ATTENDANCE MATTERS: THE CORRELATION OF CHRONIC ABSENTEEISM

IN RELATION TO STUDENTS IN GRADE 9-12

By

Tiffany D. Patterson

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Dissertation
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Submitted to the Faculty of
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Trevecca Nazarene University

School of Graduate and Professional Studies

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

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the Degree of

Doctor of Education

in

Leadership and Professional Practice

December 2023
 ATTENDANCE MATTERS: THE CORRELATION OF CHRONIC

ABSENTEEISM IN RELATION TO STUDENTS IN GRADES 9-12

by
Tiffany Patterson

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Dissertation
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Tiffany D. Patterson

All Rights Reserved

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I stand at the culmination of an arduous and intellectually rewarding journey,

humbled by God’s unmerited favor and divine power and countless individuals who have

guided, supported, and cheered me to this point. The completion of this doctoral

dissertation has been a testament to my dedication, but I would be remiss not to express

my heartfelt gratitude to those who have played pivotal roles in this undertaking. This

acknowledgment is a token of my profound appreciation.

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I would like to express my profound gratitude to God for granting me the
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strength, wisdom, and determination to embark on this challenging academic journey.

God protected and shielded me as I commuted for the past two and a half years from
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Memphis to Nashville time and time again. God sustained me and provided an overflow

of His Grace and mercy each day. I commit to using the knowledge and abilities I have
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acquired for the betterment of others and to bring glory to God’s holy name.

I extend my heartfelt thanks to my husband, Chris, who has been my confidant

and my source of unending support throughout this doctoral expedition. Your belief in

me, your encouragement, and your unwavering love have sustained me during the

countless hours of research, writing, projects, and commuting back and forth from

Memphis to Nashville. Your sacrifices and understanding have allowed me to pursue this

dream, and for that, I am eternally grateful.

To my parents, Leon and Annie, I owe a debt of gratitude that words can hardly

express. Your constant support, both emotionally and financially, has made this academic

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journey possible. Your sacrifices and belief in my potential have been a cornerstone upon

which I have built this endeavor. Your love and guidance have been invaluable, and I am

deeply appreciative of the foundation you provided.

I would also like to express my appreciation to Lashaunda Terry-Johnson for

traveling this journey with me and a constant source of support, prayer, and

encouragement. I’m appreciative to my advisor, Dr. Scott Eddins, my reader, Dr. Nikolas

McGehee, Dr. Alice Patterson, Doctoral Program Director, and the entire Trevecca

academic community for their guidance and expertise. Your insights and feedback have

shaped this dissertation into a work of significance, and for that, I am grateful.

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To my extended family, Cohort 25 family, friends, and colleagues who have
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shared in the ups and downs of this journey, I offer my sincere thanks and gratitude. Your

camaraderie, encouragement, and understanding have been a source of inspiration and I

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am thankful for the friendships forged during this time.
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 DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my beloved grandparents, Holman

and Pearline Turner and Vivian Van and Estella Freeman. My maternal and paternal

grandparents were great examples of perseverance and strength. Although they are no

longer with us, their enduring legacy continues to guide me in my pursuit of knowledge

and understanding. I also dedicate this body of work to the memory of my late Aunt

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Dorothy Turner. I am grateful for her guidance, support and inspiration in the education

field and beyond. To my husband and parents, I dedicate this to you. Your unwavering
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love, devotion, support and belief in my potential have been the cornerstone of my
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journey and have allowed me the time and space necessary to complete this journey.
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 ABSTRACT

By

Tiffany Patterson, Ed.D.

