The Nature and Elements of

Communication-3
What is communication?
Communication is the process of transmitting information and
common understanding from one person to another (Keyton,
2011); an interdependent process of sending, receiving, and
understanding messages (Dunn & Goodnight, 2011). Further, it
pertains to the exchange of information between two or more
people, and it happens when one encounters or observes a
behavior (verbal or nonverbal) and gives meaning to it—a
meaning ideally similar to what is intended.

As an interdependent process of sending, receiving, and

understanding messages (Dunn & Goodnight, 2011), the steps
are interlinked, continuous, and dynamic, involving the following
elements:

 The sender is the encoder or the source of the message.

This entity can be a person, a group of people, or an
organization with their own distinct characteristics in
terms of age, race, gender, values, experiences, and other
traits.
 The sender’s message refers to the ideas and feelings
encoded. It may be in verbal form (words) or nonverbal
symbols (paralanguage, including pitch, tone, and volume;
body language, including gestures and facial expressions,
posture, and eye movement; physical distance to the
receiver, and appearance/clothing).
 The receiver is the decoder or the recipient of the
message who, likewise, has his or her own attributes.
 The channel, also called medium, is a vehicle used in
message conveyance. It is based on the form of delivery
(verbal or nonverbal) and the means used in delivering
(face-to-face or technology-mediated).
 Feedback pertains to the verbal or nonverbal responses to
the sender’s encoded signals. It gives information on how
the message is interpreted.
 Interference or noise relates to the factors that hinder
the recipient’s ability to send or receive messages. Serving
as a barrier to communication, it can
be external (physical environment, e.g., a loud party)
or internal (psychological/mental interference, e.g., biases
and wandering thoughts; physiological, e.g., articulation
problem; semantic, e.g., jargon and abstract ideas).
 Context is the situation and environment in which the
communication occurs. Its dimensions are physical (place,
e.g., classroom), social (pertaining to the occasion and the
people involved, e.g., students in a class), and cultural
 (attitudes, beliefs, and the practices of the senders and
receivers).

The following is a basic illustration of the communication process.

Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication and Their
Functions-3
Every time you send a message, you expect it to be understood exactly as
you intended it to be. If this happens, the process of sharing ideas is
successful. However, it does not happen at all times. The communicators’
choice of communicating ideas, either verbally or nonverbally, affects the
clarity of the message. Knowing more about these choices can help one
decide on what to use.

Verbal communication is the use of sounds and words to impart one’s

thoughts or feelings. Though the concept encompasses both vocal (spoken
words) and nonvocal (e.g., writing, sign language), the focus is on the
former.

Largely associated with oral communication, it has these succeeding five

functions gleaned from several sources (Flores, 2016; “Functions of
Communication”, 2016; Nuss, 2014; Remoral, 2017; & Tenedero, 2016).

1. Regulation (Control)

The spoken language is used to control one’s or other people’s behavior or

activities. For example, a teacher who gives students instructions on what to
do says, “Raise your hand if you have any questions.”
 2. Social Interaction

A person speaks to create relationships, form associations, develop intimacy,

and maintain bonds and connections with other people. A colleague
encouraging a fellow employee by saying, “Don’t worry. You can do this,”
can be a case of starting a friendlier camaraderie.

3. Motivation

This function concerns expressing one’s desires, goals, inclinations, choices,

preferences, likes and dislikes, and needs and wants. Stating “I’d like to
become a teacher” manifests an aspiration.

4. Information

Verbal communication plays a major role in disseminating information

whether by asking for or giving directions, instruction, or ideas.

5. Emotional expression

One communicates orally to show one’s feelings and emotions. A person

saying “I’m hurt” is voicing out what he or she feels.

Nonverbal communication, which is as important as verbal communication,

is the conveyance of meaning by means of body language (e.g., gestures,
facial expression, eye contact, posture) or paralanguage (e.g., pitch, volume,
speaking rate) instead of spoken or written words.
Specific classifications of nonverbals
include: proxemics (space), chronemics (time), oculesics (eye
movement), haptics (touch), kinesics (body movements, gestures, facial
expressions), objectics (clothing, ornaments, jewelry, other
artifacts), vocalics (voice), olfactorics (smell), colorics (colors), pictics (picture
s), iconics (signs/symbols).

Nonverbals have seven functions culled from Hahn and Paynton (2016) and
“Communication in the real world: An introduction to communication
studies” (2016, Chapter 4).

1. To replace (Replacement)

Actions can replace or substitute speech. For instance, one can shrug
shoulders instead of saying “I don’t know” and wave hands instead of saying
goodbye. It is foremost then that one employs nonverbal forms of
communication with recognizable and nearly universal meanings to avoid
confusion. Access/Watch this video on 'Gestures around the world"

2. To repeat (Repetition)

Gestures duplicate and reinforce one’s message. Nonverbal communication

can either occur simultaneously with the verbal or follow and repeat the
word said. For example, the act of nodding while saying yes is a
restatement, and so does pointing while giving directions. Like replacement
function, consistency in the meaning of both verbal and nonverbal is
important.
 3. To complement (Complementation)

This nonverbal enhances and adds nuance to the meaning of a verbal

message. By way of illustration, one rubs one’s stomach when feeling hungry
or says “I passed the test” with a sarcastic tone. However, gestures that aim
to complement cannot be used alone or else they may be misinterpreted.

4. To accent (Accentuation)

To accent is to emphasize certain parts of the verbal intent or the utterance.

It is often done by increasing voice volume, prolonging a word, moving
forward, and even widening the eyes. If the “very” in the line “I’m VERY
angry with you” is emphasized, it is likely louder. (Some authors regard
repetition, complementation, and accentuation as part of one function -
reinforcement.)

5. To regulate (Regulation)

Nonverbals can be used to control the flow of conversations. For instance,

to signal the beginning of an interaction, one must face the person, move
closer, or look at him or her directly. Conversely, looking at one’s watch
repeatedly is an indication that he/she has to go, and the other person
must stop talking.

6. To contradict (Contradiction)
A contradiction occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages contradict each
other. Saying “I’m all right” with a frown is an example of nonverbal cues
contradicting verbal statements.

7. To deceive (Deception)

Although this purpose is not encouraged, nonverbal signals can be utilized to

mislead the listener. Gestures and actions supplement the message,
therefore making it believable. Remarks such as “I like it” as a compliment,
though not sincere, may sound convincing if they are said with eagerness
and a smile.

According to Albert Mehrabian, a psychologist known for his pioneering

work on nonverbal communication, when words and body language
contradict, one is inclined to believe the latter (Belludi, 2008). If this takes
place, movements or gestures may become barriers to a successful exchange
of ideas. Hence, a harmony between the verbal and the nonverbal is crucial
in attaining effective communication.

The following illustration reinforces the idea purported by Mehrabian.

Mediated and Ethical
Communication-3
Mediated Communication

Mediated Communication is an interaction carried out by using

information communication technology, such as mobile phones,
computers, and the Internet. This means of sending/receiving
messages can be synchronous or asynchronous.

Emails, chat rooms, social networking sites, and other

technologies have chat rooms, and social networking sites have
made communication for personal and business reasons instant,
speedy, convenient, and far-reaching. However, this brand of
communication has drawbacks. Gestures, voice, tone, and other
nonverbal signals that reinforce one’s message is lost, thus
making the meaning susceptible to misinterpretation. Moreover,
issues on confidentiality and trust, among others, surface (Chin,
2016).

Ethical Communication

The sender’s message can affect the receiver in a positive or

negative way. Hence, communication ethics are
important. Ethics pertains to a set of principles or rules for
correct conduct as to what is right or wrong and what makes
something right or wrong.

Below are the basic principles of ethical communication (Hybels

& Weaver, 2009; Wood, 2014). The first five are laid down by
the National Communication Association (NCA), an organization
of American teachers and public speakers. The sixth principle is
echoed by Wood (2014), a scholar and professor of
communication and gender.

1. Strive to understand and respect others’ communications

before evaluating and responding to their messages.
2. Help promote communication climates of caring and
mutual understanding that protect the unique needs and
characteristics of individual communicators.
3. Condemn communication that degrades individuals and
humanity through distortions, intolerance, intimidation,
coercion, hatred, or violence.
4. Commit yourself to the courageous expression of your
personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
5. Accept responsibility for the short-term and long-term
consequences of your own communication and expect the
same from others.
6. Avoid plagiarism—the presentation of the work of
another person in such a way as to give the impression
that the other’s work is your own.
7. Promote honesty, truthfulness, and accuracy as essentials
to the integrity of communication.

