JOURNAL OF TVET AND TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

e-ISSN: 3036-0269
JTTR
Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) 11-21
https://publisher.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jttr

Empowerment of Women's Leadership Through Various

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
Programmes
Des Iskandar Ismail1, Fazlinda Ab Halim1*
1 Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, 86400, Johor, MALAYSIA

*Corresponding Author: fazlin@uthm.edu.my

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30880/jttr.2023.01.01.002

Article Info Abstract

Received: 15 November 2023 This systematic literature review identifies women's leadership
Accepted: 19 December 2023 empowerment through various Technical and Vocational Education and
Available online: 31 December 2023 Training (TVET) programmes. Women in leadership positions offer
numerous advantages and play a crucial role in achieving gender
equality and fostering a more inclusive and prosperous society. 20
Keywords
articles based on qualitative and quantitative research from prominent
Women leadership, TVET, change research platforms such as Scopus, Directory of Open Access Journal
management, coaching and (DOAJ), and Google Scholar were analysed using PRISMA guidelines.
mentoring, conflict resolution The review determines nine training programme domains and their
impact on the development of women's leadership, such as Change
Management, Coaching and Mentoring, Conflict Resolution,
Communication Skills, Gender Equality, Inspiring workers, Leading
Innovation, Problem-solving, and Project Management. The findings
reveal the significance of implementing and expanding specialised TVET
programmes to ensure women's active participation and leadership in
various sectors. This study highlights the transformative potential of
TVET in empowering women and calls for further research and policy
development in this field.

1. Introduction
Fostering women's empowerment and leadership is one of UNESCO's two global priorities (UNESCO, 2017).
These priorities are predicated on the belief that advancing women's leadership and empowering them is
essential to advancing social justice, gender equality, and sustainable development. Making sure that women
have equal access to economic opportunity, education, and decision-making processes is an important part of
promoting women's empowerment in order to contribute to national development. (Olufemi et al., 2011).
Women's leadership empowerment is a critical component of achieving gender equality and promoting social
progress. Active participation of women in leadership positions brings diverse perspectives, such as change
management, coaching and mentoring, conflict resolution, communication skills, gender equality, inspiring
workers, leading innovation, problem-solving, and project management, which are important training domains
for developing women's leadership skills. These programmes provide women with practical skills and
knowledge that enable them to nurture leadership skills and excel in various professional sectors.
TVET programmes include a wide range of educational and training initiatives aimed at providing women with the
skills and competencies needed for specific occupations. According to Bt and Uleanya (2019), these programmes

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J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21 12