Trevecca Nazarene University

August Year Conferred

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Major Area: Leadership and Professional Practice Number of Words: 120

This study aimed to investigate attendance matters, where the study explicitly analyzes
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the correlation of chronic absenteeism in students in grades 9-12 and offers insights on
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intervention and strategies to address chronic absenteeism. The study participants

included students of grades 9 to 12 in Tennessee schools and education stakeholders at

the district offices. The study demonstrated a significant difference existed between
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chronic absenteeism rates in racial and disadvantaged subcategories. Further, monitoring

student health, offering transport, and having attendance data management are the key

strategies Tennessee high schools utilize to address absenteeism. The researcher

recommends that the Tennessee Department of Education and high school administration

adopt the latest attendance data management tools so as to monitor accurately and

address chronic absenteeism.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 5

Rationale ......................................................................................................................... 7

Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 8

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Definition of Terms......................................................................................................... 8

Contribution of the Study.............................................................................................. 10

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Process to Accomplish .................................................................................................. 11
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II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .............................................................................. 16

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 16

Historical Perspective ................................................................................................... 17

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Absenteeism Rates Among Disadvantaged Students ................................................... 23

Overview of Minority/Disadvantaged Factors Contributing to Absenteeism .............. 25

Impact of Segregation on Absenteeism ........................................................................ 26

Absenteeism Resulting from Disciplinary Behavior .................................................... 27

Impact of School Characteristics on Absenteeism in Minority/Disadvantaged

Populations.................................................................................................................... 29

Tennessee Strategies to Reduce Absenteeism .............................................................. 31

Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 44

III. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 46

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 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 46

Research Design............................................................................................................ 47

Participants .................................................................................................................... 49

Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 52

Analytical Methods ....................................................................................................... 55

IV. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................... 60

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Introduction ................................................................................................................... 60

Findings......................................................................................................................... 60
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Summary of the Findings .............................................................................................. 80
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Limitations .................................................................................................................... 84

Implications and Recommendations ............................................................................. 86

Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 89
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REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 92

APPENDIXES ................................................................................................................ 112

A: Consent Form ......................................................................................................... 112

B: Chronically Absenteeism Survey Grade 9-12 ........................................................ 123

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Bioecological Systems Model Level Impact Layout on Absenteeism ........................ 44

2. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students in the East Grand

Division in Tennessee ....................................................................................................... 62

3. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students Chronically Absent in

the East Grand Division in Tennessee .............................................................................. 63

4. Descriptive Statistics on the Rate of High School Students' Chronic Absenteeism in

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the East Grand Division in Tennessee .............................................................................. 64
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5. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students in the Middle Grand

Division in Tennessee ....................................................................................................... 65

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6. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students Chronically Absent in

the Middle Grand Division in Tennessee.......................................................................... 66

7. Descriptive Statistics on the Rate of High School Students' Chronic Absenteeism in

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the Middle Grand Division in Tennessee.......................................................................... 67

8. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students in the West Grand

Division in Tennessee ....................................................................................................... 68

9. Descriptive Statistics on the Number of High School Students Chronically Absent in

the West Grand Division in Tennessee ............................................................................. 69

10. Descriptive Statistics on the Rate of High School Students' Chronic Absenteeism in

the West Grand Division in Tennessee ............................................................................. 70

11. Summary Statistics..................................................................................................... 71

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12. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects............................................................................. 74

13. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects............................................................................. 75

14. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects............................................................................. 76

15. Emerging Themes on strategies employed by Tennessee high schools to reduce

absenteeism ....................................................................................................................... 77

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Figure 1 Contextual Factors Influencing Absenteeism ................................................ 23

2.Figure 2 Positive Behavioral Intervention Matrix ........................................................ 37

3. Figure 3 State of Tennessee ......................................................................................... 50

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4. Figure 4 Summary statistics ......................................................................................... 72
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5. Figure 5 Total number of students ............................................................................. 81

6. Figure 6 Total Number of Chronically Absent Students ............................................. 82

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7. Figure 7 Chronic Absenteeism Rates ........................................................................... 82
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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In schools across America, a persistent and dangerous problem continues to grow,

impacting millions of students daily. That problem is student absenteeism, which

coincidentally leads to other issues. The more frequently a student misses school, the

wider the achievement gap becomes. Consistent attendance is essential to academic

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success, representing a powerful indicator of critical outcomes such as standardized test

scores and graduation rates (Gakh et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2020). The importance of
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consistent attendance is great enough that “at the core of school improvement and
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education reform is an assumption so widely understood that it is rarely invoked: students

have to be present and engaged in order to learn” (Chang & Romero, 2008, p. 3). In light

of this assumption, it is troubling that absenteeism is a problem that has increased over
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time. Daily absences were at about 9% in 2008, with some cities reporting rates as high

as 30% (Eaton et al., 2008). By 2019, about 20% of students were considered chronically

absent, however (National School Board Association, 2022) during the COVID-19

pandemic and the return to in-person education following it, the national rate of chronic

absenteeism soared to over 30% (National School Board Association, 2022).

