list
Name: Date:
Controlled system:

Task: Complete an Instrument loop list for

Sheet 2 of 3
a controlled system

Task

Complete the Instrument loop list for the selected controlled system.

Worksheets

• Worksheet 2.3.2 – Instrument loop list

Resources

• Electrical circuit diagram, MPS® PA Compact Workstation

• PI diagram for controlled system from Worksheet 2.3.1
• Data sheets, MPS® PA Compact Workstation
• Standard DIN 19227 Part 2 “Graphical symbols and code letters for
process control” (ISO3511)

Table 1. Instrument loop list for Flow Rate-controlled system

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
REVISION EMCS- PCS Component EMCS PLACE Range
point Symbol Task
FIC101.1 1 Flow rate Measure F 40…1200Hz
sensor Flow Rate
1 Transformer Transform S 0…1000Hz/0…10V
A2 Signal
1 Controller Proportional C PI
E/E N1 Controller 4…20mA
0…10V

1 Relay K1 Pre-select S Digital (0)/Analog

Pump (1)
1 Amplifier Transform S 0…10V
A4 Signal and
Power

Table 4. Instrument loop list for Level-controlled system

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
REVISION EMCS- PCS Component EMCS PLACE Range
point Symbol Task
LIC102 1 Ultrasonic Measure F 4…20mA
Sensor Level
B101
1 Transformer Transform C 4…20mA
A1 Signal /0…10V
1 Controller Proportiona S PI
E/E N1 l Controller 4…20mA
0…10V

1 Relay K1 Pre-select S Digital

Pump (0)/Analog (1)

Table 3. Instrument loop list for Pressure-controlled system

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
REVISION EMCS- PCS Component EMCS PLACE Range
point Symbol Task
PIC103 1 Pressure Measure F 0…400
Sensor Pressure mbar
B103
1 Controller Proportiona C PI
E/E N1 l Controller 4…20mA
0…10V

1 Relay K1 Pre-select S Digital

Pump (0)/Analog
(1)
1 Amplifier Transform S 0…10V
A4 Signal and
Power
P101 1 Pump M1 Control F 0…24V
Flow Rate

Table 4. Instrument loop list for Temperature-controlled system

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
REVISION EMCS- PCS Component EMCS Task PLACE Range
point Symbol
TIC104 1 Temperature Measure F PT100 80…150
Sensor B104 Temperature Ohm
1 Transformer Transform S 0…100°C/0…10V
A3 Signal
1 Controller Controller, C PI
E/E N1 unsteady 2- 4…20mA
point control 0…10V
Heating
1 Relay Control S 0/24V/Heating
K1_E104 Heating On/Off
P101 1 Pump M1 Control F 0V/24V
Circulation
1 Relay K1 Pre-select S Digital (0)/Analog
Pump (1)
Exercise 2.3.3
Project planning for a controlled system
– EMCS points plan
Name: Date:
Controlled system:

Task: Draw an Instrument loop diagram of a

Sheet 3 of 3
controlled system

Task

Create the Instrument loop diagram for the selected controlled system.

Worksheets

• Worksheet 2.3.3– EMCS points plan

Resources

• Electrical circuit diagram, MPS® PA Compact Workstation

• PI diagram of the controlled system from Worksheet 2.3.1
• Instrument loop list from Worksheet 2.3.2
• Data sheets, MPS® PA Compact Workstation
• Workbook “Control of temperature, flow rate and level” , Festo,
170677
• Standard DIN 19227 Part 2 “Graphical symbols and code letters for
process control” (ISO3511)

PI DIAGRAM
 FLOW RATE

PI Diagram 1

PI Diagram 1 shows a fluid control system where a pump (P101) circulates fluid through
a tank, with flow regulated by valves (V103, V109, V104, etc.) and monitored by a flow
controller (FIC-B102). The tank's fluid levels are tracked by level switches (LS-B113, LS+
B114) and a level transmitter (S111), which help prevent overfilling or running dry. The system
adjusts flow and pump operation based on the measurements to maintain proper fluid levels and
flow rates.
 LEVEL

PI Diagram 2

PI Diagram 2 shows fluid transfer between two tanks (B102 and B101), with
valves (V101, V112, V102) regulating the flow between them. Tank levels are monitored
by level sensors (LS-S112, LA+ S111, LS+ B114) and controlled by a level indicator
controller (LIC B101) in B102. A pump (P101) circulates or drains fluid from B101, with
flow controlled by valve V105 downstream of the pump.
 PRESSURE