combine theoretical instruction with hands-on training, allowing learners to gain hands-on experience in their chosen
fields and develop real-world skills that are needed by industries. While TVET programmes have traditionally focused
on the development of technical and vocational skills, they also have the potential to significantly contribute to the
empowerment of women's leadership. Chiloane (2010) states that women who participate in TVET programmes reap
numerous benefits that boost their leadership potential. Increased wages, for example, as a result of acquiring
marketable skills through vocational training can economically empower women by providing them with financial
independence and the confidence to pursue leadership roles. According to a study conducted by Hill (1995), women
who completed training reported higher wages and better job opportunities than those who did not. This economic
empowerment provides a solid foundation for women to challenge societal norms and assume leadership positions.
Change management training can help empower women leaders by providing them with the skills and knowledge
they need to navigate and lead organisational transformations. This is the reason women in leadership are different
compared to men's styles; however, women who wish to be effective leaders should be encouraged to behave
considerately and to improve their participative management skills, not to act more like men (Watson, 1988). This
training assists women leaders in managing change effectively, inspiring and motivating their teams, and achieving
successful outcomes by boosting their confidence, effectiveness, and resilience by learning change management skills.
They become better equipped to handle organisational transformation challenges and inspire their teams to embrace
change and achieve success.
For women to be able to change and transform their organisations, they need mentors to coach them accordingly.
According to Vinnicombe Singh (2002), coaching and mentoring help women leaders succeed in vocational training
and beyond by providing personalised guidance, skill development, self-confidence building, networking opportunities,
emotional support, and long-term career development. This is very important when women leaders face disagreements
about work procedures, employee needs, interests, and ideas, as well as personality clashes that can cause workplace
conflict. Feminist ideology sometimes embeds complexity and internal paradoxes, which infiltrate organisational
structure, operational processes, and activities (Desivilya and Yassour, 2008).
Apart from that, women should have communication skills when dealing with various characters in an
organisation. Zulu (2011) states that strong interpersonal and communication skills, information and power sharing,
professionalism and integrity, servant leadership, and participative, collaborative, androgynous, and transformational
leadership styles are characteristics of female leadership that bring them in line with gentlemen, who are dominant in
top management of an organisation. Therefore, it is crucial that everyone committed to promoting gender equality is
aware of the factors that increase both men's and women's access to leadership opportunities and their capacity for
success in leadership positions. (Kark and Eagly, 2010).
Women leaders gain the skills and competencies needed to communicate a compelling vision, motivate and engage
their teams, and create a positive work environment that fosters innovation through training programmes that empower
women to inspire employees, lead innovation, solve problems, and manage projects effectively. They learn problem-
solving skills, critical thinking, and innovative approaches to overcome obstacles and drive continuous improvement.
Some potential reasons for the positive effect of women on performance include improved innovation and problem-
solving processes in more diverse top management teams, as well as the possibility that women on a team perform
better. (Welbourne et al., 2007). Furthermore, women leaders learn project management skills such as task planning,
organisation, and coordination to ensure successful project execution. Women leaders who develop these skills are
better able to inspire their teams, drive innovation, tackle complex problems, and successfully manage projects, all of
which contribute to the overall success and growth of their organisations.
Through the cultivation and enhancement of these skills, female leaders possess the ability to proficiently guide
their organisations amidst a multitude of challenges. The amalgamation of various skills acquired from diverse
programmes enhances individuals' overall leadership competence, enabling them to effectively inspire and motivate
teams, foster innovation, resolve challenges, and proficiently oversee projects. Furthermore, the amalgamation of these
proficiencies equips women leaders with a comprehensive set of tools to effectively navigate the intricacies of their
positions and generate constructive influence within their respective institutions.

2. Methodology
This study is founded on a thorough and methodical review of literature spanning almost the last decade, which
is from 2015 until 2023. Through a comprehensive analysis of various academic sources, including scholarly
articles, research papers, and publications from reputable journal platforms such as Scopus, the Directory of
Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and Google Scholars, both qualitative and quantitative research designs were
identified. These databases were selected due to their extensive coverage of academic literature in the field of
education, particularly women's leadership through TVET programmes. Based on the study's objectives, the
inclusion criteria for selecting studies were established. Relevant for inclusion were studies that examined how
TVET programmes empower women's leadership. The objective of this study is to identify and implement
various TVET programmes to empower women’s leadership. This study follows the Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines to ensure a rigorous and transparent
literature review. PRISMA is a standard framework for conducting systematic reviews and meta-analyses that
 13 J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21

promotes consistency, reliability, and reproducibility in the research process. According to Knobloch et al.
(2011), using checklists such as PRISMA is anticipated to enhance the reporting efficacy of a systematic review
and offer significant transparency in the paper selection procedure within a systematic review.
Figure 1 shows the process of document selection using the PRISMA concept. In the initial phase of the
systematic literature review, a comprehensive search was conducted using Scopus, DOAJ, and Google Scholars,
the designated research journal platforms. The search consisted of entering pertinent keywords related to the
study's topic to retrieve articles that met the research criteria, such as ‘change management, ‘coaching and
mentoring’, ‘conflict resolution’, ‘communication skills’, ‘gender equality’, ‘inspiring workers’, ‘leading innovation’,
‘problem-solving, and ‘project management’. In total, 300 articles were found, consisting of 50 articles from
Scopus, 75 articles from DOAJ, and 175 articles from Google Scholars. However, remember that these platforms
have some limitations, particularly regarding access to full articles. To overcome this limitation, inaccessible
items were removed using a manual exclusion process. Articles were screened for certain criteria during the
manual exclusion process. Articles written in languages other than the primary language of the research (such as
Russian or French) are initially rejected. This ensured that language barriers did not impede a thorough
literature review. Because the purpose of this study was to include only freely available research, articles that
required a paid subscription were excluded for a more in-depth analysis. Various resources, including publicly
available articles, have also been included. Furthermore, articles published before 2015 were not considered.
Articles published within the past nine years are eligible because they provide a more current perspective.