Hence, absences are a problem, particularly relevant to the present moment. By

tackling student attendance, students are also given more opportunities to be

academically successful in their current school year and future educational endeavors.

The Tennessee Department of Education (2017) defined “chronic absenteeism as

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missing school for any reason (excused, unexcused, and suspended/expelled) for 10

percent or more instructional days” (para. 6). In an effort to address chronic absenteeism,

personnel within the Tennessee Department of Education have developed the

Chronically-Out-of-School Indicator. The Chronically-Out-of-School Indicator was an

accountability measure for Tennessee schools under the Every Student Succeeds Act

(ESSA), which is itself a reauthorization of the older No Child Left Behind Act, federal

legislation aimed at improving the education of disadvantaged students and requiring

districts to use school-level interventions to do so (Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015).

The Chronically Out-of-School indicator was defined as 10% of an overall school’s

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culture grade as determined by the percentage of students who were chronically absent at
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a given school. “By including this indicator as part of the accountability framework, we

are underscoring the importance of student attendance in school every day” (Tennessee
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Department of Education, 2017, para.1).

Chronic absences are linked to significant detrimental effects on learning and

have been for years. Through examination, researchers have found evidence that students
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who were chronically absent in kindergarten were more likely to have lower academic

performance the following school year (Chang & Romero, 2008). Furthermore,

economically disadvantaged students with poor attendance rates in kindergarten, on

average, had the lowest levels of educational achievement in reading and mathematics at

the end of said students' fifth-grade school year (Chang & Romero, 2008). More recent

research has supported this conclusion. For example, Gottfried (2019) found that not only

do individuals who are chronically absent incur significantly worse academic outcomes,

but that the classmates of students who are chronically absent are also at significantly

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elevated risk for poorer scores in reading and math. In addition, absenteeism is linked to

other detrimental outcomes, such as a higher risk of substance abuse or becoming

involved in other harmful activities outside of school (Gakh et al., 2020). Other research

demonstrates that absenteeism represents a continuous, detrimental process that affects

academic and socioemotional development in students to an increasingly severe extent

over time with lasting consequences (Simon et al., 2020).

The overall reason why absenteeism has such detrimental effects is intuitively

obvious “Students need to attend school daily to succeed” (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012, p.

4). Given that learning requires exposure to teaching, students who consistently fail to

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attend class are not exposed to the learning materials needed to develop academic skills.
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Despite the problem's fundamental mechanism's simplicity, addressing it is considerably

more complex (Allensworth et al., 2021). Understanding why absenteeism is detrimental

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differs from understanding why it occurs or remains prevalent. Childs and Lofton (2021)

described absenteeism as a wicked problem, which is significantly complicated by the

poorly understood and complex underlying conditions that cause it. Trying to treat the
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symptoms of worsened academic performance, as many policies do, fails to address the

underlying problems that give rise to absenteeism (Childs & Lofton, 2021).

Understanding the causes of absenteeism often requires a comprehensive, social-

ecological perspective (Singer et al., 2021). Adopting such a perspective necessitates

looking at a wide array of contributing factors, including but not limited to, race and

socioeconomic status. Per Malika et al. (2021), some of these environmental factors

include the incidence of chronic health issues such as asthma or obesity, demographic or

familial risk factors such as race or poverty, and school-level factors such as perceived

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safety or bullying, are strongly predictive of chronic absenteeism. These findings are

consistent with those of other researchers, who have emphasized the predictive power of

factors such as race/ethnicity, lower-income family, public health insurance, place of

birth, and language spoken at home over absenteeism (Lim et al., 2019). Students with

disabilities also experience chronic absenteeism at significantly higher rates than their

peers without disabilities (Gottfried et al., 2019).