In brief, communication is ethical when it follows certain

established principles or rules of conduct. These principles promote
respect, harmony, and overall positive well-being of the communicator’s
relationship with others and the society in general.

Key Ideas:

 Communication is a process of transmitting and

understanding messages.
 Verbal communication, associated with oral
communication, is the use of sounds and words in
imparting messages, and this communication type has
five functions: regulation (control), social interaction,
motivation, information, and emotional expression.
 Nonverbal communication is the conveyance of meaning
through body language or paralanguage instead of words,
and this communication type has seven
functions: replacement, repetition, complementation,
accentuation, regulation, contradiction, and deception.
 Ethical communication follows certain established
principles of conduct. These principles - seven of them -
include among others the promotion of honesty,
truthfulness, and accuracy as essentials to the integrity of
communication.
 Mediated communication is an interaction carried out by
using information communication technology
  In keeping with today’s new normal way of
communicating – that is virtual – there are etiquettes or
skills to consider.

Communication in a
Multicultural Setting:
Concepts-2
Communication in a Multicultural Setting:
Concepts
Globalization and digital technology are two developments that
ushered interconnectedness among countries in terms of
economy and communication making people of different races
and cultures move around and interact.

Communicators who fail to realize that people from different

cultures may not look, think, or act as they themselves do may
run the risk of being judged as insensitive, ignorant, or culturally
confused (lacking an understanding of cultural difference), who
may pay a high price for cultural misunderstandings that often
lead to lost opportunities such as business transactions,
and increased level of tension between people during meetings
and social gatherings. Hence, cultural-difference
awareness and effective communication are necessary knowledge
and skills to be able to embrace cultural diversity.

Intercultural Communication and its Related Concepts

Intercultural communication is the process of interpreting and

sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures. Aside
from the language, intercultural communication gives emphasis
on the social attributes, thought patterns, and cultures of
different groups of people.

Intercultural communication has the following forms:

Intracultural Interracial Interethnic

International
Communicat Communicati Communicatio
Communication
ion on n

Interaction
among Communicati
Communicatio
members of on Interaction between
n with/among
the same ra with/among persons
individuals
cial, ethnic, individuals representing different
of different et
or other co- of different r nations
hnic origins
culture aces
groups
Culture is defined as the system of knowledge, beliefs, values,
customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired, shared, and
used by its members during their daily living.

Within a culture, there are co-cultures composed of members of

the same general culture who differ in certain ethnic or
sociological ways from the parent culture. It is used to imply that
no culture is superior and that some may coexist within a culture
or a place. It is a group that shares values, norms, etc. but not
defined by the place one lives, grows up, or one’s
nationality. African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Japanese
Americans, the disabled, gays and lesbians, cyberpunks, and the
elderly (who are also Americans) are just some of the co-cultures
belonging to the same culture (Forey & Lockwood, 2010).

In interacting with a dominant culture, co-culture members who

may feel like outsiders may use one of these
strategies: assimilation, accommodation, and separation.

Accommodation Assimilation Separation

Co-culture members Co-culture

attempt to maintain members Co-culture

their cultural identity attempt to fit members resist interacting

while striving to in or join with with members of the
establish relationships members of dominant culture

with members of the the dominant

dominant culture – culture –
they may take on they give
values and beliefs of up their own
the host culture and ways in an
accommodate them effort to
in the public sphere assume the
while maintaining the modes of
parent culture in behavior of the
the private sphere. dominant
culture.
E.g. A Filipino worker
who has to speak in
English in the US and
still speaks Cebuano
at home with fellow
Filipinos

Ideally, individuals must accept diversity to be able to process

other cultures’ influences and communicate with each other in a
meaningful way. If they are able to do so, then it is safe to say
that they hold the view called cultural relativism referring to
the acceptance of other cultural groups as equal in value as that
of their own. On the other hand, the tendency to see their
culture and its practices as superior compared to
others is ethnocentrism.

There are four (4) variables to distinguish cultures.

 1. Individualism vs. Collectivism - reveals how people define
themselves in their relationship with others
2. High Context vs. Low Context - reveals a culture’s
communication style
3. High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance - measures
the extent to which individuals are willing to accept
power differences
4. Masculine vs. Feminine - reveals attitudes toward gender
roles; the value placed by members on something, e.g.
material possession

The following tables contain the characteristics of each pair of

variables.

Individualism Collectivism

Individual goals are stressed Group goals are stressed

Emphasis on “I” Emphasis on “We”

The individual is expected to fit in

Emphasizes developing a sense of self
groups

Individual initiative & achievement Nurture group influence

E.g. Great Britain, United States, E.g. Arab, African, Asian &
Canada, France, & Germany Latin American

High Context Low Context

Polite & indirect in relating to Generally, exhibit a more
others direct communication style

Direct, simple, and clear

Indirect and implicit messages
messages

Less verbal communication More verbal communication

Relies on nonverbal signs such as

Less nonverbal
facial expression, gestures, tone of
communication
voice, and body language

Monochronic (scheduling
Polychronic (completing activities
and completing one activity
simultaneously)
at a time)

Use intuition and feelings to make Rely on facts and evidence

decisions to make decisions

Collectivist (Cultural traditions

shape the behavior and lifestyle of Individualist
group members)

The primary role of

Primary role of communication is to
communication is to
build relationships
exchange information

E.g. United Kingdom, United

E.g. Saudi Arabia, China, Mexico,
States, Germany, and
Japan, and the Middle East
Switzerland
High Power Distance Low Power Distance

View power should be used only when

View power as a fact of life
legitimate

Apt to stress coercive or

Apt to employ an expert or legitimate power
referent nature of power

Superiors & subordinates are Superiors & subordinates emphasize their

likely to view each other interdependence by displaying a preference
differently for consultation

Subordinates are quick to defer

Subordinates will even contradict their bosses
(submit to another’s wishes) to
whenever necessary
superiors

E.g. Saudi Arabia, India,

E.g. Israel, Sweden, and the United States
Malaysia

Masculine Feminine

Members value male Members value relationships,

aggressiveness, strength, and tenderness in members of both
material symbols of success sexes, and high quality of life

Apt to compromise and negotiate

Confront conflicts head-on
to resolve conflicts

Likely to use a win-lose conflict

Seeking win-win solutions
strategy
E.g. Japan, Italy, Germany E.g. Sweden, Norway,
Mexico & Great Britain Netherlands, Thailand, Chile

To reduce the strangeness of strangers, communicators have to

try doing away with their biases - their preconceived opinions
not based on reason or experience - and stereotypes - the fixed
images/ideas, labels when they communicate with individuals
having different cultures and bear in mind that their culture is
not superior than that of others.

Cultural Differences among

Countries including Registers
and Language Varieties-2
Cultural Diversity

1Cultural Diversity is the existence of a variety of cultural groups within a

society. The diversity ranges from ethnicity, race, religion, language, values,
traditions, beliefs, behaviors, rules of conduct, and others.

2 “Culturally diverse” is often used interchangeably with the

concept of “multiculturalism.

According to Shah (2017), people can have better interpersonal

dialogue and communicate more on a personal level when they
know about the different cultural backgrounds of others.
Knowing cultural differences is helpful in understanding other
culture's uniqueness (Bovee & Thill, 2013). These differences
include, among others, contextual differences.

A. Contextual Differences
This relates to communication styles usually evident in the way

business people approach decision-making, problem-solving,

negotiations, interactions within an organization, and socializing
outside the workplace. For example, people in low-context cultures
tend to be more direct and focus on results, while those from high-context may
be more indirect and emphasize building and protecting relationships.

B. Social Differences

1. Concept of Time
Americans are time conscious; Indians and Filipinos have this
norm of arriving late.

2. Future Orientation (preference towards past, present, or

future)
Future-oriented cultures, such as the US are more invested in
long-term goals, compared to present-oriented cultures
like India and China.

3. Manners
Winking and whistling in public are normal in the Philippines but
inappropriate in India.

4. Roles and Status

People in China are addressed according to their official titles, e.g.
Manager, but in the US respect towards top managers is shown
by addressing them as Mr/Ms. Roberts
5. Attitudes towards Work
East Asian workers are happier and more successful when
they have a good relationship with colleagues and supervisors,
while North Americans thrive when they enjoy gratifying job
assignments and organizational policies.

6. Openness and Inclusiveness

Filipinos, known for their hospitality, welcome foreigners while
some Hong Kongers tend to show biases and racial discrimination
against other cultures.