Fig. 1 PRISMA flow diagram of document selection.

3. Result
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs empower women by contributing to their
leadership development and skill-building. Table 1 analyses different TVET programmes' contributions to
women's leadership development and skill-building. A comprehensive analysis of TVET programs' contributions
J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21 14

to women's leadership development and skill-building should consider both quantitative and qualitative
indicators, considering the broader socio-economic context and the specific needs and aspirations of women in
diverse communities.

Table 1 Analysis of different TVET programmes' contributions to women's leadership development and skill-
building
No Author Research focus Aspect
1 Minani and Women's Empowerment TVET empowers Rwandan women and improves
Sikubwabo Through Technical and their skills. Hands-on skills have helped women
(2022) Vocational Training (Tvet) become more independent by giving them access
In Rwanda's Rubavu to traditionally male jobs, building their
District confidence and self-esteem, and making it easier
to get jobs. Entrepreneurship skills help women
set business goals, improve their social and
economic status, and become self-sufficient.
Communication skills help women express their
thoughts, feelings, and choices and use their
knowledge and skills to get jobs. The study
recommended that the Ministry of Education
(MINEDUC), Rwanda Polytechnic (RP), Rwanda
TVET Board (RTB), and TVET schools continue to
encourage women to pursue technical and
vocational training to compete in the job market.

2 Ogema et. al Women's socioeconomic Leadership boosts vocational training for women
(2021) empowerment vocational and girls. Leaders should encourage the creation
training centres in Nakuru of more vocational centres to empower women
Town, Kenya and girls by increasing wages, job mobility, job
opportunities, entrepreneurship, and social
change.

3 Khalid et. al. Examine how the women's Post-training evaluations showed improved
(2021) business education and knowledge, tools, and leadership. The training
leadership training programme encouraged women to change their
programme impacts and self-image and gain confidence to change society.
contributes to women's Leadership training works, according to the
empowerment at a higher findings. Training improves women's knowledge
institutional level. and behaviour. Training programmes help
women develop personally and professionally.
The programme helped women understand
work-life challenges and develop personal skills
to gain equal rights.

4 Ekanayake Female Inmates' The trainers focused on seven themes regarding

(2021) Perceptions of the the effectiveness of vocational training
Effectiveness of Prison- programmes for female inmates in two Sri Lankan
Based Vocational Training prisons. Good organisational support for
Programmes in Sri Lanka vocational training programmes, positive
reactions from female inmates to taking the
training, creating opportunities for female
inmates to expand their learning and helping ex-
inmates find self-employment, learning and
behavioural changes among inmates, promoting
inter-relationships among female inmates,
offering an effective incentive system for female
inmates, and cost avoidance in the prison Female
inmates, prison authorities, and society benefit
from vocational training programmes.
15 J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21

5 Shah (2021) The Influence of Education Age, education, and household head education
and Labour Force empower women. Urban women have jobs,
Participation on Women's education, and infrastructure opportunities. The
Empowerment in study suggests funding primary and secondary
Pakistan: A Case Study of schools for remote women. Vocational schools
District Khanewal would empower women socioeconomically for
their future endeavors.

6 Phala and The Efficiency of Women are the family's heart, and vocational
Mukonza Vocational Training and education and training reduce poverty. Vocational
(2021) Financial Access in education and training empower women and
Alleviating Poverty among increase their competitiveness, giving them better
Rural South African lives and living opportunities. Rural families and
Women community’s benefit. Women's economic
empowerment reduces poverty, according to
responses. The South African government should
improve vocational training and financing to
reduce rural poverty.

