UNIT 3 BUDDHISM -I

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Metaphysical Views of Buddhism
3.3 Doctrine of Dependent Origination
3.4 Practical teachings of Buddhism
3.5 Nirvana
3.6 Karma
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key Words
3.9 Further Readings and References
3.10 Answers to Chcek Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES

Early Buddhism is also known as Pali Buddhism or canonical Buddhism. Early Buddhism must
be differentiated from the later schools, which grew up long after when Buddha had taught. This
great creed called Buddhism was founded by Siddharta who belonged to the family of Gautama
or Gotama. He was called „Buddha‟, which means the „awakened one‟ after he got
enlightenment. In this Unit you will come to know:

 metaphysical views of Buddhism

 doctrine of dependent origination
 practical teachings of Buddhism
 nirvana
 karma

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The Buddha was born in the sixth century B.C. It was an age of spiritual restlessness. Society
was going away from real Philosophy. The whole sacrificial cult became very complicated. The
Vedic sacrifices meant conformity to the letters of the law instead of the spirit of worship. The
princely patron‟s encouragement made way for priestly greed. Thus, there was a need for the re-
orientation of faith. The Buddha came on the philosophic scene at such a time in history and
gave to the world an extremely pragmatic and scientific Philosophy.

When Siddharta woke up to the fact that the world is full of suffering, his mind got restless to
find a solution for the ills of life. In fact, for him the individual instances of suffering were
illustrations of a universal problem. Finding that the things of sense are empty, Siddharta
decided to renounce the comfort of the palace and became a wanderer, for in those days the
seekers of light began their search by repudiating the comforts of life and wandering in search of

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truth. He made this great renunciation at the age of twenty-nine and first tried to find spiritual
rest by philosophic thought under the tutelage of great teachers of that time. But soon he found
that subtle dialectics are no cure for mental unrest. The other means of escape was through
bodily austerities. He wandered with five ascetics who underwent bodily mortifications of the
most severe type. However, the fervour of asceticism did not give him any solace and hence
decided to have a fresh course of self-discipline characterized by l.ess vigour . .He won over all
evil thoughts and dispositions, conquered desire (tŗşņā), attachment (rāga) and aversion (arati).
He gained a deep insight into the mysteries of existence – first of self and then of human destiny
in general and lastly of the universe as a whole. Thus seated under the bodhi tree, a new light
dawned on Siddharta and he became the enlightened one or the Buddha. Legend says that when
he sat under the tree in meditation, Māra tried to distract him. But the Buddha conquered every
temptation (Māra) and hence he is called hero (Vira), the Victor (Jina) and Tathāgata, the one
who knows things as they are. He is Arhant, the worthy. Buddha‟s mission now was to help the
great multitude of people who were living in sin and infancy. He preached the Gospel of the
four Noble Truths and the eight-fold path to the troubled world. The peace and serenity on
Buddha‟s face just made him very dear to any one who came under his influence. His first
pupils were his five ascetic friends who had gone away from him when as Siddharta, he decided
to give up severe asceticism.

Buddha never wrote any books and hence there is a certain amount of vagueness about his
teachings as they were gathered from works that were compiled a long time after his death.
However, the total literature of Buddhism is so large that it is quite impossible to master all of
them. There are many versions of the sacred scriptures written either in Prākrt or a form of
Sanskrit with its own syntax and vocabulary. It is not possible to say that all that has come down
to us is absolutely authentic and are master‟s own words. Certain old works are identified as
those which serve as the basis of our knowiedge of early Buddhism. These works are written in
Pāli, which is a dialect of Sanskrit.

The canon is generally known as Tripiţaka (The Three Baskets) after the three sections into
which it is divided. They are: –

Suttas or utterances of Buddha himself

Vinaya or rules of conduct
Abhidhamma or philosophic discussions.

