Economic Geography

Second Edition
(Perised ard Updote

H.M. SAXENA DELH OELH

sPCL

RAWAT PUBLICATIONS
wwarat Koat
Jap ew Der Bargaiore
 3
Resources
Concept, Classification and Conservation

The modern economy is a resource-based

economy and all the development of a
country or a region is based on resources, especially on natural resources. Nature
has given us abundant resources in the form of water, air, heat, natural vegetation,
soil, wild animals, metals, fossil fuels, etc. and man by his technical skill
and
knowledge is using all these resources in some way or the other right from the
dawn of civilisation.
Etymologically, 'resource' refers to two separate words - 're' and 'source
meaning any thing or substance that may occur unhindered many times.
Although, resources have been utilised by man right from the beginning of human
civilisation, but 'resource' as a concept had no special significance till the early
part of the 20th century. Only in 1933, when eminent economist Erich W.
Zimmermann promulgated his famous concept of 'resource', the idea became so
popular that not only economists but geographers and other academicians also
started to study this concept. This was also due to overexploitation of resources
mostly by colonial powers and it was felt that these resources were not unlimited.
Therefore, nations of the world have started to frame policies for their utilisation
because development of a nation is always not only directed but also determined
by its resources.

Definitions
'Resource' is a wider term and its dictionary definitions are:
that upon which one relies for aid, support, or supply;
means to attain given ends; and
the capacity to take advantage of opportunities or to extricate oneself from
difficulties.
According to Zimmermann, "the word 'resource' does not refer to thing or
a
a substance but to a function which a thing or a substance may perform or to an
operation in which it may take part, namely, the function or operation of attaining
a given end such as satisfying a want. In other
words, the word resource is an
abstraction reflecting human appraisal and relating to a function or operation
Thus, a resource satisfies individual human wants or attains social objectives. "
also refers to the positive interaction between man and nature. Man is, of course
the most important and integral part of resource creation, as he is at the top of tne
 ResourcesI3

hierarchy in resource consumption. Only the satisfaction of human beings

converts any thing or a substance into a resource.
Small and Witherick (1997) have defined resource as "a feature of the
environment (c.g. minerals, soils, climate) used in order to meet particular human
needs (cg.energy, housing, food, ctc.). It is the act ofexploitation which converts
a feature or commodity into a resource." Further, they elaborated the statement
that "often the term resource is taken to be synonymous with natural resource, but
it can be extended to embrace human resources, such as manual skills, the
innovative ability or entreprencurial talents of a population."
Similarly, Susan Mayhew (2006) has defined resource as "some component
which fulfils people's needs. Resources may be man-made - labour, skills,
finance, capital and technology -or natural -ores, water, soil, natural vegetation
or even climate." The perception of resource may vary over time; coal was of little
significance to Neolithic man, while flint was of great importance. Such resources
depend on relevant technology. Other resources, like landscapes and ecosystems,
may be permanently valued whatever the technology be.
Resources are significant because:
they satisfy human wants both individual and social,
(i) they are a . urce or possibility of assistance,
(ii) they are a means of development and support,
(iv) they are an expedient,
(they have capacity to take advantage of opportunities, and
(vi) one relies on them for aid, support and supply.
In fact, "resources are those aspects of man's environment which facilitates
the satisfaction of human wants and the attainment of social objectives" (Encyclo-
pedia of Social Sciences). A thing is a resource so far as it affects man as a means
of satisfying his wants. In other words, a thing becomes resource by its function in
relation to man, therefore, it is said that resources do not exist, they become. For
example, a lump of coal is a resource not because of its shape, colour or compo-
sition nor for its scarcity but because it functions for satisfying some human
wants. Thus, resource is something functional but at the same time it must be
beneficial to man.
Resources are always having two properties: first - function ability and
Second utility. Both these qualities make anythingg or substance as a resource.
Sometimes the word 'wealth' is also used for same purpose and meaning as the
resource, But, both are not similar and have a difference. Wealth, as stated by
noted economist J.M. Keynes, "consists of all potentially exchangeable means of
satisfying human wants". So, wealth must possess: utility, functionability, scarcity
and transferability. Similarly, wealth is measurable in terms of units. On the
contrary, esource may be tangible as well as intangible substances. Resource
covers a wider field than wealth, therefore, all material and non-material means of
Satistying human and social needs are resources. Land, building, machinery,
shares and stocks are resources. At the same
time, air, water, sunshine, rivers,
education, social institutions, a good government, health, knowledge, culture, etc.
are all resources,
because all these have both the attributes of the resources. So, all
wealth are resources but all
resources are not wealth. Resource incorporates much
34 Resources

more than wealth in a sense that culture, technology. skil, knowledge and ma.
any
other aspects are included in the realm of resource.