7 Niharika and Women and Development The policy and institutional framework for
Singh (2020) in India: Empowering teaching women business skills, vocational
Women in The Hazaribag training, and education have made it easier for
District Through Skills women to succeed financially. The National Skill
Development Development Policy and Mission were established
by the Indian government in
2009. These were designed to help people get
jobs, learn skills, and start businesses. Skill-
building and job training empower women,
according to this article.

8 Biswas et. al Participation in household Both study areas had a majority of married,
(2020) decision-making among homemaker, secondary-educated participants.
married women in Rural women participated less than urban
Bankura, West Bengal, women. Participation was statistically related to
both rural and urban areas age, occupation, and family type in urban and
rural areas. Vocational training and a supportive
job market are essential for women's
participation in household decision-making.

9 Djan and Women's Educational Mentoring, professional development, and

Seminary Leadership Challenges in leadership and administrative support help
(2020) Tano North Municipality, women leaders succeed. To prepare women for
Ahafo Region, Ghana leadership roles, Tano North Municipal Education
Office and other gender-based groups should
regularly hold leadership training seminars.

10 Adhikari Cosmological Orientation Nepalese women enrol in the short-term mobile

(2019) in Promoting Short-Term skill-training programme because they see it as a
Mobile Skill-Trainings: A way to rise in society. Due to family and friend
Narrative Inquiry on obligations, they prefer a convenient and brief
Women's Lives in Nepal training location and programme. This study's
findings can be used to create effective plans and
policies for short-term vocational training in
mobile settings for women to improve their
socioeconomic status without compromising their
family values.

11 Korber and Employment and earnings Vocational education has comparable job
Oesch (2019) in Switzerland over the life prospects to general education in the second half
course: Vocational versus of workers' careers. Vocational education lowers
J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21 16

general education earnings after age 30, especially for women.

Vocational degrees prevent unemployment but
flatten lifetime earnings curves.

12 Bonzet and Gender transformation Gender transformation has helped female leaders
Frick (2019) experiences among advance. Some respondents gave up their
Western Cape TVET Sector leadership ambitions due to gender stereotyping
women leaders: A and gender-based discrimination. The narratives
narrative response can guide gender transformation in TVET college
leadership for all genders, despite the small
sample size.

13 Williams et. al Women's challenges in Technical and vocational women face financial
(2018) technical and vocational constraints, sexual harassment, childbirth while
education: A case study of studying, insufficient educational facilities, and
Gusau Federal College of unqualified lecturers. These obstacles hinder
Education (Technical). women's technical and vocational education. The
study recommended that the government provide
stipends, a good learning environment, and the
necessary educational facilities for women in
vocational and technical education.

14 Osman and Women's Representation Low female participation was caused by cultural
Abdulai (2018) and Participation in Local and male prejudices against women, low
Governance: A Case Study economic empowerment, low self-confidence, low
of Ghana's Sissala East education, and excessive marital obligations. The
District study suggested civic education, economic
empowerment, and leadership training to
increase women's participation in local
governance in the district

15 Ombati (2017) The purpose of this study More gender equality in education and training
is to look at data on the improves women's chances of holding legislative
patterns, nature, and leadership positions in Kenya.
extent of women's
legislative representation
in Kenya, as well as the
role of education in
increasing their
participation.

16 Iliško et. al. Examine the cultural roots International law and the UN's goal of gender
(2017) of gendered inequality in equality in all important areas of life will
positions of leadership strengthen democracy and improve its
and economic power, as functioning. Management programmes in higher
revealed by the literature education can boost women's leadership
review and interviews. potential by teaching assertiveness and critical
Interview data reveals the thinking.
obstacles women must
overcome to advance in
their careers and their
success stories.

