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GST 304 (PHILOSOPHY AND LOGIC)

PHILOSOPHY
INTRODUCTON
The term philosophy refers to a certain method of thinking. Philosophy arises
out of an attempt to solve a problems to make sense out of a confusion or to explain
certain inadequacy as it would be observed.
The purpose of this course is to introduce students to the basic principle of
philosophy, its assumption or conclusion in its investigation of this compel universe.
CONCEPT OF PHILOSIPHY
 Etymologically, Philosophy is derived from two Greek words, Philo meaning
“Love” and Sophia meaning “Pursuit of knowledge or excellence”.
 Literally, Philosophy “is the Love of high degree of knowledge”
 Also it is a way of simplifying complex and statement about our experience
in life in order to make sense out of them.
 A rational attempt in finding solution to fundamental problems of man.
 A rational investigation which examine nature and reasoning behind event
happening in the world.
 According to Cicero Philosophy “is a director of our life, and also friend of
virtue and enemy of vice”.
 According to Oxford dictionary, Philosophy is defined as the study of nature
and meaning of the universe and human life.
 Philosophy is regarded to as the mother of all disciplines.
TWO SENSES OF PHILOSOPHY
 Common/Popular sense.
 Professional and Technical sense.

1. COMMON/POPULAR SENSE
Here philosophy is seen to be one’s attitude to life, which is as a result of one’s
assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and prejudices to things. In this sense, everyone
has his own likes and dislikes.
2. PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL SENSE
In its technical sense, Akinpelu (1981) sees philosophy as an academic
discipline in which scholars devotes their time and time and energy to. It is
characterized by Local, Consistence and Systematic thinking, so as to reach
conclusions that are sound.

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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
The earliest Greek Philosophers referred to as Malaysian traditions thickness
laid the foundation of philosophy not only in ancient Greek but also in the present
western world.
STAGES AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
The history and development of philosophy can be divided into four stages:
I. From the 7th century BC to the 5th century AD.
This was a period characterized by an ancient Greek philosophy is the
root of western philosophy which actually originated in Mellitus and
logion city.
II. Between 5th century AD and 13th century AD.
This is known as medieval period which saw the emergence of Greek
theologians and fathers of the church.
They strongly held the view that faith precedes reason and for anyone
to know or understand, one must first believes in God.
III. From 14th century AD and 18th century AD.
This period saw the birth of what is often regarded as modern period in
the historical development of philosophy. This period also saw the birth
of two schools of thought namely Empiricism and Rationalism.
IV. From 19th century AD on words.
In this stage philosophy has been revolutionized and become analytical
in nature. There is a greater focus on conceptual analysis and logical
clarification of words and argument for better understanding.
IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. It is another form of seeking for knowledge just like science, although their
methods differs, because philosophy is concerned with all reality.
2. The study of philosophy, helps people to understand the nature and history of
human existence and civilization. E.g believe in God.
3. Philosophy ideas have a direct relevance to present day political, religious and
social movement ideas.
4. Philosophy provides compressive interpretation of fundamental issues and
events. It therefore attempt to ensure clarity and understanding in human
dialogue and assumptions.
5. Philosophy seeks to satisfy man’s curiosity regarding life, existence, the
beginning and end of things. It guide individual in the acquisition of concrete
outlook on life.
6. Philosophy provides answers to certain theoretical problems where factual
answer are not available.
7. Philosophy helps man to perceive the interrelation of phenomena and
acknowledge, the orderliness and coherence of universe.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY
I. It is the reliance on the use of logical reasoning by examining every evidence
in favour or against any claim from a dispassionate and impartial point of
view, this hard look and critical attitude of mind towards issue and problems
is what is called philosophizing.
II. The second characteristics of philosophy is the tentative nature of whatever
conclusion that may be reached on an issue.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. METAPHYSICS (which investigate the nature of the ultimate reality.)
2. EPISTEMOLOGY (or the theory of the knowledge.)
3. AXIOLOGY (or the theory of value.)