PI Diagram
3

PI Diagram 3 shows a fluid transfer system between three tanks (B101, B102, and B103),
with flow controlled by valves (V107, V109, etc.) and monitored by sensors. Tank B103
regulates pressure with a pressure indicator (PIC B103), while levels in B101 and B102 are
controlled by level switches. A pump (P101) circulates fluid from B101, with valve V105
managing the outflow.
 TEMPERATURE

PI Diagram 4

PI diagram 4 shows a system where fluid enters the vessel B101 through valve V104 and
is processed or stored. The pump P101 moves the fluid out through valve V105. Level sensors
(LS-B113, LS+B114, and LS-S117) monitor fluid levels, while TIC B104 controls the
temperature inside the vessel, likely interacting with the heat exchanger E104. The system is
designed to regulate fluid flow, level, and temperature in a controlled process.
 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
College Of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Lucban, Quezon

EEN21L- INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL LABORATORY

LABORATORY REPORT NO. 3

“MPS® PA Compact Workstation – Analysis of a Tank and Pump”

Submitted by:
NICOLE A. RIVADULLA
BSEE IV - GI

Submitted to:
ENGR. EFREN D. VILLAVERDE, DT
Instructor
3. ANALYSIS

In the exercises, commissioning a system is divided into three areas:

• Analysis of the components, sensors and actuators
• System behavior
• Commissioning of the controlled systems

Target audience and required prior knowledge

This task requires basic technical understanding and basic knowledge of electrical engineering.
The tasks are designed to provide the trainee with an introduction to various controlled systems.
To this end, it makes sense to look at the individual components first.

The following questions are to be answered:

• How does an actuator function?

An actuator functions by converting energy, typically electrical or pneumatic,
into mechanical motion to perform a specific task, such as moving a load or
controlling fluid flow. It operates through a control signal that initiates
movement, allowing for precise positioning and manipulation of components
within the system. Actuators can be linear or rotary, depending on the
application, providing flexibility in various automation tasks and enhancing the
overall efficiency of the workstation.

• Of what parts does an actuator comprise?

An actuator typically comprises several key components, including a housing
that contains the internal mechanisms, a motor that provides the necessary
power for movement, and a control interface for precise operation. Additionally,
the actuator may include a piston or diaphragm, which converts the motor's
rotational motion into linear motion, and sensors for feedback to ensure accurate
positioning. Together, these parts work harmoniously to perform tasks such as
moving, controlling, and positioning various elements within the system.

• What is the characteristic of a sensor?

Sensors are designed to detect and measure specific physical parameters, such
as pressure, flow, or temperature, and convert these measurements into electrical
signals. They play a crucial role in monitoring system performance and ensuring
accurate control by providing real-time data to the control unit. The sensors’
 reliability, precision, and responsiveness are vital characteristics that enhance the
overall functionality and efficiency of the modular production system.

• Acquisition of measured values based on practical examples

The acquisition of measured values is facilitated through a hands-on approach
that allows students to engage with real-world scenarios. By utilizing various
sensors and measurement tools integrated within the system, learners can
monitor and analyze key parameters such as flow rates, pressure, and
temperature in fluid systems. This practical experience not only enhances
understanding of theoretical concepts but also prepares students for real-life
applications in automation and process control.

• Process and evaluation of measured values

Processing and evaluation of measured values involve the collection of data from various
sensors integrated within the system. These measured values are analyzed to assess system
performance, ensuring accurate monitoring of parameters such as flow rate, pressure, and
temperature. The results inform adjustments and optimizations to enhance operational
efficiency and reliability in fluid transfer applications.
3.1 Analysis of the tank
Exercise 3.1.1: Volume of the Container

Task

• Calculate the volume (capacity) of the tank.

• Determine the relationship between the volume (liters)
and the container scale (indicated in mm). How much
water is in the container if it is filled to a level of 300
mm?
What volume is required to achieve a reading of 100 or 1 mm on the scale?

Calculating the volume of the container

Where:

Container height h = 300 mm

Container width w = 185 mm

Container depth d = 180 mm

Find:

Volume 9990 mm3

Volume (in L) 9.99 L

Volume required to achieve a 3.33L

reading of 100 mm
Volume required to achieve a 33.3 mL
reading of 1 mm
Solution:

Volume
V =h x w x d
V = ( 300 mm ) (185 mm )( 180 mm )
3
V =9,990,000 mm

Volume in liters
3
3 1 cm 1L
V =9,990,000 mm x ( ) x 3
10 cm 1,000 cm
V =9.99 L

Volume required to achieve a reading of 100 mm

V =h x w x d
V = (100 mm ) (185 mm )( 180 mm )
3
V =3,330,000 mm
3
3 1 cm 1L
V =3,330,000 mm x ( ) x 3
10 cm 1,000 cm
V =3.33 L
3.2 Analysis of a pump
Exercise 3.2.1

What type of pump is it? Name the main differences to different types of pumps.