These piţakas are often in the form of dialogues and there is no methodical discussion in them of
any topic in the modern sense of the term. They contain many metaphors and allegories, which
is also the cause of some indefiniteness about the doctrine of the Buddha. Of the three piţakas
the suttas are very important because they contain discourses by Buddha. It is divided into five
sections:

Digha Nikāya (long discourses)

Majjima Nikāya (discourses of shorter length)
Saņyutta Nikāya (collection of short pronouncements)
Anjguttara Nikāya (short passages arranged in sections)

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Khuddaka Nikāya (a matter of works of varying types containing Dhammapada, Jataka tales,
etc.)

The Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of conduct of the Buddhist order of monks and nuns. The
Abhidhamma piţaka is a collection of seven works on Buddhist philosophy and metaphysics.

There are numerous other works in Pāli, which are not generally considered canonical. The most
important are the commentaries on the books of the canon. It is believed that most of these were
compiled in Cylon by the great doctor Buddhaghosa of the fifth century A.D. from earlier
commentaries. At a later date, Jataka verses were made into prose and that is one of the most
beautiful narrative literatures. Buddhaghosa is also the author of „Visudhimagga‟, which means
„The way of purification‟. Another very important Pāli work of early date is „Milindapañha‟ i.e.,
the questions of king Menander. The inscriptions of emperor Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) are also of
great value because they are inspired by Buddhism inculcating the moral philosophy of
Buddhism.

Though Buddhism is a non-Vedic school and essentially different from the Upanishads in one
sense we can say that certain Upanishadic tendencies are carried to their logical conclusions by
the Buddha. For example, the Upanishads are against the belief in a personal God and the
Buddha dismisses that conception altogether. So also, the self is explained negatively in the
Upanishads and the Buddha eliminates the conception of a self, altogether. Buddha‟s belief in
Karma doctrine is a clear proof of the connection of Buddhism with the Upanishads.

When anyone thinks of the general tendencies of Buddhism, the first thought that comes up is its
pessimistic flavor. However, by any yardstick, Buddhism cannot be called pessimistic. If the
Sarnath sermon is to be taken as our guide we may take one point of the Buddha‟s instruction as
basic, namely, just as there are ills (heya), and their causes (heya-hetu), so also a cure (hāna) and
a path (hānapāya) exist. This is just like the science of medicine. If there is an ailment (roga),
there will be a cause for it (roga-hetu). Once the cause of the ailment is diagnosed, the cure is
not far away. This shows that though the Buddha said that all is suffering – Sarvam Dukham, he
did not stop at that. Buddha‟s doctrine is not a creed of despair. Even though he points out that
misery is a fact, he does not say that man is doomed. Man can get peace here and now, says
Buddha. Therefore Buddhism is not pessimistic but a doctrine of hope. Secondly, as pointed out
earlier, its fundamental ideas and essential spirit is scientific. During the time of the Buddha
excessive discussions were leading to anarchy of thought. The emphasis was on the performance
of sacrifices. People were becoming more dogmatic and less positivistic. Buddha revolted
against their trend and rejected all that was not positively known. Hence, he was against the
Vedic rituals and Vedic tradition. He did not believe in any supernatural power. To put it
briefly, Buddha did not believe in anything beyond the sphere of perception and reason. One of
the most important features of Buddhism is that it is pragmatic. Buddha taught only what was
necessary for overcoming evil. Deliverance from pain and evil was his one concern and he
neither found time nor need to unravel metaphysical subtlities. He was evidently practical in his
teachings. He said, “Philosophy purifies none, peace alone does.” From what has been said so
far it is clear that we should not look for any metaphysics as such in the teachings of the Buddha.
We can truly say that, though there is no metaphysical aim in the teachings of the Buddha, there
is a metaphysical view underlying it.