C. Nonverbal Differences
More explicit differences can also be seen in nonverbal communication. Here
are some examples:

 Greeting of friends in France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal

is by kissing on both cheeks.
 A person who makes an eye contact in the United States
is viewed as interested in the other person and what the
other person is saying
 On the other hand, the same gesture is considered
impolite and disrespectful in Japan.
 Placing hands in pocket is disrespectful in Turkey while
bowing shows rank in Japan.
 Many Asian cultures hide facial expressions while many
Mediterranean cultures exaggerate grief or sadness.
  Islamic cultures such as Muslims do not allow touching
between different genders but consider hugging and
holding hands appropriate between same sex.
 In Latino culture, touching is encouraged.
 In Spain, people tend to maintain small personal distance.
 Distant cultures such as Northern Europe, US, and other
western cultures tend to keep more personal space
 Warm cultures such as Middle East and South American
welcome and accept close proximity.

E. Age Differences
Some countries like the United States support their youth which
signifies vibrance, strength, energy, potential, and innovative
ideas. Other cultures such as Singapore value age and seniority
which earns more respect and freedom.

F. Language Differences

Different varieties of English are used in various parts of the

world. American English (AmE) is spoken by about two-thirds of
Americans who live in the United States. British English (BrE) is
spoken mainly in the United Kingdom. Australian English
(AuE) is used in Australia. Also, Philippine English (PE) is a
variety of English “nativized legitimately” in the Philippines. It is
used by Filipinos in different fields, such as science and
technology, judiciary and legislature, bureaucracy, and scholarly
discourse (Dayag, 2012). Each variety has a distinct vocabulary,
grammar, and registers

1. Registers / Level of Formality

Registers refer to the level and style of speaking and writing
appropriate for different situations. Registers are determined
by social occasion, relationships, context, context, purpose,
and audience. For the English language, there are five registers

a. Frozen/Static
The language does not change, e.g. National Anthem

b. Formal
The language follows an accepted & prescribed format, e.g.
business meetings, academic papers, lectures.

c. Consultative
The language is less formal and the context involves one with
specialized knowledge or an expert who is consulted or can give
advice.

d. Casual
The language is conversational – maybe informal with slang and
contractions, e.g. chit-chat & text messages between friends.

e. Intimate
The language is for private communication used between lovers
or very close family and friends, e.g. inside pet names, inside
jokes, terms of endearment.
Not all languages in different cultures may have these five
registers. For instance, the Korean language seems to have four
speech levels: Formal and Polite, Formal and Casual, Informal
and Polite, Informal and
Casual (https://www.sayjack.com/korean/learn-
korean/honorific-speech-and-speech-levels-in-korean/)

Registers in writing discourse are more challenging since feedback

is not immediate. The writer must use appropriate phrases and
rules suitable for particular situations and target readers.

The British linguist Michael Halliday (1925–2018)

proposed three situation variables that aid in analyzing registers.

1. Field identifies the subject matter in which language is used,

such as an academic discussion of disaster risk reduction
management.

2. Tenor refers to the role relationships between the interlocutors

(e.g., persons who take part in a dialogue or conversation), such
as a specialist-to- specialist communication.

3. Mode identifies the way language is used in speech interaction,

spoken or written.

The three facets of registers have an impact on the manner and

content of communication. In one study (Taboada, 2004), online
bulletin board messages reveal that in the discussion about stocks
and company performance (field) using computer- mediated
communication (mode), the communication between specialists
and even novice to specialist (tenor) is described as informal and
has low affective involvement among participants.

2. Language Variety

Language varieties include vocabulary, pronunciation,

spelling, and even grammatical structures. The following are
some differences in terms of vocabulary and spelling.

 Vocabulary

Examples:

estafa (Phil. English) - criminal deception intended to result in financial or

personal gain
swindle or fraud (American English)

booze (Australian English)

alcohol (British English)

line (American English)

queue (British English)

 Spelling

Examples

centre, mould (British English)

center, mold (American English)

Key Ideas:

 Culture is the system of knowledge, beliefs, values,

customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired,
shared, and used by its members during daily living.
 Co-cultures are composed of members of the same
general culture, who differ in some ethnic or sociological
way from the parent culture.
 Assimilation is an attempt to fit in or join with members
of the dominant culture.
 Accommodation is an attempt to maintain one’s cultural
identity while one tries to establish relationships with
members of the dominant culture.
 Resistance or separation is a strategy used when
members of a co-culture resist interacting with members
of the dominant culture.
 Cultural diversity is the quality of being diverse or varied
cultures.
 Intercultural communication is the process of interpreting
and sharing meanings with individuals from different
cultures.
 The forms of intercultural communication
include: intracultural, interethnic, interracial, and
international.
 Ethnocentrism is the tendency to see your one’s culture
as superior to all others.
 Cultural relativism is trying to understand the behavior
of other groups on the basis of the context in which the
behavior occurs rather than from your own frame of
reference (Forey and Lockwood, 2010).
 The variables used to distinguish culture are individualism
and collectivism; high- and low-context communication
styles; high and low power distances; and masculine and
feminine cultures.
 The word culture can be categorized into linear-actives
(i.e., doing one thing at a time), multi-actives (i.e.,
multitasking), and reactives (i.e., prioritizing courtesy and
respect).
 Cultural contexts include the following:
1. Contextual differences (i.e., low and high contexts)

2. Legal and ethical differences

3. Social differences (e.g., attitudes toward work and

success, roles and status, manners, concept of

time, future orientation, openness, and
inclusiveness)
4. Nonverbal differences

5. Age differences

6. Gender differences
Best Practices for Virtual
Presentations
Best Practices For Virtual Presentations: 15 Expert Tips That Work For
Everyone

In today’s COVID-19 world, virtual meetings and presentations have

become the norm. While many presentation skills and best practices apply
to both in-person and virtual presentations, expert virtual presenters
understand the importance of adjusting their approach to match the
medium. With in-person presentations, you more or less have a captive
audience — you still need to be engaging, but your audience is kind of stuck
with you for the duration. But with virtual presentations, your audience has
a greater opportunity to stray. You now have to compete for their eyes,
ears, hearts, and minds against diminished attention spans increased home
and work-life distractions, and conflicting priorities.

Here are 15 expert tips to set you up for success in your next virtual
presentation:

1. Get the Lighting Right: As a presenter, it is essential that people

can see you well. Make sure you have good front light—meaning
the light shines brightly on your face. If your back is to a window,
close the shades. While natural light is often the best choice, if your
home office doesn’t have natural light and you do a lot of virtual
presentations, consider purchasing supplemental lighting to
enhance your image.
2. Choose the Right Background: Try to use a background that
enhances your professional image and is aligned with your message.
Avoid a cluttered background or anything that can be distracting.
Learn whether your presentation platform enables you to use
virtual backgrounds (like Zoom) or whether you can blur your
background (like Microsoft Teams). Your background can either add
to your professional presence or detract from it.
3. Know the Technology: Nothing kills a presentation faster than a
presenter who fumbles with the technology. This is a performance,
so make sure you know how to make it work. A dry run is
essential so that you’re comfortable with the platform features. It’s
best to have a co-host (or producer or moderator) assist you with
the technology so that you can focus on your presentation. Make
sure you practice with the same technical set up (computer and
internet connection) that you will use when you deliver the
presentation.
4. Play to the Camera: When you are the one speaking, look directly
into your computer’s camera, not on the screen or at the other
participants. This takes some practice, but it makes the viewer feel
as if you are looking right at them. Some presenters turn off their
self-view so that they aren’t distracted by their own image. Put
the camera at eye level. Try not to have your camera too far above
or below you. If it’s too low, then you run the risk of creating a
double chin. A camera too high makes it difficult to maintain eye
contact, as you may find your gaze dropping as you speak. If you
are part of a panel or a team of presenters, make sure you are
aware of when your camera is on. If you are not speaking but your
camera is on, make sure you look like you are paying attention!
Powerful presenters understand the importance of making eye
 contact with their audience, so this means you have to simulate
the same effect virtually.
5. Get Close (But Not Too Close). You want the camera to frame your
face, neck, and shoulders. People are drawn to faces, so you don’t
want to lose that connection by being too far away, but you also
don’t want your face to take over the whole screen like a
dismembered head because, well, that looks weird. Practice your
positioning and distance.
6. Stand Up: If possible, use a standing desk or position your laptop so
you can stand at eye level with your computer. Standing up
provides a higher energy level and forces us to put our body in a
more presentation-like mode. If you have to sit, lean forward as
you would if you were presenting at a real meeting or as if you
were a TV news anchor. Avoid slouching away from the camera, as
that sends a signal that you are disconnected from the audience.

