Metals Found in Indus Valley Civilization

● The Harappan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization.

● Copper, bronze, gold and silver etc. are found in metals from here.
● Copper was the first metal used in the Indus Valley Civilization to make
weapons and tools in Harappan cities.
● However, iron has not been recovered from here.
● Daojali Hading a Neolithic Sites in Dima Hasao District of Assam. jadeite
stones are Found here.
● It is the first stratified neolithic site discovered in Northeast India.

Important Metals Location

Copper Khetri Mines (Rajasthan)

lead Afghanistan and Ajmer (Rajasthan)

Silver Jawar Khan of Rajasthan, Afghanistan and Iran

Gold Karnataka

Tin Iran

Lazward Badakhshan (Afghanistan)

Selkhadi Balochistan Rajasthan

Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan

Jade Central Asia

Carnelian Saurashtra

Jadeite stones Dima Hasao District of Assam.

The Vedic Literature

Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads
 ● Four Vedas, Brahmins, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas are included in
Vedic literature.
● The literal meaning of ‘Veda’ is-knowledge.
● Maharishi Krishnadwaipayan is considered the compiler of the Vedas.
● The four Vedas are collectively called 'Samhita'.
● Rigveda, Yajur Veda and Samveda have been called 'Vedtrayi'.

The Vedic Literature

● The four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda

Rigveda :-
● Rig Veda is considered to be the Most ancient Veda among the four Vedas.
● Rigveda means knowledge of hymns/prayer/sukta/religious songs.
● The Rigveda is divided into ten books known as 'Mandalas'.
● It is a collection of 10,600 Richas and 1,028 Suktas.
● Hymns known as Suktas were composed for use in rituals.
● The Scholar of Rigveda is called 'Hotri'.
● In the Rig Veda there is a hymn in the form of a dialogue between Sage
Vishvamitra and two rivers (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshiped as
goddesses.
● The universally famous Gayatri Mantra (Savitri) is in the third mandala of
the Rigveda. It has been composed by Vishwamitra.
● The ninth Mandala of Rigveda is dedicated to 'Soma'.
● The first mention of the word 'Varna' is found in Rigveda. In Rigveda, the
word 'Varna' has been used in the sense of color and at some places in the
sense of occupation.
● The tenth division of Rigveda is also called Purushasukta, in which the
description of Shudras is first found.
● The Rigveda has many things in common with the Zend-Avesta (the oldest
text in the Iranian language).
● Brahmin texts provide information regarding the Rituals of Yagyas and their
rituals.
 ● Aitareya Brahmin and Kaushitaki Brahmin are related to Rigveda.

Samaveda:
● The Samaveda, known as the Veda of Suras and Mantras, dates back to
1200–800 BCE.
● This Veda is related to folk worship.
● The Scholar of Samveda is called 'Udgatri'.

The salient features of the Samaveda are given in the below:

❖ There are 1549 Richas (all except 75 Richas are taken from Rigveda)
❖ Samveda consists of two Upanishads - Chhandogya Upanishad and Kena
Upanishad.
❖ The Samaveda is considered the origin of Indian classical music and dance.
❖ It is considered a storehouse of sweet mantras.
❖ The Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a music
that should be listened to.

Yajurveda:
● Yajurveda means 'Worship knowledge', Yajurveda dates to 1100–800 BCE;
Which is according to Samveda.
● The Scholar of Yajurveda is called 'Adhvaryu'.
● In this Veda, emphasis has been laid on the methods of Yagya.

The salient features of Yajurveda are given below:

● It has two types - Krishna (black/dark) and Shukla (white/bright)
● The Krishna Yajurveda is a disorganized, ambiguous, inspiring collection of
verses.
● The verses in Shukla Yajurveda are systematic and clear.
● The Krishna Yajurveda has two lessons, while the Shukla Yajurveda has four.
● The oldest layer of the Yajurveda consists of 1875 hymns, mostly taken from
the Rigveda.
 ● In the middle layer of the Vedas is the Satapatha Brahmana, which is a
commentary on the Shukla Yajurveda.
● The youngest layer of Yajurveda includes various Upanishads –
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad,
Kathopanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Maitriyani Upanishad.

Atharvaveda:
● Atharva, an ancient sage, and a tatpurusha compound of knowledge
(atharva + knowledge).
● It is dated to 1000-800 BC.
● The priest who recited the mantras of Atharvaveda was called 'Brahma'.
● In this, Sabha and Samiti have been called two daughters of Prajapati.
● Tantra-mantra, solution of diseases and description of plants and medicines
are found in Atharvaveda.