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3.2 METAPHYSICAL VIEWS OF BUDDHISM

Early Buddhism recognizes the distinction between consciousness and matter but does not accept
either a permanent self or a permanent unchanging material or physical world. Buddha
established that there is nothing permanent and declared that everything is anatta or not self.
Buddhist writings declare thus – “At any moment of experience, we stumble upon some
particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure.”
As given in experience, the Buddha believed in these transient sensations and said that it is not
necessary to believe that these sensations belong to a permanent self. That is, he believed in only
the states of consciousness. To him the sensations and the thought together with the physical
frame with which they are associated are themselves the self. He described the self as an
aggregate or Samghāta. It is a psycho-physical entity known as nāma-rūpa (name and form).
Nāma or name refers to the pshysical factors and rūpa or form refers to the physical frame. A
close analysis of the „self‟ shows that it is made up of five factors or skandas. They are:

Sensation or feeling (vedanā) of pleasure, pain and indifference;

Perception or idea (samjña) conceptual knowledge;
Conative disposition (samskāra);
Discriminative intelligence or reason (vijñāna);
Physical form.

This brings out clearly the analytical character of Buddhism highlighting the psychological basis
of its analysis. The explanation given about material things is similar. To the Buddha the
attributes themselves are the objects and he denied any self-sustaining substance, apart from
them. Thus, the material things, like the self, are also aggregates. This is Buddha‟s nairatmya
vāda or soul denial.

The other important view of Buddhism is kşanika vāda or the Law of Moment-ariness, according
to which both the mental and physical reality are subjected to constant flux. When we look
around us we notice that everything is subjected to constant change and nothing is permanent.
To some extent, it is language, which leads to the mistaken notion of something enduring. We
use one word to refer to one thing and one name to refer to one particular person and that makes
us believe that a thing or a person is enduring even though it is constantly changing. Buddhism
says that when we say “It thinks” or “It is white”, we mean by the „It‟, nothing more than when
we say, “It rains”. There are several parables in Buddhist literature to bring home to us the full
import of the doctrine. The most famous parable is that of the chariot. In the work, “Questions
of king Milinda”, a conversation between the Greek King Menander and a Buddhist sage,
Nāgasena is recorded. The sage described the doctrine of no self but the king was not convinced.
In order to make the king understand the theory, the sage asked him if the king came on foot or
in a chariot. To this the king replied that he always traveled in a chariot. On learning this, the
sage asked the king to define the chariot. Counting on the various parts of the chariot, the sage
asked if we could call the pole, or the wheels or the axle as the chariot. This example made the
king realize that „chariot‟ is just a symbol for the various parts assembled together in a particular
way. According to Buddhism, both soul and matter exist only as complexes and neither is a

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single self-contained entity. The fundamental teaching of Buddhism is the doctrine of dependent
origination.