Conceptualisation
Resources are the gift of nature and also developed by man through his skil.
knowledge and technology. Earlier man was not particular about resources,
because his wants were limited and he used to fulfil them easily. But, with the
industrialisation. technological development and growth of population. the use of
resources has also increased. In this process of the utilisation of resources man
often misuses their availability, thus affect the natural ecosystem as well as faces
their scarcity. With the overexploitation of resources it was soon realised that
resources are not unlimited and unless properly used the day is not far off when he
will not only be deprived of them but he will also have to face ecological conse.
quences. This apprehension has given a way to scientists and others to think about
various aspects related to resources. Therefore, certain ideas/concepts have been
developed. These are discussed as under:

Principle of Resource Adequacy and Scarcity

The concept of resource adequacy and scarcity has been developed in two different
and the second is
types of economy. The first is the capitalistic ideology/economy
the socialistic economy. According to capitalistic thought, resources are adequate
and their maximum use is possible. This is necessary for development and trade or
for the capital gain. Capitalists believe that resources are the gift of nature,
can be used without any restriction. This concept
has increased the
therefore, they
overexploitation of resources for the benetit of certain states or group of people.
means there is
On the contrary, socialists believe that resources are limited.,
done in such way that their
scarcity of resources. Therefore. there use should be
a

utilisation is possible for a long time. If resources are utilised

without planning, a
of
will be finished. At the same time, overexploitation
stage will come when they
resources will also create several ecological problems.

Resources: Static or Dynamic

In relation to resource, a static and dynamic concept
has also been developed.
Some scholars consider resources as 'static' and state that they are fixed asset and
soil or natural
their quantity cannot be increased, whether it is minerals. water,
was that
vegetation. This was an earlier concept. when widespread belief
resource cannot be created". It is a free gift of nature. This was because of the
resource and
substances were considered as a
fact that only natural things or

creation, modification or extension of resources was practically unknown.

By now resources are considered as dynamic' because with scientiie
becu
resources have
knowledge and technological development several new
developed and modification in several resources has also been done. The presen
become". The role of man in overa
concept is that "resources are not, they
resource creation process has now been understood. As Zimmermann rema
"man's own wisdom is his premier resource the key resource that unlocktn
as t e
universe. He further elaborated his statement that resource is as dynamic
civilisation itself.
 Resources 35

Functional Theory of Resources

wants
Rescurces were defined as means of attaining given ends, i.e. individual
and social objectives. Means take their meaning from the ends which they serve.
As ends change, means must change also." This statement of Zimmermann
states that resource is a function of and time. It means that those
clearly space only
things or substances are considered as resources which are functional mcans
useful for man. But, the situation changes with time and development of science
and technology. The modern school of thought believes in resource use for human
welfare and also in functional theory of resource, which entails that:
(a) Resource is functional and operational,
(b) It is made or created by efforts of man, and
(c) dynamic and not static.
It is
The term 'functional' denotes functionable character, i.e. the capacity of
satisfying human wants. As natural phenomena which can satisfy human wants, is
functional and so a resource. The sunshine which helps our organic growth. the
air which we breath, the earth on which we live, are automatically resources. They
are functional in their original state and form. But, many natural things, e.g.
minerals, soils, rivers, waterfalls, forests, etc. did not possess their functional
capacity in their original state. It acquired its functional capacity when man by his
efforts discovered it and learnt the art of putting it into various uses, then it
became a resource. The tropical Africa is well-endowed with water resources. But,
due to backward economy and technological drawbacks, inhabitants of that
region could not convert it into energy. On the contrary, Japanese were able to
produce huge energy from their limited water resources. Theretore, it is clear that
resources although exist but their functional character makes them a resource,
therwise they are neutral stuffs. Without functional capacity coal was a neutral
stuff, with functional capacity coal is a resource. So, with the efforts of man,
through the functional or operational process, resource is dynamically created.
The resource creation process is highly dynamic in nature.

Resource, Resistance and Neutral Stuf

Resource and resistance are closely linked with each other, where there is resource
there is also resistance. Nature has given many things which can function as a
resource, e.g. productive land, coal for energy, rain for agriculture and so on. But at
the same time, nature also presents us with some harmful things, i.e. resistance such
as barren and unproductive soil, floods, typhoon, hurricane, earthquakes, poisons,
etc. which are harmful or restrict man and are called resistance. In social context
cducation, training, improved health, social morality are resources, but illiteracy,
gnorance, greed, over population, racial conflict, war, etc. are resistance. Similarly,
n the field of culture, scientific development, tools, machines or technology, good

8Overnment, finance, etc. are resources but obsolete equipments, conservative

attitude, business depression, abortive policies, etc. are resistances.
Another aspect of resources is the neutral stuff. Any thing or any process that
estricts subsistence becoming resource is called neutral stuff. Similarly, anything
or substance which does not contain functionability or utility value, it is termed as
t r a l stutf. A neutral stuff should not be necessarily neutral forever. What is
onsidered neutral stuff todav may transform into resource tomorrow. Man by his
36 Resources
neutral e. .
innovation may
transform
uff
wisdom and technological
was not considered a resour
rce,
knowledge, till 1859, petroleum with the development
resource.
For example, w a s not
k n o w n . But,
into source of power resource. Simila
its use as a energy
because n o w an important
technology, it has become In fact, the process
science and
resources.