1. METAPHYSICS
It is a branch of philosophy that enquire into the problem of existence. From
etymological point of view, metaphysics means after the things of nature it come
from two Greek words “meta” meaning “after” and “physical” meaning “nature”.
Laterally, Metaphysics is the study of theory beyond nature which Aristotle
called first philosophy. The other words “meta” means “above”, this is the study of
the nature of things above physics.
Technically, Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which study the nature
reality referred to reality of man as a human and God.
However two major interpretations have been given of the origin development and
nature of the cosmos.
 Creationist.
 Evolutionist.
I. According to Creationists, the universe is the creation of a supreme
intelligence called God; they are strongly supported by religion.
II. According to Evolutionists, they claim that the universe has developed
from simple form into its present stage; they are supported by science.
METAPHYSICS VIEW
 Idealist view, believe in one ultimate reality that could be describe as God.
Nature or Universe and that everything else is just part of this ultimate
reality.
 Realists view, also believes in the existence of one ultimate reality. But
they do not believe in mind because it is not material, rather they believe
in the brain

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 According to Pragmatists, reality change with man’s perception, and that
reality itself is created by man’s social and biological needs. Similarly,
values are also relative and subject to human variation.

However, scientist realists believe in the following propagation about man.

a. Monist.
That all things are reducible to matter.
b. Mechanism.
That man is an organic machine.
c. Determinism.
That everything have a cause that things are caused by pervious events.

2. EPISTOMOLOGY
This is the study of our method of enquiring knowledge, it answer the
question, “How do we know”.
The word epistemology is derived from two Greek words, Epistemo meaning
“Knowledge” Logos meaning “Study”.
Laterally, it means the study of knowledge. It is the branch of philosophy that
deals with posing, reflecting and examining question related to knowledge or
knowing.
SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE
a. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE
This is the type of knowledge we obtain through observation of the things
around us, through our sense and through our personal experience from
action in which we are involved.
b. RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
This is the knowledge reasoning and not through observation, but by
inferring new knowledge from what we already know. e.g. If I say a man
is a bachelor, I mean that he is not married.
c. REVEALED KNOWLEDGE
This is the knowledge of religion especially revealed ones. The religion
which most of us are familiar with are Islam and Christianity, through the
Qur’an and Bible. This type of knowledge is revealed to the Prophets of
the religions.
d. INTUITIVE OR INSIGHT KNOWLEDGE
It is knowledge that is acquired directly by an immediate contact of the
mind with the object without going through the process of reasoning.

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FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE
First and Peter (1970) distinguished seven (7) forms of knowledge with
their respective criteria for ascertaining truth. Which include:-
1. Physical or Natural Science. 4. Aesthetic.
2. Social or Behavioural 5. Philosophy.
Science. 6. Religion
3. Mathematics or Logic. 7. Morals.
These forms had peculiar truth criteria and contain unique sets of concept
such as;
I. Physical concept include force diffusion, iron, energy etc. the truth criteria
is experimentation and observation.
II. Sociology concept include mobility defiance, crime etc. the truth criteria
is survey questionnaire.
III. Moral concept include right, wrong etc. the truth criteria is Norm socially
acceptable behaviours.
CRITERIA FOR KNOWLEDGE
a. Existence
This means that knowledge should have existential reference. In other words
what should constitute knowledge should be that which exists what does not
exist should not constitute knowledge.
b. Certainty
This means that knowledge should validity prove.
c. Validity
This means that knowledge should not be self-contradictory.
d. Veracity
This knowledge expresses truth, falsehood does not constitute knowledge that
makes it reliable and certain.
e. Utility
This is to say knowledge is either useful in its direct benefit to knower or in
its potential for creating further knowledge.
3. AXIOLOGY OR THE THEORY OF VALUE
Axiology is the study of value. It is the branch of philosophy that is concerned
with various criteria which underline the choice we makes, or with the factors which
affect our desire, needs, like and performance.
Axiology is a branch of philosophy that tries to literates, choice, preference,
wants and desires.

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COMPONENTS OF AXIOLOGY
 Ethics.
 Aesthetics.

