Mass-Balance Equation

1.1 Introduction
The movement of water through various phases of the hydrological cycle is
Water extremely complex because it is erratic in both time and space. Here we will
take a very simplistic view so as to develop a water budget. The most
"Water is a carrier of things it picks up as it passes through—it carries important terms for a water budget are evaporation (E), evapotranspiration
the good and the bad." - Spellman, F. (ET), precipitation (P), infiltration (G), interflow (F), and surface runoff (R).

What hydrologists often wish to determine is the net amount (mass) of water
• According to USBR, 71% of the earth's surface is covered that is gained or lost in the lake within a given period. Hydrologists refer to
by water and the remaining is land. this type of problem as a storage problem.
• When speaking of water, we are concerned primarily with
surface water and groundwater, although rainwater and
saline water are also considered. In falling through the
atmosphere, rain picks up dust particles, plant seeds, Mass rate of accumulation = mass rate in − mass rate out (Equation)
bacteria, dissolved gases, ionizing radiation, and chemical
substances such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and ammonia.
• Even though over 70% of the Earth is covered with water, 1.2 Water Use and Source
only 3% is fit for human consumption, of which two thirds is
comprised of frozen and largely uninhabited ice caps and Uses of Water
glaciers, leaving 1% available for consumption. The
1. Domestic
remaining 97% is saltwater, which cannot be used for
agriculture or drinking. (Spellman, F) Water used for household purposes such as washing, food preparation, and
• Along with H2O molecules, hydrogen (H+), hydroxyl (OH–), showers. The quantity (or quantity per capita) of water consumed in a
sodium, potassium, and magnesium, other ions and municipality or district for domestic uses or purposes during a given period, it
elements are present. Additionally, water contains dissolved sometimes encompasses all uses, including the quantity wasted, lost, or
compounds, including various carbonates, sulfates, otherwise unaccounted for.
silicates, and chlorides.
• Water is called as the universal solvent because it dissolves 2. Irrigation
more substances than any other liquid. This means that
wherever water goes, either through the ground or through Refers to the application of water in agricultural crop production. This
our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and productive water usage is considered advantageous and not wasteful.
nutrients. Furthermore, it stands as the primary and crucial water application in
agriculture, making up approximately 65% of global freshwater withdrawals,
excluding usage in thermoelectric power.
Hydrological Cycle
3. Industrial/Commercial

Industrial water usage encompasses the utilization of water for activities like
manufacturing, processing, cleansing, dilution, cooling, transportation of
products, integration of water into goods, and addressing sanitation
requirements within the manufacturing premises.

4. Livestock

Livestock water use pertains to the water employed in activities such as

providing water for animals, managing feedlots, running dairy operations,
and fulfilling various requirements on the farm. This type of water usage is
also essential for the disposal of animal waste.

• Evaporation - Water is taken from the Earth’s surface to the 5. Hydroelectric Power
atmosphere from the surface of lakes, rivers, streams, and
oceans. This evaporation process occurs when the sun Hydropower utilizes the water cycle to generate electrical energy, employing
heats water. water as a resource that remains unaffected and preserved throughout the
• Transpiration - Water vapor emitted from plant leaves. process. Many types of hydropower installations exist, yet all of them
harness the kinetic energy from the movement of water downstream.
• Condensation - As water vapor rises, it cools and
eventually condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust in the Water Sources
air. When it condenses, it becomes a liquid again or turns
directly into a solid (ice, hail, or snow). These water particles Water Supply System
then collect and form clouds.
• Precipitation - The atmospheric water formed in clouds • Water intakes from surface water and groundwater.
eventually falls to the ground as • Can be pressurized or by gravity.
precipitation. The precipitation can contain contaminants
from air pollution. The precipitation may fall directly onto
• Pumping station, pipeline, and distribution networks.
surface waters, be intercepted by plants or structures, or fall
onto the ground. 1. Surface Water

Any water bodies that are above the ground. Surface water from lakes,
rivers, and streams.
2. Ground Water ● Ex. Hydroelectric Power

Body of water that are stored below ground surface. Groundwater from
Hydropower Plants may have the same principle, to generate electric power,
springs, artesian wells, and drilled or dug wells.
but there are different components used for each project. Components are
chosen for reasons that can be as follows: Available funds, Physical
conditions, quantity of water and energy, soil conditions, and organizational
capacity or technical abilities of the community.
1.3 Water Code of the Philippines and Sustainable Energy

Water Code of the Philippines

• Presidential Decree 1067

• Mandated into law on December 31, 1976.
• A decree instituting a water code, thereby revising and
consolidating the laws governing the:
o Ownership
o Appropriation
o Utilization
o Exploitation
o Development
o Conservation
o Protection of water resources