The Festo Didactic MPS® PA Compact Workstation (Modular Production System – Process
Automation) Volume required to achieve a reading of 1 mm typically uses
diaphragm pumps V =h x w x d for fluid handling
in process automation tasks.
The following are V = ( 1 mm )( 185 mm )( 180 mm ) the common types
3
of pumps used in V =33,300 mm the system:
3
3 1 cm 1L
Diaphragm Pumps V =33,300Peristaltic
mm x ( Pumps
10 cm
) x 3 Centrifugal Pumps
1,000 cm
These pumps use a flexible Fluid is V moved through a Centrifugal pumps use a
=33.3 mL
diaphragm to move fluids, flexible tube by rotating rotating impeller to move
preventing contact between rollers, ensuring that the fluids, making them efficient
the liquid and the pump's liquid never contacts the for high-flow-rate
internal components. They pump's mechanism. These applications. They are
are ideal for handling pumps are used for precise suitable for handling large
 corrosive or abrasive fluids dosing and handling sensitive volumes of liquid but less
and ensure contamination- fluids in sterile environments. precise than diaphragm or
free operation. Diaphragm They are commonly applied peristaltic pumps. These
pumps are self-priming and in pharmaceutical and pumps are often used in
versatile in automated fluid laboratory processes. industrial and large-scale
handling. process applications.

What must be taken into account when using the pump?

 Fluid Compatibility: Ensure that the pump materials are compatible with the fluid being
handled to avoid corrosion, contamination, or damage to the pump.
 Flow Rate and Pressure: Select a pump with the correct flow rate and pressure
requirements for your application to ensure efficient operation without overloading the
system.
 Priming Requirements: Some pumps, like centrifugal pumps, require priming before
operation, while others, like diaphragm pumps, are self-priming, so it’s important to
know the pump's priming characteristics.
 Maintenance and Wear: Regular maintenance, such as checking for wear on seals,
diaphragms, or impellers, is essential to ensure long-term reliability and performance.
 Power Source and Efficiency: Make sure the pump's power source matches your system's
needs (electric, pneumatic, etc.), and consider energy efficiency to optimize performance
and reduce operating costs

Calculating the rated current

Where:
P = 26 W
V = 24 V

Find:
I=?

Solution:

P=VI
P
I=
V
 26 W
I=
24 V
I =1.083 A

Exercise 3.2.2

Task

• Name the component parts of the pump.

Compare your results with the data sheet.
 Exploded view of pump

No. NAME OF PART

1 Housing, ø 20
2 Rotor disk
3 O-ring
4 Screws (for assembly)
5 Motor Housing
6 Washer
7 Shaft
8 Seal
9 Magnet housing

Exercise 3.2.3

Task

Determine the delivery rate of a pump.

• Which components of the MPS® PA Compact Workstation can you use to complete
this task? Identify the parts and – if appropriate – do the tasks associated with the
parts before undertaking the measurement.
• Calculate the delivery speed of the pump.
 • Calculate the delivery rate of the pump.
• Analyze your measurement and your result compared those of other groups.

Which components of the MPS® PA Compact Workstation can you use to complete this
task?
In the course of this task, we properly utilized various components of the MPS® PA
Compact Workstation to measure the speed and flow of water within the container walls. The
components included two container walls, a pressure tank, a pressure sensor, a centrifugal pump,
a flow rate sensor, and valves. Each of these components was properly integrated to ensure
accurate data collection and smooth operation of the system.

Identify the parts and – if appropriate – do the tasks associated with the parts before
undertaking the measurement.
The rotor disk is responsible for regulating fluid flow within the pump, while the housing
serves to shield the internal components from environmental damage. To maintain operational
efficiency, a seal is necessary to prevent leaks, which is where the O-ring plays a vital role.
Structural stability is ensured through the use of screws, which securely hold the various
components together. The motor bracket not only provides support for the motor but also
minimizes vibrations during operation and ensures proper alignment. The shaft plays an
important role in transmitting rotational energy from the motor to the rotor, while washers help
to evenly distribute the load, reducing wear on individual parts. Seals are particularly important
in preventing fluid leaks, ensuring both the efficiency and safety of the system. Additionally, the
magnet housing encloses the magnets, which are integral to the motor's function. Together, these
components work seamlessly to ensure reliable pump performance in fluid transfer applications.