3.3 DOCTRINE OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION

According to this doctrine, “this arising that arises, this ceasing that ceases to be.” The doctrine
of universal change and impermanence follows from this fundamental teaching of Buddhism,
viz., Pratitya Samutpāda. Change can be understood in terms of conditional existence. This law
of causation is the basis of continuity. Both the elements of the material world and of the mental
world are subjected to laws of physical and moral causation. This law insists on the necessity of
sufficient conditions. Buddha neither believed in „Being nor non-Being‟; but only in
„Becoming‟. Thus he gave a dynamic explanation of the real. The symbols generally used to
illustrate this conception are the stream of water and the self-consuming flame. Just as the flame
and the stream of water, both the metal and the physical reality are subjected to constant flux.
When we view the aggregate, be it the self or the material object in time, we notice that they are
not the same even for two moments. So the self and the material world are each a flux
(samtāna). Just as the flame and the stream of water, everything is only a series (vithi) – a
succession of similar things or happenings. The notion of fixity we have of them is wholly
fictitious. There were two views current during the time when Buddha philosophized – one
believing in Being and the other in non-Being. Buddha opposed both these views when he
propounded his view of reality as dynamic. . Thus, according to Buddhism, neither Being nor
non-Being is the truth; the truth is that everything is „Becoming‟. We know through experience
that everything is characterized by birth, growth, decay and death, which means that everything
is subjected to constant change and that nothing is permanent. What is important to note is that
for Buddha, there is incessant change but at the same time there is nothing that changes. There is
action but no agent. Since everything is a series, it is relevant to ask as to what is the relation
between any two successive members of the series. One explanation given during the time of the
Buddha was that it is accidental, and the other explanation did recognize a causal relation as
underlying the succession but introduced a supernatural power like God in addition to the known
factors. Buddha rejected both these views and postulated necessity as the sole governing factor.
In denying chance he took his stand on the uniformity of nature and in denying supernatural
intervention; he disassociated himself from all dogmatic religion. According to Buddhism, the
causal law governing all change in the phenomenal world is not a mere unfolding of a cause but
the result of certain external factors co-operating with it. Change can be understood in terms of
conditional existence. In other words, a causal series will not begin unless certain conditions are
fulfilled and the series will continue so long as all the factors are there. The series will end only
when one or more co-operating factors are withdrawn. For example, the flame series will not
start until the wick, the oil, etc. are there and will continue till one or more of the factors are
withdrawn. The law itself is universal and does not admit of exceptions but yet the operation of
the law is dependent on conditions. This is the precise reason why it is called “dependent
origination” or “pratītya samutpāda” - that being present, this becomes; from the arising of that,
this arises”. The literal meaning of the phrase „pratītya samutpāda‟ is “arising in correlation
with”. Conversely, the law indicates that when the conditions cease to be, the series will cease,
or “from the cessation of that, this ceases.”

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The Buddhist psychology, which explains their views on epistemology, is also based on the
theory of causation, or law of dependent origination. As pointed out earlier, the nāma rūpa
(aggregate of name and form) refer to five conditions and they arise depending upon one another.
In Samyutta-Nikāya III 1.0.1, it is said, “The four mahābhūtas (the elements of fire, air, water
and earth) were the hetu and paccaya (reason and cause) for the communication of the
rupakkhandha (form). Contact is the cause of the communication of the feelings (vedanā); sense
contact is also the hetu and pacccaya for the communication of the sannakkandha (specific
knowing), sense-contact is also the hetu and pacccaya for the communication of the
sankhārakkandha (mental states and synthetic activity). But nāma rūpa is the hetu and pacccaya
for the communication of the vinnanakkanda (reason).”

Pratītya Samutpāda or the theory of dependent origination is the most significant in early
Buddhism. It is central to all the views of the Buddha. Unlike the other causal theories like
svabhāva vāda, which lead to determinism, Buddha‟s views make room for human effort. After
the great renunciation, under the bodhi tree, it is the law of contingent causation, which, at last,
flashed across Siddharta‟s mind and made him the „Buddha‟. The theory states, “that becoming,
this becomes or that being absent, this does not become” which means that every effect has a
series of causes and hence the Buddha went on to find the cause of suffering and the method by
which with one‟s own effort, freedom from suffering is possible. Before going on to Buddha‟s
practical teachings it is necessary to examine some of the criticism leveled against Buddhism.

One of the commonly alluded criticisms against Kşanika vāda or the doctrine of momentariness
is as to how such a theory can account for memory. If every thing is continually renewed, it is
important to know how recognition of objects, the apprehension of objects as the same that we
already know is explained. Buddhism answers that things in the two moments of cognition are
only similar and we mistake them to be the same. In other words, all recognition is erroneous
since similarity is mistaken for identity. As regards memory, the Buddhist explanation is that
each phase of experience as it appears and disappears is wrought up into the next, so that every
successive phase has within it all the potentialities of its predecessors which, manifest when the
conditions are favorable. Hence, though a man is not the same in two successive moments, he is
not quite different. The self is not only a collection entity but also a recollect-ive entity. It is on
this basis Buddhism establishes moral responsibility. This is clear from the suttas of Buddhism
and their Jataka Stories, where a sinner is pointed at and told that he alone reaps the fruits of his
actions. Buddhism denies unity in the sense of identity of material, but recognizes continuity in
its place. If we represent two self-series as A1, A2, A3…and B1, B2, B3, … though the two
series are not identical, there is a kinship among the members of each series. That is, there is a
kinship between A1, A2, A3…etc., but A1 will not have a kinship with B1 or A2 with B2 and so
on. Thus, Buddhism recognizes a „fluid self‟, which cannot be regarded as altogether a
dissimilar or distinct series. Several thinkers commenting on this aspect of Buddhism have
opined that by giving the above theory, the Buddhist has tacitly admitted a self,transcending the
experience of the moment because a series can never become aware of itself. Some others are of
the opinion that Buddha did not disbelieve in the concept of self but the later followers of the
Buddha innovated the negation of the self. This point is debatable but it goes without saying that
the principles of impermanence and no self are fundamental to the teachings of the Buddha.