Considering that school-level factors play a role in absenteeism, it is logical that

schools can also have a meaningful effect in reducing absenteeism. Indeed, school

characteristics can play an important role in influencing absenteeism rates, as can school

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practices and policies (Young et al., 2020). Well-thought-out and implemented
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intervention efforts have been successful in improving school-wide attendance while also

improving attendance for students who have been chronically absent in the past
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(Woullard-Wilder, 2020). Epstein and Sheldon (2002) reported efforts such as

“rewarding good attendance and conducting family interventions with improving

communication about attendance to families, providing a contact person at the school

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level, hosting workshops on attendance, and providing after-school programs for students

were beneficial in improving student attendance” (p. 317). However, a broader view of

the research is less optimistic. According to a meta-analysis of intervention research

conducted from 2000-2018, while many interventions have positive effects on decreasing

absenteeism, most or all interventions were small in size, suggesting there is no “silver

bullet” solution (Eklund et al., 2022).

This failure of individual interventions indicates the need for more complex

solutions. Researchers such as Young et al. (2020) have suggested that multilevel

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interventions targeting multiple stakeholders in student attendance may be necessary to

achieve better results. Similarly, Childs and Scanlon (2022) argued that unraveling the

complex social-ecological factors shaping absenteeism risk is essential to developing

comprehensive and effective solutions to absenteeism. Such efforts may require

integrating multiple risk measures, such as including English language learner (ELL)

students as a separate at-risk category along with other factors such as race/ethnicity and

socioeconomic status (George, 2019). The myriad demonstrated detriments of chronic

absenteeism emphasize the necessity of developing a more comprehensive understanding

of the factors that drive chronic absenteeism and the types of interventions or strategies

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that are effective at mitigating these factors.
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Statement of the Problem

The problem is chronic absenteeism in U.S. schools. In the 2018-2019 school

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year, one in six, or about 16% of U.S. public school students were chronically absent

(National School Board Association, 2022). This high rate of chronic absenteeism,

defined as missing at least 10% of school days in an academic year, is relatively highly
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concentrated in about 25% of schools (National School Board Association, 2022). More

recently, the rate of chronic absenteeism has drastically increased due to the COVID-19

pandemic, with as many as a third of all students being considered chronically absent by

the end of the 2021-2022 schoolyear, doubling the pre-pandemic rate (Barshay, 2022). As

a result, addressing and reducing the rate of absenteeism in U.S. schools is critical, both

at the present moment and in the larger context surrounding it (Malika et al., 2021). The

causes of chronic absenteeism are complex and multifaceted, with health, environmental,

family, and school factors affecting the likelihood of a student attending school regularly

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(Singer et al., 2021). Chronic absenteeism is a problem among students of color who

attend schools characterized by higher levels of poverty (Grooms & Bohorquez, 2022).

Although there is compelling research on many school factors influencing absenteeism, a

gap existed in the literature regarding the appropriate multilevel and social-ecological

interventions and strategies to effectively target and employ to reduce rates of chronic

absenteeism (Childs & Scanlon, 2022; Young et al., 2019). The drastically worse

absenteeism rates after the pandemic significantly intensifies this necessity (Santibañez &

Guarino, 2021).

Chronic absenteeism is a complicated social issue composed of various

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components. Absences totaling 10% or more of an educational year increase the
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likelihood that a student will have significant academic deficits in the short term and

compelling social disadvantages and socioeconomic challenges in the long term (Garcia
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& Weiss, 2018). Despite the known adverse relationship between chronic absenteeism

and student attainment, there is limited national data on factors that impact parents'

decisions to send their children to school (Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012; Chang & Romero,
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2008).

Due to attendance issues in 2017-2018, Tennessee legislators decided to hold

districts and schools accountable for chronic absenteeism. The Tennessee Department of

Education viewed chronic absenteeism as a barrier hindering students' learning.