How do you undertake the measurement? Plan the steps.

Step 1: Fill one of the containers with a sufficient amount of water to ensure continuous flow
throughout the experiment.
Step 2: Gather all necessary materials, including a timer, to accurately measure performance.
Step 3: Power on the FESTO system and perform a preliminary check of the components to
ensure they are functioning properly before proceeding with the task.
 Step 4: Verify that the valve is fully open (100%) to allow unrestricted water flow.
Step 5: Monitor the time required to fill one liter of water in the container, using the timer to
measure accurately.
Step 6: Record the data collected during the process and analyze the results for further
evaluation.

Calculate the delivery speed of the pump.

HEIGHT TIME SOLUTION DELIVERY SPEED

0.03 m 13.97 sec. 0.03 m m
0.0021
13.97 s s
0.06 m 14.1 sec. 0.06 m m
0.0043
14.1 s s
0.09 m 17.73 sec. 0.09 m m
0.0051
17.73 s s
0.12 m 16.22 sec. 0.12 m m
0.0074
16.22 s s

Calculate the delivery rate of the pump.

VOLUME TIME SOLUTION DELIVERY RATE

1L 13.97 sec. 1L L
0.072
13.97 s s
2L 14.1 sec. 2L L
0.142
14.1 s s
 3L 17.73 sec. 3L L
0.169
17.73 s s
4L 16.22 sec. 4L L
0.247
16.22 s s

DATA COLLECTION
20

17.73
18
16.22
16
time (s)

13.97 14.1
14

12

10
1 2 3 4
volume of the water in the container (l)

ANALYSIS

In comparing the experimental results between our group and the other group using the
Festo Didactic MPS® PA Compact Workstation (Modular Production System – Process
Automation), notable differences were observed in the volume measurements, pump delivery
speed, and delivery rate. Our group recorded a volume of 9.99 liters of water in the container,
while the other group measured 10 liters. Although the volume discrepancy is minor, it may have
resulted from slight variations in measurement accuracy, container calibration, or experimental
setup. This difference, while small, could marginally influence the system's performance.

A more significant observation was the difference in pump delivery speed and rate. Our
group noted a slower delivery compared to the other group. Upon further analysis, it was found
that our workstation model was equipped with only one pipe through which water could flow,
whereas the other group’s model appeared to function normally, likely due to a more efficient
water flow configuration. The single-pipe setup in our system likely increased resistance to water
flow, resulting in slower delivery. In contrast, multiple or more efficient flow paths in the other
group’s setup likely allowed for reduced resistance and, consequently, faster delivery rates.

Additional factors, such as potential differences in pump calibration, minor variations in

pump condition, or differences in system pressure, may have also contributed to the observed
discrepancies. However, the primary cause seems to be the restriction created by the single-pipe
flow path in our system, which limited water flow and slowed down the pump's delivery speed.
To address this, modifications to the flow path or a review of the pump's condition and
calibration may improve the system’s effi
ciency and bring results closer to those observed by the other group.

SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

 College Of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Lucban, Quezon

EEN21L- INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL LABORATORY

LABORATORY REPORT NO. 4

“Analysis of Key Components and System Behavior in a Container”

Submitted by:
NICOLE A. RIVADULLA
BSEE IV - GI

Submitted to:
ENGR. EFREN D. VILLAVERDE, DT
Instructor
3.3 Analysis of a proportional valve
Exercise 3.3.1

Task
Acquaint yourself with the mode of operation of a proportional valve.

• What does the term “proportional valve” mean?

A proportional valve is a type of control valve used in fluid systems to regulate
flow or pressure in proportion to an input signal, such as voltage or current. Unlike
traditional on/off valves that operate in binary states, proportional valves adjust their
position gradually, allowing for precise control over the flow or pressure. These valves
are capable of continuous operation, where their position directly corresponds to the
magnitude of the input signal. For instance, a 50% input signal would result in the valve
opening halfway to allow 50% flow. Commonly equipped with feedback mechanisms,
proportional valves ensure accurate performance and are widely used in applications like
hydraulic and pneumatic systems, temperature and pressure control, and automated
manufacturing processes.

• What electrical signals do you need to work with a proportional valve?