7. Be Animated: Just like in a live presentation, you want to present

with a little energy and animation. Too slow or too monotone in
your voice makes it easy for folks to disengage and tune out.
Keeping people engaged virtually requires you to actually be
engaging.
8. Pace Yourself: Without real-time visual audience feedback cues,
getting the pacing right can be difficult. Even though you want to
infuse some animation and energy into your presentation don’t
pump up the speed too much. If you tend to be a fast talker in real
life, practice slowing down just a bit. If you’re a slow talker, you
may want to speed up just a bit.
9. Do A Sound Check: If your sound is garbled, people will tune out.
While people may forgive less than perfect video, if they can’t
clearly hear you, they will leave. Practice with someone on the
 other end of the presentation platform. Make sure your sound
emits clearly. Sometimes headphones or external microphones
work better than the computer audio, sometimes not. Every
platform is different, so make sure your sound quality is excellent
every time. And again, you should practice with the same technical
configurations and location that you will use for your presentation.
10. Plug into Your Modem: If possible, plug your computer directly
into your modem using an Ethernet cable. This will give you the
strongest signal and most stable internet connection. The last thing
you want to happen during your presentation is to have a weak or
unstable internet signal.
11. Incorporate Redundant Systems. If using slides, make sure
someone else (another webinar co-host or producer) also has a
copy of the slides just in case your internet goes wonky and you
have to present by calling in. If you are using slides, make them
visually appealing. Use high-quality graphics and limit the amount
of text on each slide. It’s your job as a presenter to deliver the
content. The slides are meant to enhance your spoken words, not
replace them.
12. Engage Your Participants. Just as if you were doing an in-
person presentation, craft your presentation to engage the
audience. Incorporate chats, polls, raised hand features, etc. Try
not to speak for more than ten minutes without some sort of
audience engagement. Use the participant list to interact with your
participants by name. Have people chat or raise a hand if they
want to speak. Keep track of the order of people and then call on
them to invite them to turn on their mics or cameras.
13. Let Someone Else Check the Chats. Don’t get sidetracked by the
chats during your presentation. You’ll be shocked at how
distracting it is to your train of thought if you attempt to read the
 chats while speaking. Instead, have your co-host or producer
monitor the chats. If you ask people to chat you answers or
comments to a question you’ve posed, then pause your talking and
engage directly with the chats by acknowledging them, reading
them out loud, and commenting on them.
14. Evaluate and Enhance: If possible, record the session and take
the time to playback and look for areas that worked well and
areas that you might want to improve upon. Great presenters,
whether virtual or in person, understand the value of continually
honing their craft. Be sure to acknowledge your strengths as well
as your areas of improvement.
15. Be Yourself and Have Fun: Again, just like in face-to-face
presentations, audiences connect to authenticity, so be yourself! Let
your personality show through. Have fun. If you look like you’re
enjoying the presentation so will others. Research shows that happy
people retain information better than bored or disinterested people,
so model the energy that you want to create. The audience takes
its cue from you.

Remember, whether you are presenting in-person or virtually, all

presentations are performances. And all performances are in service to your
audience. Their time is valuable, so honor that time by delivering the best
presentation you can. No matter what kind of presentation you are giving,
you must find ways to create authentic audience connection, engagement,
and value.
The 6 C’s in Business Writing:
A Summary
1. Courtesy - Be polite. Consider the ‘you’ attitude . Try to
use positive words

2. Clarity - Avoid vagueness by using words with only one meaning

3. Conciseness - Be brief and direct . Avoid roundabout /
meandering words and ideas
4. Concreteness - Use specific terms/words
5. Correctness - Use correct grammar, punctuation, facts, and letter
parts
6. Completeness - Write all information needed
Rhetorical Considerations In
Writing-2
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Letter Parts, Spacing and
Formats
PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Letterhead

-The official paper on which the company business letters are written
and certain important information about the company is printed.

 complete name, mailing address, email address, fax numbers and

contact numbers, official cell number of the company

-Letterhead is normally printed at the top of the page. However, it is now

common to see the information split: one part at the top of the paper while the rest of the
information can be found at the bottom of the paper.

 design should not detract or draw attention from the important

issue- message of the letter
 preferably white paper, high quality, short size bond paper; easiest
to read; most professional looking

-If you are just encoding the letterhead, place this in the middle of the
paper. if it’s a personal letter (you’re not representing a company), write
your complete address to the left side (full block and modified block
formats).

2. Dateline

-The date the letter is written (use the date the letter was
finished) with the following formats.
  Natural order: Month-Day-Year - March 18, 2008
 Military & British: Day-Month-Year - 18 March 2008

-The month should be spelled out.

3. Inside Address

 The full name of the addressee with a title of respect

 Miss, Ms. (if marital status is not determined), Mrs.

Mesdames/Mmes. (for women), Messieurs/ Messrs. (men)
 Engr., Prof., Atty.
 Roderick C. Salazar, SVD/ The Reverend Roderick. Salazar, SVD
 Honorable Tomas V. Osmena / Hon. Tomas V. Osmena
o The position of the addressee
o Complete name and address of the company that the
addressee represents
o Information should be exactly the same as the address on
the envelope (three of more lines).

e.g.,

Mr. Matthew A. Cruz

Chief Executive Officer
Lego Enterprises, Inc.
19 Ramos Street, Cebu City 6000 (Have 2-3 spaces between
‘City’ and the Zipcode)

4. Salutation

- The name in the salutation is the same with the name in the inside
address
  In formal letters (standardized ones), Dear Customer and Dear
Subscriber can be used.
 Use colon : (American); (comma , - British)
 Formal

My dear Mr. Smith: My dear Mrs. Ramos:

My dear Sir: My dear Madam:

Gentlemen: Ladies:

 Less Formal (Usually used)

Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Ms. Ramos:

Dear Sir: Dear Madam:

Dear Prof. Lim: Dear Dr. Lim:

Engr. Tejada:

 Informal / Casual

Dear Sarah, Dear Customer,

Hello Ms. Sarah / Greetings, Mr. Conception (unusual salutation in sales

promotion and advertising)

5. Body of the Letter

 Typed below the salutation or subject the subject line, if there is.
 Use single spacing in the paragraph and in between paragraphs.
 One-page length - If another page is really needed, use plain sheet
(no letterhead) have 2 – 3 line spaces from the top, and type the
name or initial of the addressee, page number and date all in one
line.
  Sarah A. Ramos -2- July 28, 2016
 SAA -2- July 28, 2016

6. Complimentary Closing

- Serves to close the letter with a cordial expression

 Align with the dateline, regardless of the letter style

 Capitalize only the first letter of the first word.
 Put a comma at the end.
 Match the formality of the salutation and the complimentary
closing.
 Formal

My dear Madam: Very respectfully yours,

Gentlemen: Yours very cordially,

 Less formal

Dear Mr. Gonzales: Yours truly,

Dear Madam: Sincerely yours, / Sincerely, (most

preferred)

Dear Fr. Salazar: Respectfully yours,

7. Signature Block

- Contains the writer’s full name and position/title and his/her signature

 Affix your signature always above your name

 Positioned two or four spaces below the complimentary close

8. Reference Initials
 - Contains the initials of the dictator and the typist

- Upper case (all caps) for the dictator’s initial, and lower case for the
typist’s. e.g. C.F.A./lau

- If you are the writer/dictator and the signatory, then just have the
typist’s/encoder’s initials, e.g. lau

- Typed at the lower left margin of the letter; two spaces below the
signature line

SPECIAL PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Attention Line

 Considered addressed to the whole organization rather than to the

person named on the attention line
 Some write a name (but not in the inside address)
 Placed between inside address (addressed to the organization) and
salutation
 When used, the salutation used is usually “Gentlemen”.
 Attention: Human Resource Manager
o Attention: Sales Department
o Attention: Ms. Rannie Salem

Gentlemen:

2. Subject Line

 Used to immediately inform the reader what the letter is about

 Placed between the salutation and the body of the letter

- Use all capital letters or initial caps and small letters

  Subject: Goodwill

3. Enclosure

- Used when enclosing something in the letter

- Typed under the signature line or reference initials

- If there is more than one enclosure, number them.

Example:

E.G.A.

Enclosures: Check for PhP5,000.00

Copy of Invoice 123

 At times, “Attachment” is used.

4. Carbon copy notation

- Used if copies of the letter are to be sent to others aside from the
reader/addressee.

