In 1914, Americans initially preferred to remain neutral as war erupted in Europe.

President Wilson
declared U.S. neutrality, but by April 1917, various factors led America to join the conflict. These
included economic considerations, cultural ties to England and France, a desire to shape the world in
America's image, and German violations of neutral rights. Tensions stemmed from Germany's rise as a
united nation under Kaiser Wilhelm II, forming alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Defensive
treaties were established by France, Great Britain, and Russia, while the weakening Ottoman Empire
presented opportunities for new nations. The annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary
heightened tensions with Serbia and Russia. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo
triggered a chain of declarations of war. The conflict became known as World War I, with the Allies
comprising Great Britain, Russia, and France, and the Central Powers including Germany and Austria-
Hungary (Italy later switched sides to join the Allies in 1915).

Several developments over almost a generation marked ww1. French revolution birthed the idea of
nationalism and Italy and Germany’s triumph of it made them a potent force in politics. Another
development was the increasing militarism and the system of military alliances which impacted
peaceful relations. One of the fundamental causes which brought about the Great War was the
formation of two hostile alliances—the Triple Alliance which comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Italy and the Triple Entente comprising Britain, France and Russia. Economic competitiveness and
imperialism provided another contributory cause of the war. Imperialism embedded the view that the
greatness of a nation depended not merely on its standing in Europe but upon its value of and extent of
its non european possessions. However, the immediate cause of the war was the bitter enmity between
Austria and Serbia in the Balkans. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-
Hungarian Empire, by a group of Bosnian radical inter-war period nationalists in June 1914 acted as a
catalyst for the outbreak of war.

The first conflicts of the war occurred in colonial African territory which primarily involved the British,
French and German forces. On 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German colony of
Togoland. Germany retaliated by attacking South Africa 10 August. Fighting continued sporadically
throughout the war.

The Serbian Army fought against the invading Austrians in the Battle of Cer, starting on 12 August. The
Serbians successfully defended their positions, repelling Austrian attacks over the next two weeks.
Initially, the German forces had success in the Battle of Frontiers (14-24 August) in Belgium and France.
However, their forces were diverted when Russia attacked East Prussia, leading to Germany's victory in
the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August-2 September).

In the Asia-Pacific region, New Zealand occupied German Samoa on 30 August, and Australia landed on
Neu Pommern (later New Britain) on 11 September. Japan seized Germany's Micronesian colonies, and
the Allies quickly seized all German territories in the Pacific, including Qingdao in China's Shandong
Peninsula. The war soon settled into trench warfare. Outflanking maneuvers were attempted in the
"Race to the Sea," but both sides became entrenched from Lorraine to Belgium's Flemish coast. German
trenches were better constructed than those of their enemies.
The Battle of the Somme, which began on 1 July 1916, resulted in the bloodiest day in British Army
history, with significant casualties suffered in the first hour of the attack. However, neither side could
deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. The prolonged German action at Verdun and the
Entente's failure at the Somme pushed the French army to the brink of collapse. From 1915 to 1917,
Britain and France suffered more casualties than Germany due to their chosen strategic and technical
approaches.

Overall, this period of the war was marked by initial territorial invasions, battles in Africa, the Serbian
campaign, the Race to the Sea, and the introduction of trench warfare, with no side achieving a decisive
victory.

In 1917, the United States entered World War I, marking a significant shift from President Wilson's initial
stance of neutrality. Wilson's vision of a peaceful and democratic world conflicted with the concept of
neutrality, as he believed that Germany's victory would hinder the desired transformed world order.
German violations of neutral rights and U-boat attacks, including the sinking of the Lusitania, pushed the
U.S. towards war. The Lusitania disaster exposed divisions in public opinion, while economic
considerations eroded neutrality as U.S. banks provided loans to the Allies. The stalemate of trench
warfare and the influence of the war on the 1916 presidential election also played a role in America's
decision to enter the war. Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmermann
Telegram, and the Russian uprising further fueled war sentiment. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson
called for a declaration of war, which was overwhelmingly supported by Congress. The combination of
German violations, American ideological commitments, cultural ties, and economic factors led to the
nation's involvement in the war.