To operate a proportional valve, you typically need specific types of electrical
signals to control its position and achieve precise flow or pressure regulation. The most
common signals include:
1. Analog Signals:
o Voltage: A range such as 0-10V, 0-5V, or 1-5V is often used, where the
magnitude of the voltage determines the valve's position.
o Current: A standard range like 4-20mA is commonly employed in
industrial settings for robust and noise-resistant control.
2. Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM):
o PWM signals adjust the valve position by varying the duty cycle (the
proportion of the signal that is "on" versus "off") of a fixed-frequency
signal. This method is efficient and commonly used for valves in mobile
and compact systems.
3. Digital Signals:
o Some modern proportional valves support digital communication
protocols for more complex control and diagnostics. These are often used
in advanced automation and process control systems.
4. Feedback Signals:
o To ensure precise control, some proportional valves include position
sensors that provide feedback to the controller. This feedback is often
transmitted as an analog or digital signal for closed-loop control.

Exercise 3.3.2

Task
• What is the maximum rate at which you can pump the medium used through the proportional
valve? Note that other components between the pump and proportional valve may cause flow
resistance. On what is this value dependent?
To operate a proportional valve, specific electrical signals are required to control
its position and regulate flow or pressure precisely. Common signals include analog
inputs, such as voltage ranges (e.g., 0-10V or 4-20mA), where the signal magnitude
determines the valve's position. Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) is another method,
using duty cycle variations to adjust the valve’s position efficiently. Some advanced
valves also support digital communication protocols like CAN bus, Modbus, or
EtherCAT for complex control and diagnostics. Additionally, many proportional valves
provide feedback signals, often through integrated position sensors, enabling closed-loop
control for greater accuracy. The signal type used depends on the valve design and
compatibility with control hardware like PLCs or dedicated drivers.

• What possibilities are there for adjusting the valve?

A proportional valve can be adjusted in several ways to regulate flow or pressure
based on the application. The primary method is through electrical signals, such as analog
inputs (voltage or current), where the signal magnitude directly corresponds to the valve's
position. Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) can also be used, varying the duty cycle of the
signal to achieve precise adjustments. For more advanced systems, digital communication
protocols like CAN bus or Modbus allow for programmable and remote adjustments,
often including diagnostics. Mechanical adjustments, such as manual overrides or pre-set
control limits, are sometimes available for safety or calibration purposes. Additionally,
feedback from integrated sensors enables automatic adjustments in closed-loop systems
to maintain the desired operating conditions.

3.4 Analyze of a process drive

Exercise 3.4.1
Task
Acquaint yourself with the mode of operation of the process drive.

• What does the term “process drive” mean?

The term process drive refers to the system or mechanism that provides power to
drive or control the operation of machinery or equipment in an industrial or
manufacturing process. It typically involves motors, engines, or other mechanical
systems that convert electrical or other forms of energy into mechanical motion to operate
process equipment such as pumps, fans, conveyors, compressors, and mixers. The
process drive is an essential part of automation and control systems, as it enables the
precise control of speed, torque, and direction, ensuring the efficient and safe operation of
the process. Process drives are often integrated with control systems to adjust parameters
based on real-time data and process requirements.

• What electrical signals are used to drive the process drive?

To drive a process drive (such as a variable frequency drive or VFD), several types
of electrical signals are used to control the motor's speed, torque, and other operational
parameters. The most common electrical signals include:
1. Analog Signals:
o Voltage: Input signals like 0-10V or 4-20mA can control the speed of the
motor. The voltage or current magnitude determines how fast or slow the
motor should run, with a higher signal typically increasing the motor
speed.
2. Digital Signals:
o Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM): A digital signal used to control the
speed and torque of the motor by varying the duty cycle of the pulse. The
frequency and duration of the "on" and "off" cycles regulate the motor’s
output power, making it more efficient and adaptable.
3. Communication Protocols:
o Some process drives utilize digital communication protocols. These
protocols allow for remote control and integration with other automation
systems, providing feedback and commands for precise control of the
motor.
4. Feedback Signals:
o Analog feedback signals (e.g., 0-10V or 4-20mA) can be used to provide
real-time information about the motor’s performance, such as speed,
torque, or position, allowing for closed-loop control to maintain desired
operational conditions.

• Describe briefly the mode of operation of this module.