- Placed after the enclosure or reference initials

 E.G.A.

cc: Director, Kids’

Center

 c. Mr. Alexander Santos

 Copy to: Mr. Allan Aquino
  Cf: (copy furnished) is now used since carbon paper is no longer
used as almost all letters now are computerized

Blind carbon copy notation

- Used if the writer doesn’t want his reader/addressee to know that the
former is sending a copy of the letter to another person

 bcc: Mrs. Carmela Alvarez

5. Postscript Notation

- P.S. or N.B. (nota bene, ‘note well’), used to emphasize a point made
elsewhere in the letter.

- Emphasizes an important message that has been intentionally withheld

from the message

- Has an attention getting quality and may be used only for important
occasions

- Placed two spaces below the last line of the letter

LETTER SIZE, NUMBER OF WORDS, SPACING AND MARGINS

1. Short letter

100 words

2.0 spacing (body of the letter)

2” margin

2. Average-long letter

101-200 words
1.5 spacing (body of the letter)

1.5” margin

3. Long Letter

201 or 300 words

1.0 spacing (body of the letter)

1” margin

Spacing between parts

Fixed Spaces

 Inside Address to Salutation =1 (single space)

 Salutation to Body =1
 In between paragraphs =1
 Last Paragraph to Complimentary Close =1
 Signature to Reference Initial =1

Flexible Spaces

 Company Letterhead to Date =2-4 spaces; (If personal

sender’s address to Date =1)

 Dateline to Inside Address =2-3 spaces

 Complimentary Close to Signature Block/Line =2-4 spaces

LETTER FORMATS

1. Full block format

 All letter parts are typed and aligned at the left margin.
  There are no indentions in the paragraphs.
 Commonly used format.

2. Modified block format

 The dateline and complimentary closing are typed and aligned at

the right side of the page.
 Paragraphs are not indented.

3. Semi block format

 The so called indented letter; dateline and complimentary closing

are typed at the right portion of the page.
 The first sentence of each paragraph has five-space indention.

4. Simplified block format

 Salutation and complimentary closing are not used; hence it

is considered an impersonal format.
 Other letter parts are typed at the left margin
Types of Business Letters,
Memorandum and E-mail
TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Inquiry/Request Letter

- Asks or requests for information about the services, product, the price,
payment or delivery arrangements

2. Reply Letter

- Provides specific and complete information in response to the inquiry

or request letter

3. Complaint and Claims Letter

- Informs the company of the concerns, problems or issues on

dissatisfaction about the product, delivery or services encountered by
the sender

4. Adjustment Letter

- Acknowledges the concerns or problems, offers an apology and

provides possible solutions in response to the complaint letter

5. Sales Letter

- Persuades the reader or the prospective clients or customers to try

or avail the services or buy a product
 6. Cover/Application Letter

- Conveys interest in the position and convinces the addressee of his/her

qualifications, e.g. educational background, work experience

- Accompany resumes (e.g. application letter), CVS, personal portfolios

7. Resignation

- States the reason for resigning, effectivity date of the resignation and
appreciation and gratitude

MEMORANDUM

 Contains official announcements and is disseminated within the

company or organization, e.g. giving directives, informing about
changes in the policy or procedure, alerting staff to a problem,
calling a meeting and sending recommendations
 Can be sent as a printed copy, embedded in the body of an email
or as an email attachment

Writing a Good Memo:

1. Have a business like tone

o Direct to the point and courteous

2. Use the fewest words possible

3. Use bulleted lists to highlight main points

4. Use correct grammar, spelling and punctuation

5.Write the message in the logical order:

 o explain the purpose (introduction)
o addresses the information required (body)
o states summary, generalization or possible recommendations
(conclusion)

6. Follow the standard memo format

Sample of a Memo:

ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-mail)

 Most preferred means of communication since it is fast, convenient

and far-reaching via electronic devices
 Contains the following parts:
 Recipient (To)
 Subject line
 Carbon copy notation (Cc)
 Blind carbon copy (Bcc), and
 Body (message).

Writing a Business Email:

1. Have a Relevant Subject Line

-Best Subject lines tell the reader what he needs to do (especially if it is

urgent and important).

e.g.,

 Information on Open House Tuesday, March 30, 2021 – Please

RSVP!
 Question Regarding the Change in Health Benefits- Response
Needed
 Response to Your Questions on the Marketing Plan for 3rd Quarter
 2. Address the recipient in a formal manner

e.g., Dear Mr. Fernandez:

3. Have a well- organized message

o State the purpose at the start of the email

o Points must be clear and brief (bulleted lists or numbered lists)
o Put the main point first followed by the background information

4. Consider the Writing Style

o Formal writing
o Use formal language (no slang, contractions)

5. Keep it short and precise

6. Follow the Correct Format

o Formal and legible font (Arial, Times New Roman, Verdana,

Tahoma)
o Readable but balanced font size (12)
o Justified alignment
o Avoid using capital letters
o Should use only one highlighting device at a time (bold, italic or
underline)
o Should not include emoticons and smileys

A rule of thumb in workplace correspondence:

You can only use simple smileys with a higher-up when your superior uses it
first. It should be fine between peers.

7. Use correct spelling, grammar and format.

8. Have complete and correct details
9. Mention in the message if there is an attachment

10. End with a closing line

o Thank you (show gratitude)

o Writer’s name or email signature (name, position and contact
details)
The Five Flows of
Organizational
Communication-3
The size, nature, and structure of an organization usually dictate
which direction most of the information flows. For more
established and traditional organizations, the information mostly
flows upward and downward. For informal firms such as start-
up companies, information can flow horizontally and diagonally.

1. Downward Flow of Communication- is through the

organization’s formal chain of command; it is from the higher
levels to the lower levels.

The managers or superiors disseminate information to

subordinates such as:

 providing feedback on employees’ performance,

 giving instructions regarding tasks,
 highlighting areas of attention in the workflow or in job
performance.

2. Upward Flow of Communication- also called vertical

flow, the information comes from the frontline employees who
pass it on to managers, supervisors, and directors of an
organization to:

 provide feedback on how effective the operation of the

organization is,
 clarify any unclear information that they have received,
and
 participate in the decision-making process.

The common contents of the communication following

this flow include proposals, progress reports, budget
estimates, complaints and grievances. Consequently, those from
the higher ranks can take appropriate action based on the
employees’ concerns.

3. Horizontal Flow of Communication- is a kind of information

transmission between employees, divisions, departments, or units
within the same level of hierarchy in an organization. This is
often referred to as lateral communication.

Three categories of information transmitted through this

kind of flow:

 Information regarding coordination of

activities across various parts of an organization;
 Information about work activities at the same level; and
  Information regarding colleagues’ feeling on work and
work-related issues

4. Diagonal Flow of Communication- is an informal way (yet

still accepted and recognized) of passing on information
managers and employees of other workgroups or workers located
in different functional divisions based on the objective of the
communications, e.g. a finance department manager may
communicate with the production supervisor to increase the
efficiency of a particular decision-making process. This flow has
existed due to the changing structure of some workplaces
nowadays in the form of project-based tasks and groups and
temporary divisions which do not appear in the official
organizational chart.

5. External Flow of Communication- this occurs between

a manager of a particular company and other sectors outside the
company, such as banks, suppliers, vendors, and financial
institutions, to:

 conduct profitable business transactions;

 promote sales and publicity; to generate sponsorship; to
launch events, products, or services; and to support
branding.
 Marketing professionals can employ external
communication strategies, such as the use of emails, posters,
advertisements, brochures, and other forms of multimedia
marketing (Study.com,n.d.).
Key Ideas and References
Module 3
Key Ideas:

 In today’s new normal way of presenting, that is virtual, there are

reminders on how to effective including getting the right lighting,
and choosing the background among others.
 Communication in an organization has five flows.
 The downward flow of communication starts from the higher to
the lower levels. Communication is through the formal chain of
command.
 The upward flow of communication is where information comes
from the front-line employees who pass it on to managers,
supervisors, and directors.
 The horizontal flow of communication is used between employees,
divisions, departments, or units within the same level of hierarchy.
 The diagonal flow of communication is an informal way of passing
on information between managers and employees of other
workgroups or workers located in different functional divisions
based on the objective of the communications.
 The external flow of communication occurs between a manager of
a particular company and other sectors outside the company.
TOPIC 1: Multimodality (Basic
Concepts of Semiotics)-2
The term multimodal refers to the strategic use of two or more
communication modes (e.g., images, gestures, music, spoken, and
written language) to make meaning (O’Brien, 2013). Although
multimodality is associated with the development of technology,
a multimodal text does not have to be always digital. It can be
produced on print (newspaper advertisement and comics), digital
(video presentations, animations, and online blogs), or live
(performances and promotional events). A multimodal text, then,
is one that combines at least two or more modes of
communication (words, sounds, actions, images) in a medium.