Importance of PD 1067

The law was created to ensure the: ROLE OF HYDROPOWER

• Territorial Claims Hydropower provides benefits beyond electricity generation by providing:

o Ownership of water bodies in the
Philippines
● Flood control
• Water Usage
o Discussed in chapter 3 and 4, the proper
utilization of Philippines water in different ● Irrigation support
sector.
• Citizen’s Health and Wellness ● Clean drinking water
o Chapter 5 discussed the assigned
government agencies to protect citizens Hydropower is affordable. Hydropower provides low-cost electricity and
from any water-related problems. durability over time compared to other sources of energy
• Protection and Conservation
o Protection and conservation of water
resources discussed in Chapter 7.
HYDROPOWER: Components
Water as sustainable energy source
Storage Weir
Sustainable energy sources are renewables.
○ a low head obstruction that spans a river's width and modifies the way
water flows. Its objectives are to impound water, increase head, and provide
• Biomass controlled water diversion.
• Geothermal
• Solar Energy
• Hydropower
o It exploited the most fundamental of Intake Structure
physics principles by converting the
○ The control of the auxiliary parts installed in the weir is housed in a tower-
potential energy of stored water to kinetic
like structure.
energy of falling water.
○ The basic structure's control system is where the water will flow into.

○ It is the brain of the weir itself.

1.4 Hydropower

HYDROPOWER
Types of Intake structure:

● Main Source = Water ● Intake Structure for Sluiceway (Tunnel to Penstock)

● Water to Power = Renewable Energy

 ○ It is a structure made up of the gate's control system, which
regulates how much water flows through the tunnel, past the
penstock, and into the power plant. Powerhouse

○ This is where the energy generated by the flow of water is turned to

electric energy. It is made up of two buildings: the Powerhouse, which
● Intake Structure for Bypass Tunnel houses the Power Turbine and Generator, and

○ In order to prevent obstruction, the structure that makes up the ○ The Switchyard, which houses the primary transformers and control
gate's control system regulates the particles/sediments and some facilities.
of the water that flows through the weir

Tailrace
Access Road
○ The water that passes through the powerhouse and is transformed to
○ The access road will fulfill its aim of allowing people to pass by the weir electricity will not be wasted.
and take in the scenery.
○ It will exit the tailrace, which is connected to the river downstream.

Rubber Dam
Transmission Line
○ For flow control and water security, a mobile barrier that may be inflated or
deflated has been built ○ This will transport the electricity to the substation for distribution of the
power supply.

Spillway
Substation
○ The building that can withstand flood waters that are greater than what the
reservoir can hold. ○ The substation is a facility for the high voltage electric grid. It is used to
make a switch.
○ Typically, it is built to withstand the greatest amount of flooding. Its major
objective is to prevent any potential flooding. ○ Generators, equipment, and circuits or lines in and out of a system. It is
also used to convert alternating current voltages from one level to another,
as well as to convert alternating current to direct current or direct current to
alternating current
Stilling Basin
○ It is situated next to the powerhouse in order to have immediate touch with
○ A deep enough dip in a channel or reservoir to lower the flow's velocity or
the electric energy generated by water movement. Its primary goal is to
turbulence.
distribute electricity fairly to residents
○ It is situated below the spillway because flooding could occur if a large
amount of water moves quickly through the area. There is a stilling basin
constructed to stop it from being a catastrophe.

Sediment Bypass Tunnel

○ The bypass tunnel's primary function is to separate the sediments from the
water that can cause clogging and equipment malfunction. ○ These
sediments will not degrade to waste because it will either be thrown away or
flow into the river

Sluiceway (Tunnel to Penstock)

○ It is built beneath the ground, allowing water to flow beneath it. ○ Stream
through the penstock. This allows the water to decrease or increase its
volume or velocity proceed to the penstock.

Penstock

○ It is an above-ground tunnel-like structure that connects to the

powerhouse. Connecting the tunnel and powerhouse, where water runs
through the generator to convert the energy caused by the flow of water to
electric energy.
HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER

● Main Source = Water

● Water to Power = Renewable Energy
● Ex. Hydroelectric Power

Hydropower Plants may have the same principle, to generate electric power, but
there are different components used for each project. Components are chosen for
reasons that can be as follows: Available funds, Physical conditions, quantity of
water and energy, soil conditions, and organizational capacity or technical abilities
of the community
ROLE OF HYDROPOWER

Hydropower provides benefits beyond electricity generation by providing:

● Flood control
● Irrigation support
● Clean drinking water

Hydropower is affordable. Hydropower provides low-cost electricity and

durability over time compared to other sources of energy.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Storage Weir
○ a low head obstruction that
spans a river's width and
modifies the way water
flows. Its objectives are to
impound water, increase
head, and provide
controlled water diversion.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Intake Structure
○ The control of the auxiliary
parts installed in the weir is
housed in a tower-like
structure.
○ The basic structure's
control system is where the
water will flow into.
○ It is the brain of the weir
itself.
HYDROPOWER: Components