 The mode of operation of a module, such as a process drive or control module,
involves receiving input signals that determine the desired parameters for motor control,
such as speed, torque, or position. These input signals, which may be analog (voltage or
current), digital (such as Pulse-Width Modulation or PWM), or from communication
protocols like Modbus or CAN bus, are processed by the module to generate the
appropriate control commands. In the case of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), for
example, the module converts these signals into a frequency that adjusts the motor’s
speed. The module then modifies the motor’s power supply, adjusting parameters like
voltage or current to achieve the desired motor performance. Additionally, feedback
sensors monitor the motor’s operation, and the module continuously adjusts the output to
maintain the set performance parameters, creating a closed-loop system for precise and
efficient control. This mode of operation ensures that the motor performs optimally
within the system's requirements.

3.5 Analysis of a heating element

Exercise 3.5.1

Task
• What are the components of a heating element?
In the Festo MPS Compact system, the heating element typically consists of the
following components:
1. Heating Rod: The core component of the heating element, designed to convert
electrical energy into heat. In the provided image, the heating rod has a maximum
temperature limit of around 60°C.
2. Insulation: The heating element is insulated to ensure efficient heat transfer while
minimizing energy loss and protecting surrounding components from heat
exposure.
3. Temperature Sensor: Often integrated into the system to monitor the temperature
of the heating rod or the medium being heated (e.g., water). This ensures precise
temperature regulation and prevents overheating.
4. Control Unit: The heating element is connected to an ON/OFF controller or a
pulse-width modulation (PWM) control system. This regulates the thermal output
based on the desired heating requirements.
5. Power Supply: The heating element operates using a 230 VAC supply for the
heater and a 24 VDC control voltage, as indicated in the image.
6. LED Indicators: Integrated into the system to display the operational status (e.g.,
heating activity or fault conditions).

• What do you have to take into account when using the heating element?
When using a heating element, several important factors need to be considered to
ensure safe, efficient, and effective operation:
1. Power Rating: Ensure the heating element has the correct power rating
(measured in watts) for the intended application. Using a heating element with too
high or too low a power rating can result in inefficient heating, overheating, or
inadequate performance.
2. Voltage and Current Compatibility: The heating element must be compatible
with the supply voltage and current in the system. Using a heating element
designed for a different voltage or current than what the system provides can lead
to damage or failure.
3. Temperature Control: It's important to have proper temperature regulation to
prevent overheating. A thermostat, temperature sensor, or control circuit should be
in place to maintain the desired temperature and avoid damaging the heating
element or other components.
4. Material and Durability: Heating elements are made from various materials
(e.g., metal alloys like nichrome or ceramic), each with different heat tolerance
 and resistance characteristics. The material of the heating element should be
selected based on the operating environment and the temperature range required.
5. Safety Considerations: Ensure that the heating element is installed and used in a
safe manner, with proper insulation and protective casing to prevent accidental
burns, electrical shocks, or fire hazards. Overcurrent protection devices (such as
fuses or circuit breakers) should also be installed.
6. Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions, such as humidity or the
presence of flammable materials, can affect the performance of the heating
element and pose safety risks. Consider these factors when selecting the heating
element and ensuring adequate ventilation or protection.
7. Efficiency: Consider the heating element’s efficiency and heat distribution
capabilities. Inefficient heating can lead to energy waste, longer heating times,
and higher operational costs.
8. Maintenance: Heating elements can degrade over time due to repeated heating
and cooling cycles, leading to failure. Regular inspection and maintenance are
necessary to ensure they remain in good working condition and continue to
operate effectively.

• Calculate the rated current of the heating element.

Where:
P = 1000 W
VAC = 230 V

Find:
I=?

Solution:

P=VI
P
I=
V
1000W
I=
230 V
I =4.3478 A
• To what temperature may you heat the water in the container?
Based on FESTOR’s specifications provided in the image, the heater has a
maximum rod temperature of approximately 60°C, as indicated when the red LED is
ON. This suggests that the water in the container can likely be heated to a temperature
close to 60°C, depending on the system's thermal efficiency and heat transfer
properties. The heater operates with a heating power of 1000 W and features an
ON/OFF controller to vary the thermal output. Additionally, the LED indicators provide
operational feedback: a green light signifies active ON/OFF control, and a flashing
green light indicates operation in a range of 0–100% PWM. Therefore, while the heater
can effectively regulate temperatures, the water's maximum temperature is limited by
the system's design and the rod's thermal constraints.