Modes are abstract or nonmaterial means of making meaning.

Words, sounds, images, gestures, texture, and color are some
examples of modes. Media are material forms that realize the
modes, such as computer screen, wall, clothing, paper, poem, a
piece of wood, a photograph, and audio/video recording (Kress
& Van Leeuwen, 2001). There can be many modes in a medium.
Hence, to go multimodal is to converge different communication
modes in a medium (e.g., poster or video) and take into
consideration all the modes in constructing for or extracting
meaning or the message from the text.

Many of the multimodal texts are advertisements and

promotional tools meant to forward agenda, issue, or causes, and
persuade the audience or readers to think, feel, believe, or act in
certain ways. Thus, analyzing multimodal texts necessitates
additional literacies in these forms:

 Visual literacy refers to one’s ability to understand,

interpret, and evaluate visual messages (Bristor & Drake,
1994).
 Critical literacy that requires reading and filtering texts
for certain agenda or learning purposes. It encourages
individuals to understand and question the ideas,
attitudes, values, and beliefs of written texts, visual
applications, and spoken words.
 Multimodal literacy deals with comprehending varied
means of knowledge representations and meaning-
making. When one is multimodally literate, one can
scrutinize the contributions of semiotic resources
(language, gestures, and images) found in different
modalities (e.g., visual, oral, physical) and in their
integration in multimodal texts, such as advertisements,
posters, websites, films, among others (Kress, 2004;
Lim, O’Halloran, Tan, & E, 2015).
The goal of the new literacies is to foster a person’s ability to
analyze, interpret, question, and evaluate texts to determine
hidden ideas, ideals, and agendas. Constant engagement with
these types of literacies develops individuals to become critical
thinkers who are more well-informed and not easily dissuaded.
To analyze and evaluate the texts, critical readers and viewers
need basic knowledge of semiotics.

Semiotics: The Basics

Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and its use and
interpretation (Scollon,& Scollon, 2003). Signs can take the
form of words, images, objects, sounds, odors, flavors, actions,
or objects (Danesi, 2004; Chandler, 1994). Intrinsically, these
are meaningless unless interpretations are assigned.

There are three types of signs or three ways you can signal your
meanings to others: icons, indexes, and symbols (Scollon,&
Scollon, 2003).

Stands for something that it imitates, replicates,

Iconic simulates, and resembles.

(Icon) Examples: drawings of all kinds, diagrams, photos,

onomatopoeic words e.g. buzz

Indexical Stands for something that it points or relates to or

(Index) indicates implicitly or explicitly.

 Examples: the sight of smoke indicating fire; the dark
clouds in the sky are a sign of impending rain; a person
waving his or her hand is saying hello

Does not resemble what it means in its form but by

Symbolic convention or agree

(Symbol) Examples: social symbols (rose, flags, etc.), language in

general (letters, words punctuations), math symbols

Below are three levels in signifying or attributing meaning to sign

(Danesi, 2004; Chandler, 1994).

Refers to the definitional, literal, descriptive

identification of a sign (for linguistic signs, this refers
Denotation
to the meaning a dictionary attempts to provide).

E.g. Dog - an animal with four legs that barks

Refers to the socio-cultural and personal associations

(ideological, emotional, etc.) of the sign typically
related to the interpreter’s class, age, gender,
ethnicity, and so on. Some are recognized within a
Connotation
culture (e.g., car in Western culture connotes virility
or freedom).

Example: Dog - human’s best friend; loyal but may

be dangerous for it bites
 Refers to a system of ideas or ideals, set of opinions,
particular worldview, beliefs of groups or individuals,
class, or culture, such as communism, capitalism,
Ideology
feminism, and conservatism.

Example: The Hammer and Sickle is the

international symbol of the communist movement.

The signs can also be interpreted according to these additional

levels of meanings or semiotic elements:

1. Rhetorical trope which refers to figurative language, such as

simile, metaphor, irony, found in linguistic signs. E.g. You are a
dog. (a metaphor)

2. Intertextuality that pertains to allusions or references of the

signs to texts from other sources, such as existing stories and
characters in books found in films. E.g. Achilles heel alludes to the
Greek hero Achilles whose heel was the only vulnerable part of
his body.
Colors, Lines, Shapes, and Font Styles

Lines, colors, and fonts carry specific meanings or connotations.

They contribute to the meaning of a text. The table below
summarizes the connotations of some colors, lines, shapes, and
fonts (Bradley, 2010; Cahill, 2016; Gross, n.d.; & Pahwa,
2017).

Colors Associated Meanings

Black power, death, mystery, evil, elegance,

White purity, goodness, light

Red danger, energy, power, passion, love, determination

Blue trust, intelligence, wisdom, authority

Yellow warm, happy, optimistic, sunny

Green growth, harmony, freshness, fertility, safety, healing

Shapes Associated Meanings

Circle infinity, harmony, unity, perfection

Triangle progression, direction, purpose

Square, Rectangle order, formality, security

Lines Associated Meanings

Horizontal calm, quiet, relaxed

Vertical strong, rigid, stability

Fonts/Typefaces Associated Meanings

Serif (e.g. Times New serious, traditional, delicate, beautiful, delicate,

Roman) expensive, warm, old

Sans Serif (e.g. Arial) modern, streamlined, clean, cool, young

elegant, informal, feminine, beautiful, expensive,

Script (e.g. Comic Sans)
happy, warm
TOPIC 2: Creating Multimodal
Presentations-2
A multimodal presentation is a communication piece that merges different
communication modes in creating a message transmitted or
presented through a medium or multimedia (e.g., written text such as
illustrated books and posters, audio/video recording, and computers). This
type of presentation is almost always related to the use of multimedia
(though multimedia is not synonymous with multimodal). When an
individual is tasked to make a multimodal presentation, what comes to
mind is the use of computers and other tools of technology.

In using multimedia tools in presenting a multimodal message, the message

should aim at fostering meaningful and relevant learning (Mayer, 2003).
This goal for relevant and meaningful learning rings true from the point of
view that critical literacy encourages learners to deconstruct and construct
texts in the process of questioning and critiquing. Further, to make critical
literacy practices meaningful is to allow learners to engage in social action
projects that may help solve problems in communities by creating a public
piece of communication (Berhman, 2006). As such, this communication
piece can be very well done in a multimodal form.

Medium of Choice

The medium of choice in the process of creating multimodal texts is an

important consideration (O’Brien, 2013). The texts can be developed and
produced through the following:

1. Paper and Plastic (books, comics, posters)

 2. Digital media (slide presentations, e-books, blogs, e-posters, web pages,
social media sites, animations, films, video games)
3. Live media (a performance or an event)
4. Transmedia (The story is told using multiple delivery channels through a
combination of media platforms, such as magazines, films, web series,
and video games woven as part of one story.)

Elements

Below are the basic elements of a multimodal presentation.

1. Language (oral and written) – vocabulary, grammar, structure

2. Audio – volume, pitch, rhythm, sound effects
3. Video (visual) – moving and still images and colors
4. Space (spatial) – layout and organization of objects
5. Gestures – movement, facial expressions, body language

Considerations in Creating Multimodal Presentation

When it comes to creating a multimodal piece for a report in class, a

proposal in the office, or a presentation of social concerns and solutions in a
community, you must consider the things below to relay the message
effectively.

1. Purpose, Audience, Context, Genre, Stance, Medium (PACGSM)

2. Design
3. Technological tools to use

The details of the rhetorical considerations in writing, PACGSM, are found

in Module 5.

Basic Design Considerations

The design or physical make-up of multimodal texts may reinforce or

muddle the meaning and purpose of the text. The subsequent ideas
summarized from varied sources can help put together the components of a
multimodal message (Mentis, 2017; Gabriel, 2014; Stribley, 2015).

1. Strong and catchy headline.

Aim for short phrases that grab attention in just a glance. If a verbal
headline is not needed in the case of video promotional texts, then a strong
image is employed.

2. Relevant body.

If details are needed, opt for brief lines that build up and relay the intended
message and its purpose.

3. Coherent graphics.

All images, including the sound effects, must be related to the message and
purpose of the text.

4. Right layout.

If the multimodal text is on print, find your focus and create balance and
contrast by using the white spaces (empty spaces that add emphasis to the
headline or graphics). Also, decide on the colors, lines, and font styles that
make the layout visually appealing. The most important points are
strategically placed at the center or shown first before the supporting
details.