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Early Buddhism recognized only four elements or bhūtas viz., earth, fire and air. They did not
believe in the concept of ākāśa. However, we must remember that these names are only
conventional and they do not stand for anything more than the sense data associated with them
viz., hardness, fluidity, heat and pressure respectively. The material world, our senses and our
bodies are all aggregates derived from these elements and they are called bhautika to indicate
their secondary character. The psychical aspects are called caitta or mental “Dharma dhātu” is
the term used in Buddhism to refer to the causal elements that are responsible for the
manifestation of phenomena. Dharma dhātu has two aspects:

The world of phenomenal manifestation

The state of „thusness‟ or noumena

The causal theory of Buddhism usually applies to the phenomenal world but in speaking of the
ideal world as realized the latter sense is also applied. Taking the first sense of the term „dharma
dhātu‟ it refers to the actual world, the realm of all elements of phenomenal existence. Causal
origination is thus the theory, which sets out the fact that all beings are correlative,
interdependent and mutually originating. Matter and mind arise simultaneously due to
interdependence. It refers to the totality of all existence- Dharma dhātu, in its reference to the
world, speaks of the sphere of samsāra (life flux), the cycle of birth and death, which is one of
dynamic becoming. Thus, all created beings dependent on the principle of cause and effect are
within its realm. Taken in this sense, only the Buddha or enlightened being is outside the
dharma dhātu. In the second sense, i.e., in the sense of thusness or noumena, it signifies the state
of liberation or „Nirvāna.‟ It is the stage of cessation of all becoming, it is the true state of all
things in the universe, freedom from bondage and the final release from suffering.

Check your progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

1. What made Buddha think that the world is full of suffering?

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2. Does Buddhism have Upanishadic tendencies?
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3.4 PRACTICAL TEACHINGS OF BUDDHISM

Practical teachings of Buddhism are in conformity with their theoretical philosophy. If all the
things in the world are impermanent, then our effort to secure them either for ourselves or for
others is meaningless. The very desire for them is a delusion. We must get over desire. More
than desiring things, we are overcome with a desire to preserve ourselves. Since there is no self
(anatta), we should get over the craving. With the negation of self, all the narrow selfish

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impulses necessarily disappear, along with the whole range of narrow love and hatred. Since the
belief in self-identity is false, ignorance or avidya becomes the true source of all evil. Thus, here
in Buddhism, as in the Upanishads, evil is traced to ignorance and the way to escape from
samsāra is through right knowledge. But the meaning of „avidya‟ in the two teachings is
different. Avidya in the Upanishads represents the ignorance of the essential unity of all
existence but in Buddhism, it means the failure to realize the hollowness of the self. The true
knowledge or vidya in Buddhism is called the Arya-Satya or the Four Noble Truths. They are:

Duhkha – Suffering
Samudaya – The origin of suffering – cause of sufferings
Nirodha – Removal of suffering
Mārga – The way to remove suffering

According to the Buddha, the failure to see the four noble truths is what leads to suffering and
rebirth. Buddha looks upon suffering as a great disease and while seeking a remedy, he follows
the scientific method of a physician. After arriving at the right cause of misery, he proposes the
remedy. Without a proper diagnosis, no disease will get cured. Similarly, the Buddha gives the
remedy after analyzing the causes of suffering. That is the reason why the Buddha is called the
Great Healer. The first three noble truths speak of the theoretical aspect of the Buddhist teaching
and the last its practical aspect.