several other
minerals and conversion
with other with the rate of of
is the case proportional
economic
development is directly
resource.
into
neutral stuff

Phantom Pile
Concept ot the nature and changing
has been applied to explain
The concept of phantom
pile The n a m e 'phantom
pile' suggests
in r e s o u r c e development. hidden within
role of technology
resources
extra
knowledge that can derive
that it is technological
5 tons of coal
the substance.
production of 1 ton pig iron,
for the to produce
For example, formerly, world. 2 tons of coal is enough
were required.
But in the contemporary 2.5 tons of pig iron. So,
5 tons of coal can produce
other words, substance is yielding
I ton pig iron. In increased 2.5 times. It means
same
has which was
functionability of coal That e x c e s s
hidden r e s o u r c e ,
resource.

2.5 times more energy 3.1).

invisible before is
called phantom pile (Figure
unknown or
Figure 3.1
Phantom pile

Phantom Pile
Original Pile

Loss Through Use

in later
Zimmermann, which
The concept of phantom pile was given by There has De
conservation.
years, helped to develop the concept of r e s o u r c e
minerals and natura
remarkable improvement in the utilisation of many
and skill, they are now m0
substances. Due to improvement in the technique pu
instances, the phantom
and economically used. For each of such
efficiently
principle s applicable.

Resource Creating Factors

factors ti) nature. tii man. and
The three important resource creating are:

culture
 Resources 37

Nature
Nature is the biggest creator of resourees. It is often said 'bountiful nature', but
this should be kept in mind that to what extent is she bountiful? Air, water, light,
spNace, ete, are free gitts of nature, which man enjoys without any effort. On the
other hand, most ot the nature's gift are really nman-made. These resources such
as minerals, land, water and so on are created by nature but these substances have
oome usetul only after strenuous efforts of man.
Nature is both a friend and foe to man. She is a friend when she provides air,
water, sunshine, fertile soil and other useful resources. But, nature becomes a foe
when she brings floods, carthquakes and other natural calamities. Natural
resources always have natural resistance. The distribution of natural resources is
not unitorm over the earth. Minerals and other natural endowments are unevenly
distributed. The various regions of the world differ in respect of physiography.
water bodies, climate, soil, natural vegetation. There are endless diversities in the
distribution of natural resources and natural resistances. There are ubiquitous
resources, which occur everywhere, on the other hand, localised resources occur
only at few places. Sinmilarly, in nature, there are flow resources which are
perennial such as air, water and also fund resources which exhaust through use
all minerals are the fund resources.

Man
Man is a creator of resources. In fact, man acts both as producer and consumer of
resources. As a producer of resource, man contributes his labour, mental and
physical capabilities. He creates methods and technology to make labour more
productive and to lessen the impact of resistances. He discovers new ways and
invents new arts. Added by nature on the one hand and culture on the other, he
builds up resources. Man's role as a consumer is equally important in the field of
resources. In fact, human wants and needs initiate the process of resource
building because resources are meant for satistying human wants. Man is essen-
tially an element of nature, but he is different from the other elements of nature
because he has the capacity to think and act accordingly. Thus, he is not only a
producer and consumer but also a planner and aspirer and his decision-making
ability makes him a creator of resources in respect of their usefulness.
Human wants are of two types: basic and cultural. Basic wants include food.
clothing and shelter. But, his demand is not limited to mere fulfilment of these wants
at the minimum
level, rather he demands more and more improvement in basic
wants. other
In
resulted
words, he is always busy in improving the quality of life. This has
into resource development through technological and scientific
devel
opment. The development of human resources now has become a key to progress.
Culture
ACcording to Zimmermann, "Culture means education, learning, experience,
Teligion, civilised behaviour, suppression of vicious animal instincts, cooperation,
replacing conflict, the law of jungle." In other words, culture is the sum total of all
tne devices produced by man, with the aid, advice and consent of nature, to assist
nim in the
attainment of his objectives. Culture has the duel function
of enlarging
sources and reducing the resistances. In fact, resource evolves out of the
aynamic interaction of nature, man
and culture.
 reoure
culture is a
lactors, while
are original
Man and
ma hines, tools, transptat
nalure
like
includes mateial things
factor Culure
s o ial
ititutons,
hatiag e
l,
cfc.apartfromt
artangements,warhouses, Culture not only
reduces the intluc
mentioned in the alone paragTaph conetraints like illitetacy
human
r e s i s t a n c e h but
also m o v e s the
natural The utilisation of
alwav
resources is
conservative
atlitudes, ete. atd
health, the 'consevation of resources
t o is
development,
with the cultural