Types of Intake structure:

● Intake Structure for Sluiceway

(Tunnel to Penstock)
○ It is a structure made up of
the gate's control system,
which regulates how much
water flows through the
tunnel, past the penstock,
and into the power plant.
HYDROPOWER: Components

Types of Intake structure:

● Intake Structure for Bypass

Tunnel
○ In order to prevent
obstruction, the structure
that makes up the gate's
control system regulates
the particles/sediments and
some of the water that
flows through the weir.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Access Road
○ The access road will fulfill
its aim of allowing people to
pass by the weir and take in
the scenery.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Rubber Dam
○ For flow control and water
security, a mobile barrier
that may be inflated or
deflated has been built.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Spillway
○ The building that can
withstand flood waters that
are greater than what the
reservoir can hold.
○ Typically, it is built to
withstand the greatest
amount of flooding. Its
major objective is to
prevent any potential
flooding.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Stilling Basin spillway

○ A deep enough dip in a
channel or reservoir to
lower the flow's velocity or
turbulence.
○ It is situated below the
spillway because flooding
could occur if a large
amount of water moves
quickly through the area.
There is a stilling basin
constructed to stop it from
being a catastrophe.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Sediment Bypass Tunnel

○ The bypass tunnel's
primary function is to
separate the sediments
from the water that can
cause clogging and
equipment malfunction.
○ These sediments will not
degrade to waste because it
will either be thrown away
or flow into the river.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Sluiceway (Tunnel to Penstock)

○ It is built beneath the
ground, allowing water to
flow beneath it.
○ Stream through the
penstock. This allows the
water to decrease or
increase its volume or
velocity proceed to the
penstock.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Penstock
○ It is an above-ground
tunnel-like structure that
connects to the powerhouse.
Connecting the tunnel and
powerhouse, where water
runs through the generator
to convert the energy caused
by the flow of water to
electric energy.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Powerhouse
○ This is where the energy
generated by the flow of
water is turned to electric
energy. It is made up of two
buildings: the Powerhouse,
which houses the Power
Turbine and Generator, and
○ The Switchyard, which
houses the primary
transformers and control
facilities.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Tailrace
○ The water that passes
through the powerhouse and
is transformed to electricity
will not be wasted.
○ It will exit the tailrace, which
is connected to the river
downstream.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Transmission Line
○ This will transport the
electricity to the substation
for distribution of the power
supply.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Substation
○ The substation is a facility for
the high voltage electric grid.
It is used to make a switch.
○ Generators, equipment, and
circuits or lines in and out of a
system. It is also used to
convert alternating current
voltages from one level to
another, as well as to convert
alternating current to direct
current or direct current to
alternating current.
HYDROPOWER: Components

● Substation
○ It is situated next to the
powerhouse in order to have
immediate touch with the
electric energy generated by
water movement. Its primary
goal is to distribute
electricity fairly to residents.
TURBINES AND
TYPES
A turbine is a device that
continuously generates power
and has a wheel or rotator that
is typically equipped with
vanes. It is spun around by a
swiftly flowing flow of water,
steam, gas, air, or another fluid,
turning it into work that is
beneficial.

What is Turbine?
A flowing fluid or gas's kinetic
energy is converted by a
turbine into rational energy
that may be utilized to propel
a vehicle or produce electricity.

What is Turbine?
Parts of Turbine
● Wicket Gate
○ A series of adjustable vanes
that control the flow of water
to a turbine.
● Turbine Blades
○ Propeller- or fan-shaped
blades arranged radially
around a center axis, and
activate a rotor or other
electricity-generating
mechanism within the turbine
when rotated by water that is
channeled downward into the
turbine.
Working Principle of a Turbine
1. The turbine's blades are
displaced when fluid strikes
them, creating rotational energy.
2. Mechanical energy is
transformed into electrical
energy when the turbine shaft is
directly connected to an electric
generator.
3. This electrical power is known as
hydroelectric power.
Basic Types of Turbine
1. Wind Turbine - electricity
using the aerodynamic
force
2. Steam Turbine - thermal
energy from pressurized
steam
3. Gas Turbine - uses
pressurized gas
4. Water Turbine
TWO MAIN
TYPES OF
HYDROPOWER
TURBINES
REACTION TURBINE

● A reaction turbine generates power from the combined forces of

pressure and moving water.
● A runner is placed directly in the water stream, allowing water to
flow over the blades rather than striking each individually.
● Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head
and higher flows.
● The two most common types of reaction turbines are Propeller
(including Kaplan) and Francis.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Propeller Turbine
○ has a runner with three to six
blades. Water contacts all of
the blades constantly.