World War I had a relatively minimal direct impact on the United States compared to European nations.
The U.S. entered the war in 1917 due to President Wilson's belief that a transformed world order would
be impossible if Germany emerged victorious. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, including the
sinking of the Lusitania, pushed the U.S. into the war. The conflict led to significant changes in the
government, economy, and society of America. The Selective Service Act resulted in millions of men
being drafted or volunteering for the military. Intelligence testing and racial discrimination were evident
in the recruitment process. The war facilitated government intervention in the economy, with regulatory
agencies overseeing production and allocation efforts. American troops made significant contributions
to battles, ultimately leading to Germany's surrender. The war also sparked patriotism, government
propaganda, and the suppression of dissent. Anti-German sentiment and repression of war critics were
prevalent. The Espionage Act and Sedition Amendment imposed penalties for antiwar activities. The
Supreme Court upheld convictions under the Espionage Act, and the atmosphere of conformity and
suspicion persisted after the war.

The signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918, ended the fighting on the Western Front. The
subsequent peace conference in 1919 saw Woodrow Wilson's ambitious vision with the Fourteen Points,
but American membership in the League of Nations was not secured. The war's end brought geopolitical
transformation, dissolving empires and redrawing national boundaries. The League of Nations aimed to
maintain peace but lacked major powers like the United States. The war had profound social and
cultural consequences, including trauma, the Spanish flu pandemic, and societal unrest leading to
political movements.

The 1929 stock market crash caused a severe economic downturn, leading to widespread
unemployment and poverty. The collapse of the banking system and reduced industrial production
worsened the crisis. The Great Depression had multiple causes, including overproduction, wealth
inequality, speculative practices, and declining international trade. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
implemented the New Deal, a series of programs aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform. The
New Deal included relief efforts like the CCC and FERA, as well as infrastructure projects through the
WPA. It also introduced regulations for industries (NRA), agricultural subsidies (AAA), and regional
development (TVA). The New Deal faced criticism but brought significant changes, expanding the
government's role and establishing a social safety net.

President Roosevelt extended the internationalist approach in Latin America through the "Good
Neighbor" policy, renouncing intervention and withdrawing troops from Haiti, the Dominican Republic,
and terminating the Platt Amendment in Cuba. In 1933, the U.S. indirectly supported a conservative
revolt in Cuba, aiding Batista's rise to power. In Mexico, nationalization of oil companies led to a
compensation agreement with the U.S. While social and economic conditions in Latin America did not
significantly improve, FDR's policy fostered hemispheric solidarity during WWII and the Cold War.

Meanwhile, dictators like Mussolini and Hitler posed threats. Hitler violated the Versailles treaty,
annexing Austria and claiming the Sudetenland. Japan's militarists initiated expansionist actions.
American response was feeble due to isolationist sentiment, reinforced by criticism of WWI and Senate
investigations. Neutrality Acts were passed to prevent U.S. involvement, restricting arms sales and loans.
Symbolic confrontations with fascism occurred in sports, challenging racial superiority theories.

President Roosevelt shifted from neutrality to economic intervention after Germany's victories in 1940.
The attack on Pearl Harbor pushed the U.S. into war. The war in Europe began in September 1939 when
Nazi armies invaded Poland, followed by Britain and France declaring war on Germany. Roosevelt
sought ways to support the Allies without direct military involvement. He amended the Neutrality Acts
and implemented the "cash-and-carry" policy. Hitler's blitzkrieg in Europe led to British appeals for aid,
and Roosevelt's reelection. He became the "arsenal of democracy" through lend-lease, authorized naval
convoys, and issued the Atlantic Charter. Following Pearl Harbor, the U.S. experienced significant
changes, with expanded government authority, war production, full employment, rationing,
technological advancements, and carefully managed public opinion.