Therefore, the Tennessee Department of Education required districts and schools to

develop an action plan to address chronic absenteeism issues to ensure that no

instructional time was lost (Tennessee Department of Education, 2018). However, to

correct chronic absenteeism, contributing factors must be identified. Students miss school

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for a variety of reasons. These reasons include but are not limited to illness, family crises,

low self-esteem, harassment, and bullying (Lim et al., 2019; Malika et al., 2021).

However, the reasons for chronic absenteeism do not change its detrimental impact on

students’ academic and social outcomes (Simon et al., 2020).

High school graduation is highly linked to attendance (Balfanz, 2016). Chronic

absenteeism impedes academic success. Chronic absenteeism, for a student, can be

detrimental to grades in school and is linked to problems once they are no longer in

school. Freudenberg and Ruglis (2007) connect poor attendance rates and dropping out of

high school with higher unemployment rates, reduced income, poor health, and higher

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mortality rates. Additionally, absenteeism is connected to higher rates of substance abuse
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(Gakh et al., 2020), and its effects are continuous and long-term, growing worse and

lasting longer the longer a student remains chronically absent (Simon et al., 2020).
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Examining this data, educators need to play an integral role in removing barriers for

students to attend school and understand why excessive days are missed.

Rationale
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Chronic absenteeism affected about one in six students in the 2018-2019 school

year (National School Board Association, 2022). This was already a problematically high

rate of absence, given the significant, escalating negative effects associated with

absenteeism (Gakh et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2020). However, this rate doubled to 33%

or one in three in the 2021-2022 academic year (National School Board Association,

2022). This escalation makes absenteeism a deeply relevant problem as the COVID-19

pandemic comes to a close, one in urgent need of further research. The rationale for the

study is to understand what attendance interventions are the most effective and apply

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them to specific cohorts of students to improve their attendance rates so they are present

at school more frequently and can receive a high-quality education. The results of this

study may help target complex interventions for the students most at risk and identify

meaningful and effective strategies for combatting absenteeism that can be shared with

other high schools.

Research Questions

The proposed study is mixed methods in nature. Therefore, the study will be

guided by two research questions, one quantitative and one qualitative. The research

questions that will guide the proposed study are as follows:

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1. What difference, if any, existed in rates of absenteeism among racial/ethnicity
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subcategories and other disadvantaged student categories in Tennessee High

schools?
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2. What strategies were employed by Tennessee high schools to reduce

absenteeism?
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Definition of Terms

Accountability. “An obligation or willingness to accept responsibility or to

account for one’s actions” (Merriam-Webster, n.d., Definition 1).

Accountability Model. Indicators that comprise how districts and schools are

evaluated in Tennessee (Tennessee Department of Education, 2020a).

Average Daily Attendance. An aggregate number of days a student is in

attendance is divided by the number of days school is in session during a designated

reporting period (Tenn. Code Ann. § 49-3-302, 2020).

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 Chronic Absenteeism. Classification of students absent for 10 percent or more

instructional days during the period in which they are enrolled in a Tennessee school or

district (Tennessee Department of Education, 2020a).

Chronically Out of School Indicator. Metric included in Tennessee district and

school-levelaccountability models measuring the percentage of students classified as

chronically absentwithin a given school year (Tennessee Department of Education,

2020a).

Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Legislation passed in 1965, expanded

federal involvement in K-12 education (Gamson et al., 2015).

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Every Student Succeeds Act. The 2015 reauthorization of the Elementary and
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SecondaryEducation Act of 1965 (Every Student Succeeds Act, 20 U.S.C. § 6301, 2015).

Excused Absence. Excused absence refers to a temporary formal absence and does
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not propose harm to children and has been agreed upon by school districts and

parents/caregivers as a legitimate or valid cause of absence (Kearney & Graczyk, 2003).

Intervention. Intervention refers to support and resources provided to an

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individual to address factors that contribute to absences, such as low self-esteem, school

anxiety, social skills, medical conditions, discipline, parental support, and poverty (U.S.

Department of Education, 2016).

No Child Left Behind Act. The 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and

SecondaryEducation Act of 1965 (Meier, 2004).

Truancy. Truancy refers to excessive unexcused absences that total 10% or more

school days during one academic year (Keppens & Spruyt, 2020).