3.6 Analysis of an ultrasound sensor

Exercise 3.6.1

Task
• What are the components of an ultrasound sensor?
In the Festo MPS Compact system, the ultrasound sensor typically comprises the
following components:
1. Ultrasonic Transmitter and Receiver:
o The core elements of the sensor, which emit and detect ultrasonic sound
waves. The transmitter generates high-frequency sound waves, and the
receiver detects the reflected waves from the target object.
2. Piezoelectric Crystal:
o The ultrasound waves are generated and detected using a piezoelectric
element. This crystal converts electrical signals into sound waves and vice
versa.
3. Housing:
o Encases the ultrasonic components and protects them from environmental
factors such as dust, moisture, and vibrations. It is often made of durable
materials to ensure longevity.
4. Signal Processor:
o Processes the received signal to calculate the distance to the object or
determine the presence of an object. This processor compares the time
delay between transmission and reception of the sound waves.
5. Connection Interface:
o Provides connectivity to the overall control system, typically using a
standardized communication protocol or wiring interface.
6. Indicator LEDs:
o These LEDs indicate the operational status of the sensor (e.g., power on,
object detected, or error).
 7. Mounting Brackets:
o Used for positioning and securing the ultrasonic sensor within the system
for accurate detection.
8. Control and Adjustment Features:
o Some ultrasonic sensors include options for sensitivity adjustment or
detection range configuration to match application requirements.

• Discuss the relationship between level and signal.

The relationship between level and signal in a measurement system is
fundamental, particularly in industrial applications involving sensors. Level refers to the
height, volume, or depth of a material, such as a liquid or solid, within a container or
environment. For example, in a water tank, the level indicates how much water is present.
Monitoring this level is essential for ensuring proper operation, safety, and efficiency in
processes such as filling, emptying, or maintaining balance in a system. To achieve this,
sensors are used to measure the level and translate it into a form that can be understood
and acted upon by control systems.
The signal is the representation of the measured level, produced by the sensor as
an electrical output. This signal can be analog, such as a voltage (e.g., 0–10 V) or current
(e.g., 4–20 mA), or digital, such as a binary or modulated signal. The sensor generates
the signal based on the level detected, with the relationship often being directly
proportional—as the level rises, the signal increases proportionally. For instance, in a
system where 0 V corresponds to an empty tank and 10 V corresponds to a full tank, the
voltage output directly reflects the percentage of the tank filled. This proportionality
allows for straightforward monitoring and control.
The measurement process depends on the type of sensor used. For instance,
ultrasonic sensors emit high-frequency sound waves that reflect off the surface of the
material being measured. The time it takes for the sound waves to return to the sensor
(time of flight) determines the distance to the surface, and this distance is used to
calculate the level. The sensor then converts the calculated level into an output signal.
This method ensures precise, non-contact measurement and is widely used in situations
where the material being measured is corrosive, hot, or otherwise inaccessible.
In some cases, the relationship between level and signal may be non-linear,
influenced by factors such as the shape of the container (e.g., conical tanks) or
environmental conditions (e.g., temperature or pressure). For example, in a conical tank,
a small rise in liquid at the bottom may correspond to a large change in signal because the
cross-sectional area is smaller. Sensors and control systems must account for these
variations through calibration and compensation to ensure accurate signal generation and
interpretation.
The signal is then used in a variety of applications, such as triggering alarms,
controlling pumps, or regulating valves. For instance, if the signal indicates that the level
has dropped below a certain threshold, the control system may activate a pump to refill
 the tank. Similarly, the signal can be monitored in real-time to prevent overflow or ensure
consistent production processes. This relationship between level and signal is the
backbone of automation and control in industrial systems, enabling efficient and safe
operations.

3.7 Analysis of a flow meter

Exercise 3.7.1

Task
• How does the flow meter work? What other types of flow meter are there?
The construction of a flow meter is centered on a primary flow-sensing element,
which interacts with the fluid to measure its flow. This element varies by type, such as
turbine blades for rotational measurement, electrodes in electromagnetic flow meters for
conductive fluids, or ultrasonic transducers for sound-based measurement. The sensing
element is housed within a durable body made from materials like stainless steel or
specialized alloys, designed to withstand high pressure, temperature, and corrosive
environments.
The flow path or tube within the housing guides the fluid, with designs
optimized for accuracy, such as straight paths to reduce turbulence or constricted sections
to create pressure drops. Sensors detect changes in flow properties like pressure or
velocity, converting these into electrical signals. These signals are processed by a
transmitter, which calculates flow data and provides outputs through displays or
communication interfaces like 4–20 mA or digital protocols.
Most flow meters also include a display for real-time monitoring, a power
supply (electric or battery), and calibration mechanisms for accuracy. Mounting
accessories ensure stable installation. Together, these components allow the flow meter to
measure and transmit flow data efficiently and reliably.