Classification of Resources
scholars have adopted diflerent citetia and
For osoutcecla:sili ation, several on the basis of theie
kesources can be clasailicd
explained their characteristica
and distribution pattetn A gcncal classificalin
nature, duralilities, ownership, The following chatt
has also wen done based on their general chatacteristica.

cla:sif ation of
resources
depicts the

d Renres
Ciasif a

On the Basi Onthe Basis On the Basie

rallitee f Owneral 4tidndu

Indivlual Natieial ntor

Maieriai N Mateial
Nalka

Fkw Furl ienewalle

ewyarsik

On Ihe Basis of Nature ol Resource

There afc two fyes of reaourecs
ti) matctial resources, and

(i) non matetial rCAOurces

Material resources are tangible substances,

auch as iron orc, copper, cal,
Matcrial resources may be furthet aulb dividedinfe
prtroeum and other mincrals,
twu group
() Organic like forest, fah, livestock,
resources:
cte.

(li) Inorganie resoutees; all types of minctals

Non matcrial intangible substances like hcalth condition,
resourcs are

culture, fterdom, cnvironmental hatmony, etc.

On the Besia of Durability of Resource8

1here are twu types of resourecs based on durability. These are:
gt
ot cexhaustible resources: These resources are not everlasting and
1. Fund alter a particular time. These resources cannot be createo
TIniahod the
generatedby man but are the result of long gcological processC, A
mincrals come in this category. Coal, pctroleum, iron ore, uranium, Coyi
mica, cte. all are exhaustible resourccs,
 Resources| 39

Flow or inexhaustible resources: 1hese resources can be used continuousily

because they have a tendency of renewal. Their supply remains unchanged
sea
even after renewed use. Such resources are river water, sunshine, wind,
waves, etc. The torest if properly managed can also be used for a long time.

of Resources
On the Basis of Ownership
Three categories
of
the resources have been identified on the basis of their
ownership: (0 individual resources, (ii) national resources, and (iii) international
resources.

resources are those which belong to the irndividuals. These are

Individual
both tangible resources, i.c. property, money, wealth and intangible
resources, i.c. knowledge, wisdom, health, etc.
National resources are those which belong to the nation. These
resources
() minerals,
include both natural and economic resources. Water, air, forest,
resources. For the utilisation of
these
sca resources are mostly national
resources every nation has their own policies.
resources are also known as world resources. These resources
(7) International
The sum
are owned by global population or by international organisations.
under this category.
total of all material and non-material resources comes

Resources
On the Basis of Distribution or Availability of
on the basis of their
distribution or
Resources can be classified into two groups
availability. These are:
i) Ubiquitous resources

) Localised resources
etc.
r e s o u r c e s arefound everywhere, e.g. sunshine, air, water,
Ubiquitous as petroleum,
while localised resources are found at some particular place(s) such
mineral resources, etc.
uranium, iron ore and all other

General Classification of Resources

particular criterion. But, for
The classification described above is based
on some

classification has been evolved by the

the sake of their proper study, a general
of resources. This is not a new
scholars, which helps in proper understanding
described resource types, accordingly
classification but a combination of already
(i) natural resources, (i) economic
Tesources can be classified into three groups:

Tesources, and (ii) human resources.

Natural Resources
such as soil, water, forest, wildlife,
Any clement of our natural environment
his welfare may be identified as a
minerals, etc. that man can utilise to promote
in quantity, mutability and
natural resource. Natural resources vary greatly
reusability,therefore, can be classified into following categories:

inexhaustible
ta) Immutable: Seemingly incapable of much adverse change through man's
activities, such as:
 40 Resources

(i) wind power

(ii) precipitation

(ii) tidal power

(iv) atomic energy
b) Misusable: Little danger of complete exhaustion,
but when inproperly used
used
their resource quality may be impaired,
such as:
i) solar power
(ii) atmosphere
(i) occan
(iv) flowing streams

Exthaustible
1. Maintainable: Those resources in which permanency is dependent upon
method of use by man.
Renewable: The living or dynamic resources whose perpetual harvests
dependent upon proper planning and management by man. These are:
i) water in place
(ii) soil fertility
(ii) products of the land - agricultural products, forests, forage land, wid
animals
(iv) products of lakes, streams and impoundments -freshwater fish, black
bass, lake trout, catfish
()
(v) products of oceans marine fish, marine mammals
(vi) human resources
3. Non-renewuble: Once gone there is no hope of replacement:
() mineral resources
fossil fuels
(i) species of wildlife

Economic Resources
in this category, thOse resources are included which are useful to man
ecoTomic point of view. Although, all the resources are in one
from
way or the other
useful to man, but resources like minerals,
power resources, marine resources,
agricuitural resources, forest resources, animal resources are economicaly
useful, therefore, called economic resources.