The First Noble Truth is about the fact that there is suffering. The Buddhist texts say that birth is
painful, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful, union with the unpleasant is painful,
painful is the separation from the pleasant, any craving that is not satisfied is painful; in short,
the five aggregates (body, feeling, perception, will and reason) which spring from attachment are
painful.

The Second Noble Truth is about the origin of suffering. That there is a cause of suffering,
follows from the belief that whatever is, must have had a cause. Pratitya samut pāda clearly
states that “from the arising of that, this arises. Now, suffering is a fact and it must have had a
cause. Buddha found this cause to be ignorance in the last resort. The aim of the Buddha was to
find out the process by which ignorance leads to evil. The way in which ignorance causes
misery is explained with the help of twelve links. They are:
Ignorance (avidya)
Action (Samskāra)
Consciousness (vijñāna)
Name and form (nāma rūpa)
The six fields viz., the five senses and the mind together with their objects (şadāyatana)
Contact between the senses and the objects (sparśa)
Sensation (vedanā)
Desire (tŗşnā)
Clinging to existence (upādāna)
Being (bhava)
Re-birth (jāti)
Pain old age and death (jarā-maraņa)

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This chain of causation is not restricted only to the present life but it includes reference to the
past and the future. Putting it briefly we can say that ignorance is the root cause of suffering.
From ignorance proceeds, desire, desire leads to activity and it brings in its turn rebirth with its
fresh desires. This is the vicious cycle of samsāra – the bhava-cakra or the wheel of existence.

The Third Noble Truth is the removal of suffering. Breaking the chain of existence is bhava-
nirodha. Buddha states that for each condition in the chain, there is a cause, a source or
origination. If the condition ceases, the effect does not occur. When the attachments to desires
are absent, the fetters of lust, hate and delusion are rooted out. Thus, one succeeds in breaking
the links of the chain of causation. The goal of liberation is attained which is the end of all
suffering and cessation of the cycle of birth and death. The Buddhist causal theory clearly states
though the process which gives rise to suffering involves a necessity, the necessity is not
absolute. A series though began, admits of being put an end to.

The Fourth Noble Truth is the way to remove suffering. This gives the path that one has to
follow in order to overcome suffering. The path of self-discipline, which leads man to the
desired goal of emancipation from samsāra is eight-fold. They are –

Right faith
Right resolve
Right speech
Right action
Right living
Right effort
Right thought
Right concentration

To put it briefly, prajña or right knowledge of the four-fold truth is the basis of the whole
discipline. But prajña does not mean mere intellectual conviction, but it means an intuitive
experience. Buddha said that salvation is possible only through self-reliance. For knowledge to
become an internal certainty, sīla and samādhi are necessary. Śīla means right conduct which
includes virtues like veracity, contentment and non-injury (ahimsā). Samādhi is meditation,
which aids in securing tranquility of mind and gaining a clear insight into the truth.

Right living prescribed for the laymen is different from what is described for the monks. But in
both cases, the discipline is not very severe. Buddha strikes a mean between self-indulgence and
self-mortification. Buddha says that self-indulgence is a life of pleasure and devoted to desire
and enjoyment, which is base, ignoble, unspiritual, unworthy and unreal. Again, self-
mortification is gloomy, unworthy and unreal. Buddha says that the perfect path lies between the
two extremes. It is the middle way (Madhyama Pratipath) which enlightens the eyes, enlightens
the mind which leads to rest, to knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nirvāna.
3.5 NIRVANA
The goal of discipline is Nirvāna. Nirvāna is the Summum Bonacm of Buddhism and the person
who has attained the ultimate goal is called Arhant. What is Mokşa to the Hindu, the Tao is to
the Chinese mystic, Fana to the Sufi, Eternal Life to the followers of Jesus, that is Nirvāna to the
Buddhist. The word Nirvāna literally means, „blowing out‟ or „becoming cool‟. It is the