Features of Atharvaveda
● The daily processes of life are very well described in this Veda.
● It has 730 Suktas, 600 Mantras and 20 Books.
● It is called the Veda of magical sutras, it consists of three primary
Upanishads - Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and Prashno
Upanishad

Spread of Vedas
● The Vedas are further divided into two categories: the Upavedas and the
Vedangas.

Upadeva
● Upveda means - applied knowledge.
● These include the implementation of the Vedas. They are as follows:
➔ Ayurveda: It deals with medicine and is associated with Rigveda.
➔ Dhanurveda: It deals with archery and is related to Yajurveda.
 ➔ Gandharva Veda: It deals with music and art and is related to Samaveda.
➔ Shilpa Veda: It deals with economics and is related to Atharvaveda.

Vedang
● The Vedangas are further parts of the Vedas.
● These are helpful in understanding Vedic literature and an attempt has been
made to keep more facts in less words.

There are six of them in total:

➔ Vyakaran: Sanskrit Grammar
➔ Shiksha: How to pronounce Vedic Mantra
➔ Nirukta: This is the Vedic dictionary
➔ Chhanda: It has the principle of measurement and the use of verses.
➔ Jyotish: It contains information about astrology and astronomy
➔ Kalpa: It contains rules relating to the performance of Vedic dharma/Rituals.

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

Brahmins:

● These are prose texts which explain the hymns of the Vedas and were
composed to explain the Samhitas.
● The following are the prominent Brahmins:

Brahmin Creator and Properties

Aitreya Maharishi Aitareya has composed them. In this the rules of coronation are
given.

Shatpath This is the most important Brahmin book. It was written by Yajnavalkya. In
this, information about the complete and detailed study of Yagyas is
available.

Gopath It was composed by Maharishi Gopath. In this, information about Gayatri

Mantra and Ashwamedh Yagya is found.
Brahmin Creator and Properties

Kaushitaki It is also called Shankhayana Brahmin. In this, the rules and instructions of
human conduct have been given.

Taittiriya According to this Brahmin book, the behavior of a human being should be
like that of the gods.

Aranyaka
● These are called 'forest books'.
● This is because they were intended as texts to be recited and read by
ascetics, or rishis, who renounced worldly pleasures and left home to go
into the woods for meditative practices.
● The Aranyak contains information about the creation of the universe, the
cycle of birth and rebirth, the power of Om, meditation, etc.

Upanishads
● Upanishads are books based on philosophy. These are also called Vedanta.
● Upanishad is a Sanskrit word meaning "sitting near". It is a symbol of
education gained by sitting at the feet of a guru.
● The total number of Upanishads are 108. Of the 108 Upanishads, 13 are
considered major.
● It contains information and more philosophical knowledge about the
principles and concepts of Hinduism. For example: Soul, Moksha (liberation
from the cycle of rebirth) etc.
● Moksha is first discussed in the Upanishads.
● He mentions the concepts of Nonviolence, Compassion, Charity and
Self-restraint as moral characteristics.
Major Upanishads

● Kathopanishad is an Upanishad of Krishna Yajurveda. In this the dialogue

between Yama and Nachiketa is mentioned. In this, Acharya Yama preached
to Nachiketa that 'Neither this soul is ever born nor does it ever die.
● Yajnavalkya and Gargi dialogue has been mentioned in Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad. The statement 'Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya' is taken from this
Upanishad. Its literal meaning is – from darkness to light.
● The words 'Satyameva Jayate' on the state emblem has been taken from
'Mundaka Upanishad'.

Types of Vedic literature: -

Vedic literature is broadly of two types:

Shruti Sahitya -
● The word 'Shruti' from the Shruti literature means 'hearing' and describes
the Sacred texts.
● It includes Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
● Shruti literature is the scripture containing Revelation and Indisputable
truth, and is believed to be eternal.

Smriti Sahitya -
● The word 'Smriti' literally means to be remembered and that which is
complementary and can change with time.
● Smriti Sahitya is the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature
● Which is made up of Vedang, Shad Darshan, Purana, History, Upaveda,
Tantra, Agama, Appang.
What comes under Shruti and Smriti?

Some other literature

Sutra Sahitya Key Feature

Srauta Sutra Description of rituals related to Yagya

Grihya Sutra Description of the worldly and duties of humans

Shulva Sutra Rules related to the construction and measurement of the

place of sacrifice and the fire altar have been given.

Kalpa Sutra Rendering of methods, rituals and rules.