5. A call for action.

At times, a separate command on what the viewers must do is

added, along with contact particulars, which are usually found at the
bottom or end of the text. The logo and slogan, if present, can be placed
close to each other.

Technological Tools
In creating multimodal presentations, you can use technological tools or
communication aids. Though word processors are considered to be the most
popular tool in making presentations, there are more recent free software
applications and video editing programs that can be used.

Public Service Announcement

A multimodal text can be a vehicle to help raise awareness on issues and

problems affecting a community or society in general. Multimodal texts such
as public service announcements (PSA) and media invitation campaigns
are means to disseminate information and influence the audience’s decisions.

A public service announcement (PSA) is a brief message broadcast on radio

or television and posted on social networking sites for the public interest. Its
intent is to modify public attitudes by raising awareness about specific issues
(Hampton, 2018).

Below are reminders in crafting a PSA.

1. Have a very clear issue or cause significant to society or the general

community.
2. Create or show a remarkable character or a powerful image to tell
a story about it.
3. Choose or create a call-to-action slogan to instruct
viewers/listeners on what to do or how they can change the
situation.
4. Choose the appropriate medium in creating the slogan. Write,
draw, record, or act it out.
5. Choose a platform through which you can spread the
announcement.
6. Share the announcement responsibly by ensuring that all pieces of
information are factual and that all sources are acknowledged.
According to “Kansas Association Broadcasters: How to Write a Public
Service Announcement”, (n.d.) a good public service announcement benefits
a community; hence it has to attract your target audience’s attention,
speak to your audience in their language and relate to their lives, deliver
one core message clearly, and motivate them to act. Finally, the PSA should
be short, preferably 30 seconds or less (the longest could be 60 seconds).
The shorter and more impactful it is, the more likely it is remembered.

Media Invitation

A media invitation aims to inform identified recipients, beneficiaries,

prospective supporters, and the public about activities, such as conventions,
seminars, forums, talks, and other events related to an issue, problem, or
cause. Normally, an invite has information that answers the wh-
questions: who, what, when, where, and why. The invitation can be in
digital (videos and slide presentations) or print format (posters and leaflets).
As a video, it should be about a minute or less.

Media Campaign

This is a planned series of newspaper articles, television interviews, and etc.

(video/audio) meant to realize a specific objective or a particular aim. E. g.
The government’s media campaign against smoking
TOPIC 3: Evaluating
Multimodal Texts and/or
Presentations-2
The work of the British linguist Michael Halliday on systemic
functional theory serves as a basis of the teaching approaches
used to develop multimodal literacy. It is also used as a
framework in teaching critical viewing to aid learners in coming
up with evidence-based interpretations of the text. On the other
hand, advocates of media literacy anchor their framework of
analysis, in question format, relating to the elements of
communication, signs, symbols, and hidden messages (Berger, n.d.;

“Evaluating Media Messages”, n.d.). Moreover, The Commission on Higher

Education’s syllabus for Purposive Communication (2017) has
five guide questions for analyzing advertisements.

The framework below with ideas from the mentioned sources can
be used in evaluating print or non-print multimodal texts,
particularly promotional materials. Each question is accompanied
by follow-up queries for a more complete answer.

Framework for Evaluating Multimodal (Promotional) Texts

1. Who created the text?

- What signs tell you about its creator/maker?

2. What is the purpose of the text?

- Is the purpose clear? What signs point to this purpose?

3. Who is the target audience?

- What signs point to the audience? How will they respond?

4. What is the message of the text?

- What signs help convey the message?

5. Is the message fair and objective?

- Why? Are all points of view covered?

6. How will other groups (not the target audience) interpret or

react to this text?

- Why?
TOPIC 4: Proposals-2
Types of Proposals (except Wedding :0 )

A proposal is a document that offers a solution to a certain

problem or a course of action responding to a need. In general, it
aims to convince the intended audience to accept the writer’s
intent or plan (Bullock, 2009, p. 171; Kowalski, 2012).

Proposal Types

Below are the common types of proposals (Mulholland, 2017;

“Types of Proposals”, 2018).

1. A solicited proposal responds to a request of an individual

or individuals, companies, or agencies typically
called sponsors. It can be formal or informal. A formal
proposal (e.g., Request for Proposal or RFP) has definitive
specifications on format and content, including terms
and conditions. On the other hand, the informal one is
expressed verbally or without a written request.
2. An unsolicited proposal does not respond to any specific
request, but it presents plans of solutions that will benefit
the intended audience who may likely be interested. In
the business context, this can be sales presentations or
pitched ideas.
 3. A pre-proposal is a brief description of the proposed plan.
Also called white paper, letter proposal, or letter of
intent, it informs and motivates the potential sponsor to
request a formal proposal.
4. A renewal proposal aims to convince sponsors to continue
a project that is about to finish and may not be renewed
and provides reasons why the project is important.
5. A continuation proposal provides updates and reminders
for a project spanning a number of years to finish.
Usually done after a year, it reminds the sponsor of the
approved project, shows the progress of the project, and
explains any changes done.
6. A supplemental proposal is written to ask for additional
resources for an existing proposal and possible updates for
adjusted costs.

Other categories of proposals depending on the project and the

field (Robertson, 2017) include: business proposals that have a
sales objective to convince prospective clients to avail of a
product or service; research proposals, usually in the academe
for study purposes, that outline the problem of the project and
outlines a methodology and a list of references; grant
proposals that specifically aim to gain financial support for a
research or a project; and project proposals usually in the field of
engineering, that contain a description of a series of activities
with the aim to solve a problem. Another category that utilizes
varied media portals is the media campaign proposal - a planned
series of newspaper articles, television interviews, audio/video
materials, and others to realize a specific objective or a
particular aim. An example of this is the government’s media
campaign against smoking.

General Components of a Proposal

The components of a proposal vary based on its type and the

sponsors’ requirements. The succeeding general parts are
combined from different sources (Bullock, 2009; “Business
Proposals”, 2018; Kowalski, 2012).

1. Introduction or Overview. This part gives an explanation and

background information about the problem, including the environment,
location, and possible causes and effects. It mentions any prior efforts or
projects so that readers are completely aware of the nature of the problem.

2. The Problem. Also called the “statement of the problem,” this

part states or describes the problem as directly, clearly, and
concretely as possible. It includes the general statement of the
proposal’s purpose. Alternatively, the section can be replaced by
objectives that depend on the scope and gravity of the problem.
At times, both the problem and objectives occur with specific
objectives related to the general purpose.

3. The Proposed Solution/s or Proposal Statement. This section

contains a precise description of the planned solution. If there is
more than one solution, each is discussed explicitly. Further, the
section explains the reasons why the solutions are the best
courses of action and mentions their benefits.

4. Methodology. This discusses the details of the step-by-step process of

realizing and implementing the proposed solutions to the problem. Each
solution may have distinct approaches to carry it out.

5. Schedule and Budget or Cost. This section presents the time

frame and financial requisites for the completion of the proposal.
The more itemized, specific, and accurate the program of work
and its expenditure, the more transparent and believable the
proposal becomes. The materials and other logistics with their
respective prices can be presented in a tabular form; while the
schedule, containing steps and dates, can be shown in a table or
a Gantt chart.

6. Conclusion. As the closing part, this reinforces the proposal by telling the
clients, sponsors, or intended group of people of the reasons why they should
choose and accept the proposal.

Other Components of a Proposal

Depending on the purpose and company requisites, a proposal

can have the following:

1. Cover Letter – This introduces the proposal to the

prospective or requesting company. It may include a
summary.
2. Table of Contents – For lengthy proposals, this section
shows the organization of the document for easy
reference.
 3. Executive Summary – At times, this replaces the
introduction. It gives the gist of the proposal.
4. Qualifications – This section contains the profiles of the
bidders and proposal writers in terms of experience and
track record to convince the proposed party that the
bidders are capable and that the proposal writers are
organized.
5. Data Presentation or Results – This section shows the
actual proposal outputs, such as a building design or
prototype, video or audio material, or a long report. It
may contain results of needs analysis or feasibility results
for business-related projects and other information not
mentioned in the Proposed Solutions.
6. Anticipated Questions – This part may discuss the
questions that the proposed entities may ask. Further, it
highlights the advantages of the solutions.
7. Call to Action – This coaxes the proposed company to act;
hence, instructive words that send the urgency of the
issue at hand are used. For media campaigns of socio-
environmental nature, a call to action, instead of a
conclusion, is preferred.