 ETHICS
This is the systematic study of the norms human behaviours. The term Ethics
comes from the Greek word “Ethos” meaning “Customary”.
This is equivalent to moral. It means a customary way of acting contrasted
with historical or anthropological way of acting as moral philosophy or
philosophical thinking about morality.
 AESTHETICS
The philosophy of art concerned with questions like why do we find certain
things beautiful, what make things great art, so on deal with the norm of beauty.
This is the branch of axiology that is concerned with appreciating beauty in
nature and art, it attempted to evaluate the various criteria of beauty.
CONCEPT OF VALUES
 Literally, Value means something that is useful, desirable and that which has
some worth.
 Technically, Value are broad cultural principles comprising ideas about what
most people in a society consider to be desirable.
 Value are simply shared ideas about what is good or desirable.
TRADITIONAL THEORY OF VALUES
 Egoism
This theory claims that behind any human action, there is always selfish motive
which prompt it and which act as driving force. i.e desire for wealth, power, and
money.
According to Thomas Hobbes
a. Desire:- This is movement towards an object, this is what he interpret
as Love.
b. Aversion:- This is movement from an object, this refers to as Hate.
c. Detachment:- this is indifference to an object, man takes indifference
positions in object that are neither of his Love or Hate.
 Altruism
This is opposite of Egoism, It is a moral ideal, the moral mature a person is, and
the more egoistic he is.
 Hedonism
This theory holds that man by nature is a pleasure-seeking animals. It is also equal
holds that pleasure is the only value worth desiring but not all pleasure are good. e.g.
drinking of alcohol.

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CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF VALUE
 Intuitionism  Prescriptivism
 Emotivism
Intuitionism
It hold that goodness is a product of human action. Anybody can intuit right
or wrong, whether or not he is educated.
Emotivism
It assert that right or wrong is a reflection of approval or disapproval by the
person who pronounces the words.
Prescriptivism
This theory maintain that moral statement have relation to our conduct for one
to make moral statement is to commits what one says.
SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC VALUES OF ETHICS
According to Plato “knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice”. Man is
educate to enable him understand the positive and negative aspect of life. And also
evil doer is suffering from ignorance.
Since man is capable of being good and bad, he need to be prepared to do
good all times through education. This is what makes education a value laden
because it aims at the betterment of man in order to live a better life in the society.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophy of science is a method of study that attempt to understand the
meaning, logic, methodology aims, criteria, concept, law and the theory of science.
PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE.
I. Both are concerned with increasing our understanding of the nature of man
and the universe.
II. Both are skeptical and constructive.
III. Both employ the method of logical, coherent and systematic reasoning.
IV. Both complement each other. For instance, as philosophy interpret the
conclusion of science, science verities the speculation of philosophy.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE.
I. Science employs empirical means, observation, description and
experimentation; whereas Philosophy employs analytic means the method
of reasoning only. Thus, Science is empirical, Philosophy is interpretive.
II. As, science produces facts, Philosophy is abstract because it deals with
what we do not know; Science on the other hand is concrete because it
deals with what we can feel or see.
III. Science narrower in scope than philosophy.
IV. Science looks at particular aspect of things.
V. Philosophy in more holistic.

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PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Theology is concerned with the study of “GOD” recommending of the best
religion practices; as theology uses religion works, like Qur’an and Bible, as its
authority, philosophy like to use reason as the ultimate authority.
This is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the philosophy study of
religion, including argument over the nature and existence of God, religion,
language, miracles and prayers.
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION AS PART OF METERPHYSICS
Philosophy of religion has classically been regarded as part of metaphysics; to
understand the historical relationship between metaphysics and philosophy of
religion, remember that traditional object of religious discussion have been very
special sort of entities.
The philosophy of religion has concerned itself with more than just physically
question. In fact the subject as long involved importance question in areas such as
epistemology, philosophy of language, philosophical logic, and morals philosophy.
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
The word GOD has been perceived by many people to mean as enormous range of
things some believed it to be some kind of supernatural being. And some don’t
believe in God at all (Atheism).
The existence of God has been argued from difference perceptive such as:
1. ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT: This is the only argument that attempt to
prove God’s existence from pure reason. As express, ontologically God is the
origin and sustenance of all things.
 He is older than the zamani, period.
 He is outside and beyond His creation.
 He personally involved in His creation.
However, that two criticisms were made against this argument.
 They cannot define anything into existence. e.g. you can defined “God”
 Existence is not a property of anything.
2. THE CAUSAL ARGUMENT: If we look around the universe, we might see
that there are millions of stars and galaxies and there are cast array of living
thing. etc. who or what have produced it, but God? Therefore, God exists.
3. THE ARGUMENT FROM RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE: Religious
experience here refers to experiences which cause those who have them to
attribute them to a god and increase one’s tendency to worship that if religious
experience exist in then God exists.
4. ARGUMENT FROM MIRACLES: The existence of God has also proved
through the occurrence of miracles which have occurred in the history of
mankind.
5. The argument from contingency.
6. The utility argument.
7. The theological argument.