Human Resources
Human refer not tu human beings as such, but to
resources
the qualities tne
possess and wthich can be uscd by the
Human esource does not community for some useful purpo
originate spontaneously. It is cultivated throu
education and propET
training. In fact, human resources are the energies, slu
taieni and knowiedge of
people which potentially can and should be applied to
production of goods and services. Mere production of goods and services
enough, uniess and until it is consumed properly. Man is situated at theare
sage. On the one side he produces, on the other he ce
consumes. Therefore,
plays a dual role in the development of resources.
 Resources | 41
Conservation of Resources
The word 'conservation is
derived from two Latin words, 'con'
and 'servare' meaning to "keep or 'guard'. meaning together
to keep together". The word was coined
Literally, therefore, conservation means
by Gifford Pinchot shortly after the White
House Conference of 1908. Some of the definitions of
According to P. Haggett, resource conservation is resource conservation are:
the scheduling of resource
use so as to provide the greatest
yicld for the greatest number over the longest time
period.
According to Ely, conservation means a sacrifice of the present generation to
future generations, whenever it is carried for, this conflict far before the
ideal is reached which conservationists are inclined to beginning
advocate.
According to Harold M. Rose, the optimum allocation of natural, human and
cultural resources in the scheme of national development, whereby maximum
economic and social security will be assured.
John F. Kennedy, in a special message to the Congress in 1962,
interpreted
conservation as "the wise use of our natural environment, the prevention of waste
and despoilment while preserving, improving and renewing the quality and
usefulness of all our resources".
The conservation of natural resources is a concept that deals with the rational
use of resources so that harmony between man's resource requirements and its
availability can be established. While renewable resources need a proper resource
management system (a part of conservation), the non-renewable resources require
a long-term strategy for their proper use. This is not only necessary to assure
long-term resource use but also to protect the ecosystem. Nowadays, every country
is very particular regarding its natural resources and tries to genuinely adopt
conservation policies. During the colonial period of 18th century to mid-2Oth
century most of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have suffered a lot
due to their resource exploitation by colonial powers. Gradually, all these countries
got their freedom but either for economic needs or for political adjustment their
natural resources have been exploited unwisely, resulting in not only the loss of
several resources but also was responsible for many problems of environmental
degradation.
The conservation movement, in its present form, was first started in the USA
under the guidance of Gifford Pinchot, Head of the US Forest Service from 1898
to 1910, with active support from Franklin D. Roosevelt. The first wave of conser-
vation actually started when Roosevelt called the White House Conference on
Natural Resources in 1908, followed by a number ofimportant events in several
subsequent decades, the enactment of several laws which regulated the manner in
which the natural resources of the country can be protected. As a result of the
conference, a fifty-men National Conservation Commission was formed which
composed of scientists, statesmen and businessmen. After 1930, in USA, several
agencies have been established and several acts have been passed to protect
forests, soils, wildlife and other natural resources. This tradition was followed by
other US presidents like John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon
and is still in force to this day. In 1970, Nixon set up the 'National Environmental
Protection Agency'.
The conservation wave was not limited to the US only but started in
European countries as well as in Russia and soon all the countries of the world
 42 Resones

realised the need to conserve natural esoues Theetne, aat no

tartod
efforts by cach country, eflorts on global level have also been startod lnal
undor lnitrd
Nations. Ditterent ageneies of the UN are mow playing a key ole in aetti
world on the ong Nvd towards consenation of natural u o s and u
Plhin
of the environment,. The inrease in publie supprt lor conmervationmean
both at international and kxal levels has given this maVenent a hew life, butlsiil
there is a long way to go in this direction
The conservation of important natural resoures is disetussed as under

Forest Conservation
Where geographical conditions permit vegetation to take the torm of trees, tha
forest is one of the major forms of the natural landseape, The lorest resoureen t
valuable as an integral part of the ecosystem, from the commerclal point of viow
and as providers ofshclter to wildlile. Today forests provide the raw materials far
Over 5,000 products worth about 23 million dollars. They support industry which
employs 1.3 million people. In fact, forests are still the natural habitats of several
species of plants and animals, as well as of several tribal groups ofthe world. But,
the most unfortunate setback came in the form of commercial exploitation, which
resulted in mass destruction of forest cover year alter year, Originally, over
wo-fifth of the land area of the earth, exclusive of the polar regions, or about
1,200 million hectares was covered with natural forests. But, now more than
one-third of this area has been robbed by man of its natural protective cover and
has been turned into barren land.
The history exploitation of forests is as old as man himself, but during
of the
carlier times it was balanced through a natural growth process beeause at thattime
forest cutting was done for personal or community use only. But with the
expansion of agriculture, forest lands have been cleared. More destruction hs
been
done after industrial revolution and urbanisation. During the colonial period
commercial exploitation began and this was the main cause of the depletion of
forests. The commercial use of forests nowadays has reached such an extent that it
has become a threat to the environment in the form of:
6) Increase in temperature,
(i) Lesser precipitation,
(ii) Increased rate of soil erosion,
(iv) Increase in frequency and volume of floods,
(v) Loss of soil productivity,
(vi) Extinction of several species,
(vii) Non-availability of several essential forest products, and
(vii) Imbalance in ecosystem.
The harmlul orld
effects of deforestation are so much that all over the wo
people and authorities have realised that forest rved
resources must be conser
properly in order to protect the ecosystem.
The forest is a national resource and a social asset. It ocial

yiclds a
grea he
profit which lies wholly outside the realm of business. But, at
forests of the world are so over-used that experts present, mosthe
predict dire calamities
not-too-distant future and irreparable damage on a catastrophic
scale. I1 pi
 Resources| 43

uscd and put on a sustained yield basis, it will be one of man's greatest resources
and for this, conservation of forest is the onlyalternative