17 Garbuja & Pasa Women Empowerment Technical and vocational training is crucial to
(2016) through Technical and women's empowerment and local social and
Vocational Education and economic development. The VDC promotes social
Training: A Case Study and economic development by empowering
from Bima VDC in Myagdi capable and skilled women to make decisions,
District, Nepal lead, teach, and change.
 17 J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21

18 Kumari and Women Empowerment Intervention points exist in vegetable farming.

Laxmikant through Rural Women Women cleaned land, sowed seed, transplanted
(2015) Participation in Vocational vegetable gardens, hoed, weeded, scared birds
and and rodents, harvested and processed vegetables,
Technical Programmes in and stored seed. Women don't participate in
the Vegetable Production operations due to fatigue, muscle power
Industry in India requirements, and decision-making inexperience.
Due to custom, tradition, ignorance, illiteracy, and
a lack of extension programme participation,
women only supported decision-making.
Education, technical training, and extension
facilities for women can improve tomorrow.

19 Kirkup (2015) Education funding policies STEM education dominated this time. Even
and STEM careers: A UK neighbouring European countries have vastly
All Party Parliamentary different apprenticeship systems and value
Group on Sex Equality vocational education differently. However, while
review. the numbers of students involved can vary
greatly, the impact of vocational education
funding policy is likely to be comparable, and in
this meeting, government funding policy was
identified as a major factor in the continued
underrepresentation of young women in STEM
vocational education.

20 Segilola (2015) Assessing rural women's Vocational training for rural women in Osun State
basic training needs in is ineffective for self-reliance; training centres
Osun State, southwest have problems; and government commitment to
Nigeria, in light of the vocational training affects rural women's
Millennium Development empowerment. To empower rural women in the
Goals state, self-sustaining enterprises must be
developed through an effective vocational
training programme, leadership, financial and
logistical support, and so on.

Table 2 below shows the concept matrix domains for women’s leadership TVET programme. There are nine
domains identifies from 20 articles such as change management, coaching and mentoring, conflict resolution,
communication skills, gender equality, inspiring workers, leading innovation, problem solving and project
management.
J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21 18

Table 2 Concept Matrix Domains for Women's Leadership TVET Programme

4. Discussion
Referring to Table 2 the most dominant training is Inspiring workers followed by coaching and mentoring.
Motivation is key to employee performance and company success. Management can help motivate and
encourage their employees by understanding the nature or concept of motivation and how it relates to and
impacts the workplace environment and employee well-being. Learning motivational techniques and how and
when to use them to encourage employees to reach their highest potential is essential for effective leadership.
According to Ogema et al (2021), Leadership is essential in increasing vocational training opportunities for
women and girls through motivational training. Recognizing the transformative impact of vocational training,
leaders should actively promote and support the establishment of a greater number of vocational centers to
empower women and girls by providing them with increased wages, job mobility, job opportunities,
entrepreneurship, and the opportunity to contribute to social transformation and change their self-perception
and gain confidence in order to effect transformative social change. (Khalid et. al, 2021). Apart from top
management motivating women in empowering their leadership skills, they must According to Ekanayake
(2021), good organizational support for vocational training programmes may lead to positive reactions from
women inmates to taking the training, creating opportunities for female and to expand their learning as well as
promoting inter-relationships among workers.
The coaching and mentoring programme also is crucial based on the review of 20 articles, which contributes
the second highest dominant among other training programmes domains. According to Shah (2021), education
positively impacts women's empowerment through mentoring and coaching. Urban women have many jobs,
education, and infrastructure opportunities. As such those urban women who have been trained in leadership
roles should train those women residing in remote areas. This can start as early as the school era through
 19 J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21