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AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY
There was existence of African philosophy concerning the great deal of philosophy
as guiding principle in solving fundamental problems by using the rational
reasoning. Before coming of colonial masters to Africa, philosophy has been
practiced as guided principle in order to manage the offers of their live.
TRADITIONAL AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY
As stated above, African have philosophical beliefs upon which they operated their
activities, if there were no known African philosophy. Many experience of African
philosophy in many part of the continent; North African, Sub-sahara Africa.
NORTH AFRICA
Philosophy in North Africa has a rich wide history dated from pre-dynastic Egypt
until the birth of Islam & Christianity respectively, among the philosophers, there
was existence of one time political time, and there was introduction of philosophical
school of Neo-Platonism that was found by Egyptian philosophers.
SUB-SAHARA AFRICA
There is at least one example of a premise sub-sahara Africa philosopher. Anthony
William Amo was taken as a slave from Awukenu in what is now Ghana, was brought
up and educated in Europe canning doctorates in medicine and philosophy and
became a professor at the University of Halle in Jena.

MODERN AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

Kenyan philosopher Henry Odera Oruka has distinguished what he call four trends
in modern African philosophy, ethno philosophy, philosophical sagacity, we have
great philosophers such as; Ngugi Wa Thiong, Wole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe.

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LOGIC
(THE SCIENCE OF GOOD REASONIG)
INTRODUCTION
Logical deals with the fundamental law of Logic. These law determine
whether the reason we produce as evidence for reaching certain conclusions are
correct or not. Thus a person with a logical mind is a “reasonable” personal and
“unreasonable” procedure is one that is illogical.
DEFINATIONS OF LOGIC
 Etymologically the term “Logic” is derived from the Greek word “Logos”
meaning “Word” it means the study of word in statements, conversation,
dialogues e.t.c.
 The Logic is the way of reasoning or arguing.
 According to Longman’s dictionary of contemporary English defines it as the
science or study of careful reasoning by formal methods.
 Encyclopedia America presents Logic as a field of study dealing with the
criteria for the evaluation of arguments.
 Logic is see as the study of method and principles used in distinguishing
correct from incorrect reasoning.
 It is also seen as the science of true, good or valid reasoning.
BRANCHES OF LOGIC
o Inductive logic
o Deductive logic
INDUCTIVE LOGIC
This is the most commonly used in the natural science and in research work.
It is based on experience, observation and hypothesis testing. It involve making of
particular instance of an event or phenomenon and inferring general conclusion from
them. E.g Galileo’s law of gravity is based on the inductive reasoning.
LIMITATIONS OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
 The sample taken should be a random and representative one.
 There is no bias in the writing.
 The conclusion follow directly from the evidence.
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
This could be considered as the reverse of inductive. It involve making valid
inferences from general to specific instances. The basic proportions or argument is
the syllogism, which consist of three proportion is called the major premise; the
second minor premise and third, the conclusion. For example, all politicians are
Liars; major premise is a Mr. Brown; minor premise therefore Mr. Brown is a liar;
conclusion.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF LOGIC
1. It help us to speak and write clearly with precision and tendency. It means
it aid u to choose appropriate term to express our views which is based on
analysis and classification of concept in language.
2. It help us to detect fallacies in reasoning; it is very easy to point out such
decent during an argument or resemblance. Fallacies are argument which
shows some resemblance of being reasonable but close examination they are
found to be inaccurate.
3. It increase our proficient in reasoning; that is the ability to integrate various
forms of experience in a meaningful way.
4. It help us in taking balance decision; because it help us to weigh the pros
and cons any action we want to embark upon.
5. Logic and mind in anything at knowledge of tenth; it provides the
principles which the mind must follow order to secure truth there by avoiding
error.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
These are the errors or mistakes that are logically committed in an argument or
presentation of facts. These include:
1. False Generalization.
This is an inductive fallacy that implying generalization a case beyond the
observed limits.
2. Ad-Ruminant Fallacy.
This involves attacking an opponent characters or personality instead of his
argument. This is more common in areas like politics, religion and education.
3. False Appeal to Authority.
This is the reverse of ad-ruminant fallacy. This involve attacking their
proponents does not repute arguments, they cannot accept as true simply on
the merit of their proponents.
4. Begging the Question or Circular Augment.
In this, one asserts the truth of a claim without proving it that something is
true because is true.
5. Baseless Protest/Support.
This is entirely different augment were a group is joined or supported without
getting truth.

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