Methods of Forest Conservation

The following steps should be taken for the conservation of forests:

Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees

One of the main reasons of deforestation is commercial felling of trees. According
to an estimate, about 1,600 million cubic metres of wood have been used for
various purposes in the world. Although trees are considered as perennial
resource, when exploited on a very large scale, their revival cannot be possible.
Therefore, cutting should be regulated by adopting methods like:
(i) clear cutting,
(i) selective cutting, and
(i) shelter wood cutting.
The clear cutting method is useful for those areas where the same type of
trees are available over a large area. In that case, trees of same age group can be
cut down in a selected area and then marked for replantation. In selective cutting
only mature trees are selected for cutting. This process is to be followed in
rotation. Shelter wood cutting is where first of all useless trees have been cut down
followed by medium and best quality timber trees. The time gap between these
cuttings is helpful in regrowth of trees. In regulated cutting only one-tenth of the
forest area is selected for use and rotational system is always followed for their
protection. The forest be managed in such a way that a timber crop may be
can
harvested indefinitely year after year without being depleted. This technique is
called the 'sustained yield' method adopted by many countries of the world.

Control over Forest Fire

Destruction or loss of forest by fire is fairly common, because trees are highly
exposed to fire and once started it becomes difficult to control. Sometimes, the
fire starts by natural process, i.e. by lightning or by friction between trees during
speedy winds, while in most cases it is started by man either intentionally or
unintentionally. According to an estimate, during the period from 1940 to 1950,
in the US alone, fires consumed an average of 21.5 million acres of timber yearly
and as many as t,175,664 cases of forest fires during
occurred 1964
1955 to
period. Throughout the world, forest fire is common and in most cases they were
begun by man. As John D. Guthrie, former fire inspector of US Forest Service,
has written: "To stage a Forest Fire you need only few things - a forest, the right
atmospheric conditions, and a spark either from a lightning bolt or a match in the
hands of a fool or a knave. The formula is simple - the larger the forest, the drier
the air, the bigger the fool, the bigger the fire you will have
In order to save forests from fire it is necessary to adopt latest techniques of
lirefighting. Some of the fire suppression techniques are to develop three metre
wide fire lanes around the periphery of the fire, back fires, arrangement of water
Dray, fire retardant chemicals should be sprayed from back tank and if possible by
nelicopters. There must be a trained staff of firefighters to control the fire.
44 Resources

Relorestation and Afforestation

The sustained yield concept dictates that whenever timber is removed, eithe
itherThis
block cutting or by sclective cutting, the denuded arca must be reforested. b
may be done by natural or artificial methods, Similarly, any forested land w
has been destroyed by fire or mining activities should be reforested. In ru
terrain acerial sceding is the method of choice. ged
Besides all this, fresh afforestation programmes should be
started, New
plantations will not only increase the forest cover but also help in makingund
eco-balance. For afforestation, selection of trees should be done
local geographical conditions and care must be taken during initial
according to
growth of the
trees.

Check over Forest Clearance for Agricultural and Habitation Purposes

Most of the present-day agricultural land was once forested and then
the use of agriculture. But now it has reached the stage where further
cleared for
will be dangerous for the entire ecosystem. There are tribals in some
clearance
parts of Asia,
Africa and South America, where shifting cultivatíon is stilla
part of their system
of land procurement. According to an estimate, about 40 million
sq km of land is
used for this purpose by 200 million tribals of the world. For the
forest, this should be checked and an alternative system should be
conservation of
suggested
them. Similarly, for the development of vilages, towns and cities, forest lands to
been cleared and this process continues to this day causing loss of forest
have
This also should be checked and green belts around cities should be
cover.
developed.
Protection of Forest
The existing forests should be protected. Apart from commercial cutting,
unorganised grazing is also one of the reasons. There are several forest diseases
resulting from parasitic fungi, rusts, mistletoes, viruses and nematodes which
cause the destruction of trees. The forests should be
protected either by use of
chemical spray, antibiotics or by development of disease resistant strains of tres.