During World War II, the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union pursued their own strategies and
postwar arrangements. Disagreements arose over where to mount attacks, with Stalin demanding a
second front in Europe and Churchill favoring the Mediterranean. American troops landed in North
Africa, and the Allies made slow progress in Europe. In the east, the Soviet Union withstood German
advances and halted the German offensive at the Battle of Stalingrad. The Allies invaded Sicily and Italy
instead of launching a second front, leading to the eventual end of the war in Europe. In the Pacific, the
United States halted Japanese advances and launched offensives towards Japan. The war turned due to
American industrial might and Soviet manpower, but diplomatic unity among the Allies diminished. In
1945, the collapse of the Third Reich, the use of atomic bombs on Japan, and the emergence of the Cold
War marked significant changes. The war's end brought devastation and loss, with over 50 million
casualties worldwide.

HISTORIOGRAPHY

In the mid-1940s, Charles A. Beard published American Foreign Policy, challenging Roosevelt's
diplomacy. Critics like Harry Elmer Barnes accused those who disagreed with Beard of being "court
historians" who compromised their integrity for government favour.

The revisionist hypothesis, based on several assumptions, questioned whether the Axis powers posed a
threat to America's vital interests. They argued that Germany had no plans to attack the Western
Hemisphere, and Japan's concerns were primarily focused on Asia. The revisionists claimed that
Roosevelt's foreign policy deliberately laid the groundwork for war while misleading the American
people about his intentions. They believed Roosevelt pursued a policy that provoked Japanese
retaliation, such as curtailing shipments to Japan, which increased economic pressure. Paul W.
Schroeder criticized the tough stance taken toward Japan before Pearl Harbor, questioning its wisdom.
He argued that until mid-1941, American planners pursued two reasonable objectives: dividing the three
Axis powers and halting Japan's expansion in Asia. Later, United States added a third objective—the
liberation of China. However, achieving this goal would require war and was not easily attainable.

According to the internationalist school, Roosevelt saw Germany as the greatest threat to America's
security. His aid to England aimed to prevent a Nazi victory and contribute to Germany's eventual
defeat. Roosevelt's Far Eastern policy was designed to avoid a confrontation with Japan, taking steps to
check Japan without resorting to war. Scholars like Dexter Perkins argued that Roosevelt's
internationalist position aligned with public opinion, as seen in the nomination of Wendell Willkie by the
Republican party in 1940.Scholars challenged the revisionist thesis that Roosevelt deliberately exposed
the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. The internationalist scholars, such as Herbert Feis, disagreed with
the revisionists' claims. He argued that Japan's goal of dominating Asia threatened American interests in
the region.

In the late 1950s, scholars began examining the relationship between foreign and domestic policy,
presenting an alternative framework for understanding America's entry into World War II. Rather than
focusing on the immediate events that led to Pearl Harbor they studied the long-range trends in
American foreign policy. William Appleman Williams, a prominent scholar, mentioned in William thesis,
the Open Door imperialism ideology as the driving force behind American foreign policy since the late
19th century. Other scholars, like Robert Dallek, highlighted Roosevelt's attempts to balance antiwar
sentiment with the desire for a Nazi defeat. Jonathan Utley emphasized the role of organizational and
bureaucratic conflicts and the tension between America's belief in the liberal commercial world order
and Japan's pursuit of hegemony in Asia.

In conclusion, the United States' involvement in both World War I and World War II had significant
impacts on the nation's history and global position. President Wilson's decision to enter World War I
shaped the outcome and subsequent peace negotiations, while President Roosevelt's handling of World
War II has been a subject of historiographical debate. Roosevelt's policies and strategies have drawn
both praise and criticism, highlighting the complexities of wartime leadership. These wars left lasting
social, economic, and political changes in the United States, influencing its future conflicts and
diplomatic relations.