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blowing out of the fire of lust (rāga), of resentment (dosa), of glamour (moha). It is thus
becoming cool, reaching perfect calm, to be reached within the four corners of the present life.
An Arhant, after the dissolution of his body and mind, reaches the state of Pari-Nirvāna. Thus,
“blowing-out” and “cooling” is not complete annihilation but the extinction or dying out of hot
passion. If is the destruction of the fires of lust, hatred and ignorance. These two implications of
Nirvāna, namely, „blowing-out‟ and „cooling‟ are to be understood as the negative and positive
sides of one ultimate state of being which cannot be adequately described in terms of thought but
it is given to one‟s own experience. Buddha asked his followers to be a light on to themselves.

3.6 KARMA

Finally, the knowledge on Buddhism will not be complete without a discussion on Buddha‟s
views on Karma. Karma is one of the most important doctrines of Buddhism. Buddhism
resolves the human being into a number of elements called dhammas, which possess no
permanent existence. Thus to Buddhist belief in transmigration seems inconsistent with their
denial of an enduring self. Deussen criticizes Buddhism by saying that Karma needs an
individual bearer like the Upanishadic self and Buddhists, therefore, are contradicting themselves
by believing in Karma and denying an enduring self. However, the belief in the Karma doctrine
really presents no difficulty to Buddhism. If there can be action without an agent, there can be
transmigration without a transmigrating self.

The word Karma means „deeds‟ or in singular „action‟. So there is really nothing wrong in
saying that a deed is not immortal and what transmigrates is not any soul but only one‟s
character. But the question still remains – How can character that is no entity in itself be
reborn? When a person dies, his character lives after him and by its force brings into existence a
being, who, through possessing a different form is entirely influenced by it. Though the dead
person does not revive, another may be born with the same disposition. When a lamp is burning,
there is transmission of light and heat. They are transmitted every moment and when one lamp is
lit from another (just before the former is extinguished), a new series of flames is started.
Similarly, according to Buddha, there is rebirth not only at the end of this life but also at every
instant. What is of importance is to note that the word Karma covers two distinct ideas, namely,
the deed itself and the effects of that deed in modifying the subsequent character and fortunes of
the doer. The Buddhists say that their subjective effect continues after death into the next life.
Karma expresses not that which a man inherits from his ancestors but that which he inherits from
himself in some previous state of existence.

In samyutta-Nikāya (III 1.4), it is said, “Let any one who holds self dear, that self keep from
wickedness, for happiness can never be found by anyone of evil deeds.” So, Buddha preached
that merit gained in this life will yield a blessing in the next. In Milindapañha it is said that
Karma is the cause of inequality in the world.

Buddhism makes a distinction between fruitful and barren Karma. When a man‟s deeds are
performed from the three conditions of covetousness, hatred and infatuation, he reaps the fruition
of those deeds be it in the present life or in some subsequent one. Those deeds done without
such base conditions are barren Karma and they are abandoned uprooted and pulled out, not
liable to spring again.

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Buddha makes it clear that the law of Karma operates in such a way that the character of the
individual and his disposition is of great importance in giving reward and punishments even
when the deed performed by two persons is the same. In Anuttara Nikāya (iii.99), it is explained
that one person who has done a slight deed of wickedness may expiate it in the present life. That
man who is not proficient in the management of his body, percepts, concentration and wisdom,
who is bound by wickedness would go to hell where as another man may not go to hell for the
same mistake because he is proficient in the management of his body, .percepts concentration
and wisdom and is greatly involved in good deeds. The word „hell‟ here means only the severity
of the punishment one gets if they do not correct themselves. This concept Buddha explains by
saying that when a lump of salt is put into a glass of water, it tastes very salty but the same
amount of salt added to Ganga River will not make any difference to the river.