Proper Utilisation of Forest Products and Forests

Generally, forests have been cut for logs and rest of the tree- stump, limbs, branches
and foliage, etc. are left out in the forest as worthless debris. Further waste
occursa
the sawmill. There is a need to use all this waste material. Now several uses have
developed and products like waterproof glues, board, etc. can be obtained.
been
Similarly, forests can easily be used or developed as tourist centres. By usi
them as tourist centres the country can earn substantial foreign exchange.
practice has been adopted by many countries, both developed and developing
The concepts of 'national park' and 'game sanctuary' have now become
and every country has developed its unique forest area as a 'national
pop
India alone, there are as many as 21 national parks. This scheme is a
park
good ne
of forest conservation.

Role of Government in Forest Conservation

tionO
Although the government of every country is very particular about conserv but
its forest resources and have several rules and laws for the
protection of for
 Resources 45

their effective implementation is necessary. Both national and provincial govern

ments can take some steps in this direction, such as:
mer

Pass acts for the conservation of forests,

(i)
the torest resources,
(ii) Survey of
(ii) Categorisation of forest resources,
iv) Categorisation of forest areas and proper delimitation of reserved forest areas,
() Find out ihe areas where reforestation can be done,
(i) Regulate the commercial use of forest products,
(vi) Protect forest from fire, mining and other natural calamities,
(vii) Develop national parks,
(ix)Encourage forests developmental activities like social forestry, agro-forestry,
etc. and
() Prepare master plans, both for long-term and short-term period, ctc.

Forest Management
Management of forest resources is the key to all conservation efforts. In forest
management, the following aspects should be taken into consideration:
() Survey of forest,
(ii) Categorisation of forest,
(ii) Economic use of forest,
(iv) Administrative setting for forest management,
(v) Training programmes for persons engaged in forest conservation activities,
(vi) Use of forest land as tourist centres,
(vi) Social and agro-forestry,
(vii) Development of new techniques for the conservation of forest,
(ix) Research for efficient use and conservation of forest, and
x) Policy-decisions and their proper implementation.
efforts
In brief, conservation of forest resources can be done by cooperative
of the government, non-government organisations
and the public through a
proper management system.
Soil Conservation
surface which supports all forms of life. It is
Soil the uppermost layer of earth's
is
and from which absorb
in the soil that all plants have their rootsin turn, feeds directlythey
upon these
life-sustaining moisture and nutrients. Man,
terrestrial life ultimately
plants or upon plant eating animals. Thus, virtually all
derives from the soil. If a nation's soil resources are fertile and abundant, in like
mcasure will that state have vigour and stability. When this resource is exhausted
because of mounting demands of a swelling population or long mismanagement,
that one of the causes
the nation's survival is in jeopardy. Some authorities belicve
o1 the decline of the Roman Empire was deterioration of soils. The loss of soil,
either by natural process or by mismanagement, is harmful not only for agricul-
tural development but to the whole ecosystem, therefore, its conservation has now
become a matter of grave concern.
 ResourcesI 47

Shelter Bels: These are the 'green belts' of trees which help to break the force
(v of strong winds and thus, prevent or cut to a minimum the blowing away of
the loose top-soil. In areas where wind erosion is more, rows of trees may be
add
helpful to check the flow of winds. Apart from this, these trees will also
colour to the landscape and help to control the desert spread. Soil blowing
in a
away can also be controlled if local shrubs and small trees are planted
after a
systematic way. Even useful trees can be planted and harvested
regular interval of two to thre years.
Other measures of soil conservation are:
) Expansion of vegetative cover and protective afforestation,
(i) Controlled grazing.
(i) Flood control,
(iv) Prohibition of shifting cultivation,
(v) Proper land utilisation,
(vi) Maintenance of soil fertility,
(vii) Land reforms, reclamation of wasteland,
and
(vii) Ertablishment of soil research institute and training ofsoil scientists,
(ix) Effective agencies for soil management.
Conservation of Water
the essence of our life.
Water is an indispensable component of our ecosystem and
in rural areas and
On an average, each individual uses 50 litres of water per day
water is used for
150 litres in urban arcas. Apart from drinking purposes,
available about 12,000 m' to 14,000
irrigation as well as in industries. Wherever
The main source of water is
mwater is used annually to irrigate 1 hectare of land.
rainfall occurring through 'hydrological cycle', while other sources include under
of snow. The oceans are full of water but
ground water and water from the melting with several inland seas.
is not usable, so is the case
because of salinity this water
in the world where water is
In fact, usable water is very limited and there
are areas

situation is that wherever water is available,

a scare commodity. The unfortunate
users never think about its proper use
and they not only misuse it but waste a large
conservation of water is a necessity for all the
quantity of it too. Therefore,
water requirement can be fulfiled. A few
countries of the world so that minimum
steps in this direction are:

Proper Distribution System of Water

that loss of water should be
The water distribution system should be such
minimum and it should remain free from pollution. According to local/regional
A few general steps for
conditions the distribution system should be developed.
distribution of water are:
that
() As far as possible water distribution should be done through pipes
so

loss will be minimum and water will remain free from pollutants.
cemented and if its size is big, the
i f water storage place is small it should be
selection of site should be done where non-porous rocks exist.
(ni) The channels and distributors of canals should be cemented, and in fields
also either pipes should be used or cemented channels (nala) be constructed.
48 Resources

iv) For inigation, sprinkle and drip system should be used.