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 Contribution of the Study

This quantitative study explored the correlation between chronic absenteeism in

relation to students in grades 9-12. This study benefitted various stakeholders, including

teachers, parents, district personnel, administrators, and community members.

Additionally, this study provided teachers, administrators, parents, district personnel, and

community members with knowledge pertaining to the factors that caused students to

miss school and subsequently helped to minimize student absences. Strategies used to

reduce chronic absenteeism in high schools will be explored. This study also deepened

the researcher’s knowledge of chronic absenteeism in relation to various subgroups as

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defined by the state of Tennessee. Data were captured from the state of Tennessee’s
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website and questionnaires completed by district personnel who focus on monitoring and

implementing interventions to reduce chronic absenteeism.

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This study also helped to address a gap in the literature. Although the literature

has demonstrated the effects of absenteeism and some of its causes extensively, effective

interventions still need to be discovered. Per Childs and Scanlon (2022), a more social-
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ecological approach is needed to address the problem. The present study's results offered

insight into the types of social-ecological factors that can drive chronic absenteeism in

Tennessee. Additionally, Young et al. (2019) highlighted that multilevel approaches

might be necessary to better address absenteeism. This study's qualitative examination of

strategies in place helps to understand if such strategies were currently used and where

they could be added. Finally, Santibañez and Guarino (2021) emphasized the need to take

lessons from the effects of COVID-19 on absenteeism. This study will help to better

understand those effects by using data from a pandemic academic year.

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 Process to Accomplish

The purpose of this mixed methods sequential explanatory study was to

investigate chronic absenteeism in relation to students in grades 9-12. This study is

anticipated to increase the repository of knowledge for district leaders, high school

administrators, and teachers regarding the importance of student attendance. The present

mixed methods sequential explanatory study was intended to analyze the rates of

absenteeism in Tennessee schools and better understand the causes of that absenteeism.

This section offers an overview of the key methodological components of the study.

Methodology

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The research methodology for this study was mixed methods research. Mixed
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methods research combines qualitative and quantitative components in a single study

(Creswell, 2014). A mixed methods approach is most appropriate when aspects of the
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qualitative methodology and aspects of the quantitative methodology are both appropriate

to answering the study’s research questions (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Quantitative

research is closed-ended and empirical, primarily used to understand the relationships

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between variables (Apuke, 2017). Quantitative research draws on large-scale, closed-

ended datasets in order to better understand the study population (Apuke, 2017). In this

study, the quantitative approach was appropriate because of the need to characterize the

state of absenteeism and chronic absenteeism in Tennessee schools. In addition, RQ1

above is quantitative in nature, pertaining to the relationship between two key variables.

On the other hand, qualitative research is open-ended and exploratory (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2015). Qualitative studies seek to understand subjective opinions and perceptions

within the population of interest (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). In a qualitative study, the

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 researcher can more fully determine the full range of perspectives present in the

population, moving beyond preconceived expectations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). A

qualitative approach was appropriate to this study because of the need to understand the

full range of factors affecting absenteeism and schools' perceived ability to address it.

Additionally, as an open-ended question, RQ2 is inherently qualitative in nature.

Therefore, qualitative and quantitative components were appropriate to this study,

making mixed methods research ideal.

Design

Within the mixed methods research paradigm, the specific research design was a

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mixed methods sequential explanatory design. An explanatory design involves first
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quantitative data collection, then a follow-up set of qualitative data to explain the

quantitative results (Creswell, 2014). Such an approach is appropriate when the relevant
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variables are available from the outset, but the precise nature of their relationship could

be clearer (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Such is the case in this study, where the existing

literature offers insight into the potentially relevant factors, but the specific mechanisms
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are complex and contextual.

RQ1 of the study is quantitative and will be addressed using a quantitative

approach, namely a causal-comparative approach. Causal comparative research is ideal

for examining the divergence of different groups that have diverged without the

researcher's direct intervention (Johnson, 2001). Causal comparative research allows a

determination of whether these groups significantly differ from one another and, if so,

how (Johnson, 2001). This made a causal-comparative approach ideal for answering RQ1

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