vocational training by strengthening and empowering women socio-economically for their future endeavours
This is supported by the study from Biswas et. al (2020) where the level of overall participation was higher
among urban women than among rural women in term of leadership skills. In both urban and rural areas, the
level of participation was statistically related to age, occupation, and family type. Women's empowerment
through vocational training and a favourable environment for job opportunities are critical for increasing
women's participation in household decision-making. Mentoring, professional development, and leadership and
administrative support have been shown to help women in leadership positions excel as reported by Djan and
Seminary (2020). In the study, it was suggested that the Tano North Municipal Education Office and other
gender-based groups organise leadership training programmes or seminars for women on a regular basis to
prepare them professionally for leadership positions.
TVET programmes help improve women's skills in many aspects, such as hands-on, as we all know that
women are multitaskers, and these skills help women become more independent. Minani and Sikubwabo (2022)
emphasised in their study the importance of hands-on skills, which have helped women become more
independent by giving them access to jobs that were traditionally done by men, building their confidence and
self-esteem, and making it easier for them to get jobs in Rwanda and India. Nevertheless, Sánchez-Gordón et al.
(2016) mentioned that getting the best out of people and changing them is not always easy, and it is a challenge
that cannot be ignored. That is why organisations should develop an institutional framework for teaching
women business skills and giving them vocational training, which gives women a high positive impact on change
management and leadership skills compared to general education (Korber & Oesch, 2019). (Niharika and Singh,
2020). Men and women should work together in top management and always communicate with each other to
grow the organisation. Communication skills are a vital element in empowering leadership among women,
ensuring the equal participation of men and women in all significant spheres of life, and upholding international
law and the United Nations. (Iliko et al., 2017).
Stereotyping and gender bias happened a long time ago, and many initiatives have taken place from year to
year talking about gender bias in terms of political, economic, and social aspects. According to Hooghe et al.
(2015), gender bias in the media persists even when the political system evolves rapidly towards equal
representation. There was a study carried out by Williams et al. (2018) showed that women in technical and
vocational education face financial constraints, sexual harassment, childbirth while studying, insufficient
educational facilities, and unqualified lecturers. Additionally, Kirkup (2015) reported that STEM education was
the primary concern because of the low participation of young women, which has a significant impact on the
continued underrepresentation of young women in STEM vocational education. These conflict resolutions
towards women have a negative impact on women's pursuit of technical and vocational education; however, the
study suggested that the government should provide stipends, a good learning environment, and the necessary
educational facilities to women pursuing vocational and technical education so that negative stigma towards
pursuing TVET programmes can be avoided and more gender equality in education and training improves
women's chances of holding legislative leadership positions in Kenya, as reported by Ombati (2017).
Women's dedication to family and work is an important factor that deserves consideration. Women
frequently face unique challenges in balancing family responsibilities with professional obligations. Various
factors influence women's commitment to their families and careers. According to Bonzet and Frick (2019),
gender transformation and improving the career advancement of women leaders in the workplace to stay
relevant and competitive in rapidly changing markets have been given attention in many aspects and on
governments’ agendas. The importance of technical and vocational education and training in transforming
women's empowerment and social and economic development at the local level cannot be overstated.
Furthermore, capable and skilled women equally play decision-making, leadership, educational, and change
agent roles in promoting social and economic development (Garbuja & Pasa, 2016).
Cultural and male prejudices against women, low economic empowerment, low self-confidence, low
educational levels, and excessive marital obligations all contributed to low women's participation in top
management in Ghana, as reported by Osman and Abdulai (2018). According to the same study mentioned,
women are residing in the Sissala East District in Ghana, which is rural with more than 80% of the people living
in rural settlements and engaged in farming. Due to this, one of the TVET programmes, namely self-sustaining
enterprises that can empower rural women, should be implemented as proposed by Segilola (2015). Short-term
mobile skill-training programmes can contribute to greater social status by adjusting commitments for women
with families and professional careers. Adhikari (2019) suggested the development of effective plans and
policies for providing women with short-term vocational training in mobile settings, with the goal of improving
their socioeconomic status without compromising their commitment to family values and supportive role in
decision-making. Kumari and Laxmikant, 2015).

5. Conclusion
The comprehensive review of 20 articles emphasises the critical role of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) programmes in empowering women and encouraging their participation in leadership
J. of TVET and Technology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 (2023) p. 11-21 20

positions. Leadership development, coaching and mentoring, and closing the urban-rural divide are critical
components in improving women's skills, independence, and access to job opportunities. However, persistent
gender biases, cultural prejudices, and the difficulty of juggling family and work responsibilities continue to
stymie women's advancement. To overcome these barriers, it is critical to address biases, promote gender
equality, and create supportive environments that encourage women's leadership aspirations and allow them to
fully contribute to social and economic development.

Acknowledgement
The authors would also like to thank Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, 86400, Johor, Malaysia to support this research.

Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of the paper.

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