• What other types of flow meter are there?

o Positive Displacement Flow Meters: Measure fluid by trapping fixed amounts in a
chamber. Examples include gear and piston meters.
o Velocity Flow Meters: Measure flow based on the speed of the fluid. Common types
are turbine, electromagnetic, and vortex meters.
o Mass Flow Meters: Measure the mass of the fluid, such as Coriolis and thermal mass
meters.
o Differential Pressure Flow Meters: Measure the pressure drop across a constriction
to determine flow, like orifice plates.
o Rotameters: A float inside a tapered tube rises with flow, giving a visual reading.
• How can you measure signals from the sensor?
The measurement of signals from a sensor typically involves several key steps to
ensure accurate data acquisition and interpretation. The process begins by connecting the
sensor to a signal conditioning circuit, which prepares the sensor’s output for effective
measurement. Signal conditioning may include amplification, noise filtering, or
converting the signal from analog to digital format. If the sensor provides an analog
output, the signal is subsequently converted to a digital form using an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC), allowing it to be processed by a microcontroller or data acquisition
system. The digital signal is then processed, which may involve filtering, calibration, or
calculations to determine the measured variable. Finally, the processed signal is either
displayed or stored for further analysis, ensuring that the sensor data is accurately
captured for a wide range of applications, such as temperature, pressure, flow, or other
monitored parameters.

3.8 Analysis of a pressure sensor

Exercise 3.8.1

Task
• How does the pressure sensor work?
The construction of a pressure sensor typically involves several key components
designed to detect and measure pressure changes in a system. At the core is a pressure
sensing element, often made of materials like silicon or metal, which deforms under
applied pressure. This deformation is then translated into an electrical signal. The most
common types of sensing elements include strain gauges, piezoelectric crystals, and
capacitive diaphragms. Strain gauges change resistance when subjected to pressure-
induced deformation, while piezoelectric sensors generate an electrical charge in response
to mechanical stress. Capacitive pressure sensors use a diaphragm that moves in response
to pressure changes, altering the capacitance between two conductive plates. The sensor
is often housed in a protective housing made of durable materials, such as stainless steel,
to protect the sensitive sensing element from environmental factors. To enhance the
accuracy and reliability of the sensor, a signal conditioning circuit is incorporated to
amplify the weak electrical signal from the sensor element. This circuit may also include
filtering and conversion features to prepare the signal for further processing or digital
output. Finally, the sensor is often equipped with electrical connections, such as
terminals or connectors, to interface with measurement devices or control systems.
Exercise 3.8.1

Task
• Discuss the relationship between pressure (mbar) and voltage.
The relationship between pressure (measured in mbar) and voltage in a pressure
sensor is typically directly proportional. As pressure increases, the sensing element in
the sensor (e.g., a strain gauge or capacitive diaphragm) deforms, which causes a change
in the electrical signal. This change is often converted to a voltage output. For example,
in a strain gauge-based sensor, the deformation alters the resistance of the gauge, which
is then converted to a voltage change. In many sensors, this voltage is calibrated to
correspond directly to the pressure being measured, allowing a straightforward mapping
between the two. The exact relationship can vary depending on the sensor type and
calibration, but generally, an increase in pressure results in an increase in voltage, and
vice versa.

3.9 Analysis of a temperature sensor

Exercise 3.9.1

Task
• What does the designation PT100 mean?
The designation PT100 refers to a specific type of resistance temperature
detector (RTD) used for measuring temperature. The "PT" stands for platinum, the
material used for the temperature-sensitive element. The number "100" indicates that the
sensor has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0°C. As the temperature changes, the resistance of
the platinum element changes in a predictable way, allowing the temperature to be
determined by measuring the resistance. PT100 sensors are known for their high accuracy
and stability, making them commonly used in industrial and scientific applications for
precise temperature measurements.

• Discuss the relationship between temperature (℃) and resistance (ohm).

The relationship between temperature (°C) and resistance (ohms) in an RTD, such
as the PT100, is directly proportional. As temperature increases, the resistance of the
platinum sensor also increases. For a PT100, the resistance is 100 ohms at 0°C, and it
increases by approximately 0.385 ohms for every degree Celsius rise in temperature. This
change in resistance allows temperature to be determined by measuring the resistance,
with the relationship being linear within a specific temperature range. This predictable
behavior is key to the accuracy and reliability of RTD sensors for temperature
measurements.