Key Ideas and References -7

Key Ideas:
 A multimodal text combines at least two or more modes of
communication in a medium.
 Visual literacy is the ability to understand, interpret, and evaluate
visual messages.
 Critical literacy is the capacity to understand, question, the ideas,
attitudes, values, beliefs of written texts, visual applications, and
spoken words to uncover agenda, positions, and leanings.
 Multimodal literacy is the ability to scrutinize semiotic resources
and their integration in the multimodal texts.
 Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and their
interpretations.
 The three types of signs are icons, indexes, and symbols.
 The three levels in signifying or attributing meaning to sign are
denotation, connotation, and ideology.
 Lines, colors, and fonts contribute to the meaning of a text.
 The framework for evaluating multimodal texts has the following
questions as basis:

1. Who created the text?

2. What is the purpose of the text?
3. Who is the target audience?
4. What is the message of the text?
5. Is the message fair and objective
6. How will other groups (not the target audience) interpret or react
to the text and/or message?

 A multimodal presentation is a communication piece that merges

different communication modes in creating a message presented
through a medium or multimedia.
 A multimodal medium can be paper, digital, live, or transmedia.
 The elements of a multimodal presentation include language, audio,
video, space, and gestures.
 In creating a multimodal presentation, one should consider the
purpose, audience, context, design, and tools of technology.
 A multimodal invitation and a public service announcement are
examples of multimodal presentations.
 Proposals are plans in response to needs or problems.
 Depending on the nature and the type of the project, proposals
can be of different types, such as solicited, unsolicited, preproposal,
renewal, continuation, supplemental, business, research, grant,
project, and media campaign.
 In writing proposals, introduce and explain the problem, identify
and propose solution(s), explain and provide reasons for the
solutions; and reiterate your proposal or call for action.
TOPIC 1: Text of/for Different
Occupational Purposes-2

Communication in a workplace varies according to uses, purposes, and even

contexts. Aside from business letters (e.g., inquiry letter, reply
letter, complaint letter, adjustment letter, sales letter, memos,
emails, proposals, minutes of the meeting), other types of
communication like incident reports, travel reports, progress
reports, technical reports, visual analysis, and medical
reports can be used to address job-related issues or concerns. The
next sections discuss six types of workplace-related
reports. Some or all of these may be required in your future
work.

Incident Reports

These are written records of any untoward or troublesome

happening that may have brought damages on equipment or
property, delays in routine work, and personal injury. These
reports are essential to employers in making changes to have the
job done more effectively with utmost safety and to prevent
recurrence of the same case. They serve as bases of information
for companies and other entities, such as insurance, government,
and legal offices.
Components of an incident report:

Details include names, job titles of all persons

involved (including onlookers), departments,
Identification
identification numbers, places of employment,
details
home addresses, contact numbers, model or
serial numbers, and policy numbers for
insurance.

Time and The report states the exact time and date (e.g.,
location of the 2 p.m., Wednesday, March 7, 2017 at
incident Warehouse 1, DBK Corporation, Cebu City).

This gives a clear identification of any damage or

Type of injury involved (e.g., fire, robbery, equipment
incident failure, or physical injury, such as dislocation of
the left arm).

Description of This provides detailed information on what,

the incident how, and why it happened.

Actions done This section describes how conditions are

after the corrected and operations are back to normal to

incident prevent the problem from recurring, to make

the environment safer, to repair damaged
property or equipment, or to treat injured
 individuals (Kolin, 2013; Searles, 2011).

The following is an example of an incident report in a

memorandum format.

JASDORE Art & Design Company

8th Floor, Amazon Bldg.

Mactan Business Park

Basak, Lapu-lapu City

DATE: June 16, 2017

TO: Anthony A. Sarmiento

Physical Plant Supervisor

FROM: Vincent G. Bustamante

Nurse

SUBJECT: Incident Report

Jonathan O. Villaluz, a bank collector, slipped and fell on his left

arm in the parking area and was wounded.

DESCRIPTION OF INCIDENT

At exactly 10:45 a.m., Wednesday, June 15, Mr. Villaluz was in

the parking area walking towards the main office when he
accidentally slipped and fell on his left arm and was
wounded. According to the security guard, Mr. Erwin H. Cinco,
the area was wet due to the heavy downpour that happened a
few minutes before Mr. Villaluz arrived. The security guard saw
the entire incident and took Mr. Villaluz to the clinic where I
gave him first aid. Mr. Villaluz’s vital signs were checked, and
they were normal. Afterwards, he proceeded to the accounting
office to do his transaction with our company.

ACTION TAKEN AFTER THE INCIDENT

The maintenance staff was reminded to monitor the company

premises during office hours, especially in any untoward
circumstances, such as power interruption, earthquakes, and
heavy rains, in order to ensure safety. Furthermore, to prevent
the recurrence of the recent accident in the parking area, the
maintenance staff put appropriate safety signages, such as
“Caution: Wet Floor.”

Travel Reports

These are records that state the purpose and objectives of

business-related travels and provide summaries and descriptions
of activities to help organizations in assessing their relevance.
Some forms of travel are site
visits, conferences, conventions, training sessions, workshops,
and trade shows.

Common Types of Travel Reports

1. Site Inspection Reports

These determine if a visited area is ideal as a company’s

relocation site or a new office branch. They contain information
about the safety conditions of the site, physical plants, and
available equipment.

2. Home Health Visit and Social Work Field Report

Nurses and social workers record the lifestyle and needs of

patients and clients The reports include the purpose and
description of the visit, the actions taken based on results, and
recommendations from various sources, such as health care
professionals and people from charitable institutions.

3. Field Trip Reports

These are written after a visit to

a laboratory, hospital, detention center, or any
other area to emphasize the educational value of field trips. The
report describes one’s learnings about the ecological conditions,
operation systems, and technical procedures of an institution,
among others.

Structure of a Travel Report

 This states all basic information about the travel,
including the destination, purpose, time and date
Introduction
of arrival and departure, and mode of travel
(e.g., plane, car, boat).

This gives detailed information about the

Description of
experience. It tells what you saw, whom you met
the activity
and talked, and what you did.

This is the accounting of the money spent during

Expense
the activity for cash advance liquidation or
Liquidation
reimbursement purposes.

This is an evaluation of the field trip in terms of

usefulness and importance. It includes
Discussion recommendations for other travels or tours of
such kind in the future, as well as suggestions if
applicable (Kolin, 2013 & Searles, 2011).

Medical Reports

These are documents that contain a patient’s history, findings,

diagnostic test results, medications, and progress. A patient’s
record must remain confidential and cannot be accessed by any
unauthorized person. One of the purposes of these reports, aside
from recording facts about a patient's health, is for
communication between attending doctors and other health-care
professionals for the effective administration of treatment.

Components of a Patient’s Medical Record (Spooner & Pesaturo,

2014)

1. Medical history (also known as “history

and physical” or H & P)

2. Laboratory test results

3. Diagnostic test results

4. Problem list

5. Clinical notes (e.g. progress notes, discharge summary)

6. Treatment notes (e.g. medication orders)

Visual Analysis

For designers or artists, visual analysis is one of their common

write-ups as a written explanation of an artwork. Just like an
essay, it expresses the writer’s ideas and perceptions that can
help a viewer understand the artwork, focusing closely on the
visual qualities of the work and the various elements that create
a particular effect on the viewer.

Structure of a Visual Analysis

Introduction One to two sentences stating the context of the

 artwork/design. indicating the writer’s attitude
toward the work

An argument based on one’s observation and

evaluation of the object or artwork, and it
Body consists of the following: (a) description of the object,
(b) description of the technique, (c) interpretation of the
meaning or intention of the work, and (d) evaluation of the
work

draws judgment or reflection on the observations

Conclusion
made.

Key Ideas and References -8

Key Ideas:

 Incident reports are written records of any untoward or troublesome

happening that may have caused damage to equipment or property,
delays in routine work, and personal injury. The important components
of an incident report are (1) identification details, (2) time and location
of the incident, (3) type of incident, (4) description of the incident, and
(5) actions done after the incident.
 Travel reports are records that state the purpose and objectives of
business-related travels and that provide summaries and descriptions
that help organizations assess the relevance of such activities. The
important parts of a travel report are (1) the introduction, (2)
description of the activity, (3) expense liquidation, and (4) discussion.
 Visual analysis is a written explanation of an artwork. It expresses the
writer’s ideas and perceptions that can help a viewer understand the
artwork. Its three major parts are (1) the introduction, (2) body, and (3)
conclusion.
 A medical record is written by health-care staff. Its four main sections
are (1) the administrative, (2) legal data, (3)financial data, and (4)
clinical data of a patient. One of its purposes is to record facts about the
patient’s health with emphasis on events affecting the patient during the
current admission at the health-care facility.