To be born and to die here and be born elsewhere is called the round of existence. This process
will go on until the person overcomes his thirst for being. This is bhava-cakra, which gets
annulled only by knowing the Four Noble Truths – It is then that one reaches „Nirvāna‟

Check your progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

1. What are the four noble truths enumerated by Buddha?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
2. What is liberation according to Buddhism?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………

3.7 LET US SUM UP

We see from the above description that for the Buddha, the self is a continuity and hence there is
no inconsistency in upholding the Karma doctrine. It admits that nothing that we do disappears
without leaving its results behind and the good or evil so resulting recoils upon the doer. Buddha
rationalized the whole doctrine and he disassociated it from all supernatural and materialistic
appanage. Thus the law of Karma in Buddhism is a law in the sphere of morality working
according to its nature and by itself.

3.8 KEY WORDS

Appanage: An appanage is the grant of an estate, titles, offices, or other things of value to the
younger male children of a sovereign, who under the system of primogeniture would otherwise
have no inheritance.

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The Jataka Tales: The Jataka Tales refer to a voluminous body of folklore-like literature native
to India concerning the previous births (jati) of the Buddha. The word most specifically refers to
a text division of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism, included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of
the Sutta Pitaka. Jataka also refers to the traditional commentary on this book.

3.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Davis, Rhys. A Manuel of Buddhism. London: Methuen, 1934.

Grimm, G. The Doctrine of the Buddha. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
H.C.,Warren. Buddhism in Translations. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987.
Johansson. Early Buddhists Theory of Knowledge. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1969.
Radhakrishana, S.,Tr. Dhammapada. London: Oxford University Press, 1956.
Stcherbatsky.The Central Conception of Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1974.
T.R.V., Murti. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
1929.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check your progress I

1. When Siddharta woke up to the fact that the world is full of suffering, his mind got restless to
find a solution for the ills of life. In fact, for him the individual instances of suffering were
illustrations of a universal problem. Finding that the things of sense are empty, Siddharta
decided to renounce the comfort of the palace and became a wanderer, for in those days the
seekers of light began their search by repudiating the comforts of life and wandering in search of
truth.

2. Though Buddhism is a non-Vedic school and essentially different from the Upanishads in one
sense we can say that certain Upanishadic tendencies are carried to their logical conclusions by
the Buddha. For example, the Upanishads are against the belief in a personal God and the
Buddha dismisses that conception altogether. So also, the self is explained negatively in the
Upanishads and the Buddha eliminates the conception of a self, altogether. Buddha‟s belief in
Karma doctrine is a clear proof of the connection of Buddhism with the Upanishads.

Answers to Check your progress II

1. The true knowledge or vidya in Buddhism is called the Arya-Satya or the Four Noble Truths.
They are:
Duhkha – Suffering
Samudaya – The origin of suffering – cause of sufferings
Nirodha – Removal of suffering
Mārga – The way to remove suffering

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2. The word Nirvāna literally means, „blowing out‟ or „becoming cool‟. It is the blowing out of
the fire of lust (rāga), of resentment (dosa), of glamour (moha). It is thus becoming cool,
reaching perfect calm, to be reached within the four corners of the present life. An Arhant, after
the dissolution of his body and mind, reaches the state of Pari-Nirvāna. Thus, “blowing-out” and
“cooling” is not complete annihilation but the extinction or dying out of hot passion, if it is the
destruction of the fires of lust, hatred and ignorance. These two implications of Nirvāna,
namely, „blowing-out‟ and „cooling‟ are to be understood as the negative and positive sides of
one ultimate state of being which cannot be adequately described in terms of thought but it is
given to one‟s own experience. Buddha asked his followers to be a light on to themselves.

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