( ) I f possible, water tanks should be covered to avoid evaporation and alsofor
cleanliness.

Rational Use of Underground Waler

Underground water is also a main source of water specially in arid and semi-arid
regions. The overexploitation of underground water often results in the lowering
r table, intrusion of saline water, subsidence of land, etc. The
prime needis
the proper and limited use of water and also geological and hydrological survey of
the region for assessment of water availability.

Purification of Waste Water

Thesystem of the recycling of water should be uscd so that waste water can be
used for irrigation purposes. There are several mechanical devices for the waste
water treatment, some methods are expensive also. But the government agencies
and industrial establishments should establish treatment plants. This will also help
in control of water pollution.

Control over Deforestalion

The loss of vegetation is also a cause of drought and reduction of rainfall and
indirectly a cause of lowering of the water table. In order to maintain humidity in
the atmosphere which helps in rainfall and to minimise evaporation rate forest
cover should be maintained.

Protection of Water from Pollution

Apart from availability of water, quality of water is also important, in other words
water should be free from pollution. Nowadays, several techniques such as
physico-chemical purification methods - hydrolysis, electrolysis, ion-exchange,

absorption, coagulation, chlorination, ozonisation, etc. are in use. Similarly,

biological purification method is also in use.
The conservation of water can be done only by water management system.
Apart from above mentioned measures, water can be obtained from desalination
of sea water and even by artificial rain-making. Apart from conservation of water,
mutual cooperation in use of water resources is necessary.
Wildlife Conservation
Like forests, wildlife is also a national resource which not only helps in
maintaining the ecological balance but is also beneficial from economic, recre
ational and aesthetic points of view. There was a time when human interference
was minimum, the number of wild animals were quite high and there was no
problem of their protection or conservation. But, with the expansion or
agriculture, settlement, industrial and other developmental activities and mainy
due to greed of man the number of wild animals gradually became lesser and
lesser. As a result that several species of animals have been pronounced extinc
and several others are at the verge of it. Deforestation is also one of the ma
reasons for the loss of wildlife. Mass scale killings of wild animals for their mea
 Resources | 49

teeth, hair, skin, etc. are the world. Therefore, the

going on throughout
bones, fur,
need for wildlife conservation has now become a necessity.
livestock raising, the
Population growth, the expansion of agriculture and on the
are among the many pressures
building of cities and roads, and pollution
habitat reduction and its
natural habitat of wildlife. Along with illegal hunting,
of the regions where these
are
degradation has threatened the biodiversity faunal
of wildlife does not mean a blanket protection to all
rampant. Preservation
control over the multipli-
and floral species; rather it implies a proper. judicious
which interact together to provide a proper
cation of plants and animals
is in peril today. Due to the irrational
environment to man whose very existence
the past, most of the wildlife has
use of natural and biotic resources of the earth in natural
retrieval. It is our urgent duty to protect the
been destroyed beyond
evolve a system of co-existence with every living
splendour of ecosystems and to
creature upon the earth.
conservation of
Although countries of the world are very particular regardingWild Life Fund is
World
wildlife, the number of wild animals is reducing day by day. of
commendable work in promoting the protection
the international agency doing Some
in conservation of wildlife.
wildlife. There are national agencies also engaged
taken are as follows:
in the direction of wildlife conservation that can be
steps their
information about wildlife, especially,
() To survey and collect all the
number and growth.
forests.
(i) To protect habitat by protecting
their natural habitat.
(ii) To delimit the areas of
and from natural hazards.
(v) To protect wildlife from pollution of wildlife.
restriction on hunting and capturing
() To impose complete
on export and import
of wildlife products and severe
restrictions
(vi) To impose this activity.
to those who indulge in
punishment to be given
animals or for general wildlife.
sanctuaries for specific wild
(vii) To develop game
whose number is very
arrangements to protect those species
(vii) To make special
limited.
at national and international level regarding
(ix) To develop general awareness

protection of wildlife.
be adopted through trained personnel.
(x) A system of wildlife management have been taken for wildlife
where several steps
India is a good example more than 500 types of wild
conservation. It is a country of varied wildlife, where
of reptiles and fishes have
2,100 of birds and about 20,000 types
animals, types
India about 200 species of wild animals
been found. According to an estimate, in extinction.
are on the verge of
birds have become extinct and another 2,500
and deer, nilgai, Indian gazelle,
Some of them are black buck, chinkara, wolf, swamp white
erocodile, flamingo, pelican, bustard,
antelope, tiger, rhinoceros, gir lion, and NGOs are
heron, mountain quail, ete. In India, the government
Crane, grey
The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972,
Taking keen interest in protection of wildlife.
has several provisions for the conservation of wildlife. As many as 165 game
to protect the natural
Sanctuaries and 21 national parks have been developed