Types of Propeller Turbine

Types of Reaction Turbine
● Propeller Turbine
○ has a runner with three to six
blades. Water contacts all of
the blades constantly.

Types of Propeller Turbine

● Bulb Turbine - The turbine and

generator are a sealed unit placed
directly in the water stream.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Propeller Turbine
○ has a runner with three to six
blades. Water contacts all of
the blades constantly.

Types of Propeller Turbine

● Straflo - The generator is attached

directly to the perimeter of the
turbine.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Propeller Turbine
○ has a runner with three to six
blades. Water contacts all of
the blades constantly.

Types of Propeller Turbine

● Tube Turbine- The penstock bends

just before or after the runner,
allowing a straight-line connection
to the generator.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Propeller Turbine
○ has a runner with three to six
blades. Water contacts all of
the blades constantly.

Types of Propeller Turbine

● Kaplan Turbine- Both the blades

and the wicket gates are adjustable,
allowing for a wider range of
operation.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Francis Turbine
○ A Francis turbine has a runner
with fixed blades, usually nine
or more.
○ Water is introduced just
above the runner and all
around it which then falls
through, causing the blades to
spin.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Kinetic Turbine
○ Also as called free-flow
turbines, generate electricity
from the kinetic energy
present in flowing water
rather than the potential
energy from the head.
Types of Reaction Turbine
● Kinetic Turbine
○ The systems can operate in
rivers, man-made channels,
tidal waters, or ocean
currents. Because kinetic
systems utilize a water
stream's natural pathway,
they do not require diversion
of water through man-made
channels, riverbeds, or pipes,
although they might have
applications in such conduits.
IMPULSE TURBINE

● An impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to

move the runner and discharges at atmospheric pressure.
● An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high-head, low-flow
applications.
● The two main types of impulse turbine are Pelton and cross-flow
turbines.
Types of Impulse Turbine
● Pelton Turbine
○ A Pelton wheel has one or
more free jets discharging
water into an aerated space
and impinging on the buckets
of a runner.
○ It is generally used for very
high heads and low flows.
Types of Impulse Turbine
● Cross-Flow Turbine
○ A cross-flow turbine is
drum-shaped and uses an
elongated, rectangular
section nozzle directed
against curved vanes on a
cylindrically shaped runner.
○ It resembles a "squirrel cage"
blower.
○ The cross-flow turbine was
developed to accommodate
larger water flows and lower
heads than the Pelton can
handle.
Rainfall-Runoff &
Streamflow Analysis
Rainfall-Runoff Relationship

● Runoff
○ It means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a
catchment area through a surface channel. It represents the output
from the catchment in a given unit of time.

Two categories of runoff

1. Direct Runoff
2. Baseflow
Three Categories of streams
● Perennial
○ streams that hold water
throughout the year.
● Intermittent
○ Streams that hold water during
wet portions of the year.
● Ephemeral
○ A stream formed by water during
or immediately after
precipitation events as indicated
by an absence of forest litter and
exposure of mineral soil.
Three Categories of streams
● Perennial
○ streams that hold water
throughout the year.
● Intermittent
○ Streams that hold water during
wet portions of the year.
● Ephemeral
○ A stream formed by water during
or immediately after
precipitation events as indicated
by an absence of forest litter and
exposure of mineral soil.
Three Categories of streams
● Perennial
○ streams that hold water
throughout the year.
● Intermittent
○ Streams that hold water during
wet portions of the year.
● Ephemeral
○ A stream formed by water during
or immediately after
precipitation events as indicated
by an absence of forest litter and
exposure of mineral soil.
Streamflow Analysis:
Hydrograph
What is Hydrograph

● It is a plot of discharge in a storm plotted against time chronologically.

Depending upon the time involved, it is further classified as:

- Annual Hydrograph

- Seasonal Hydrograph

- Monthly Hydrograph
What is Hydrograph

● Design structures
○ Dam, spillway, bridges, etc
● Design Duration
○ Design life
● Maximum Discharge and Base flow

Way of displaying water level information over time. A hydrograph plot

may display stage, streamflow, and sometimes both. Hydrographs can be a
helpful way to show water level observations and forecasts visually on a single
graphic.
Components of Hydrograph
● Rising Limb
○ It is the ascending portion o f the hydrograph. Initially due to losses,
discharge rise slowly and rises rapidly at the end portion.
● Peak
○ Crest
○ Maximum discharge/flow rate
○ Peak of the hydrograp occurs when all portions of basin contribute
at the outlet simultaneously at the maximum rate
● Falling Limb
○ Descending limb
○ It represents the withdrawal of water from the storage buil up in
the basin
Components of Hydrograph
● Baseflow
○ Precipitation -> infiltration
○ The maximum flow does not move forward in the surface but it
infiltrate.
● Quickflow
○ The maximum flow from the precipitation move forwards the earth
surface.
Elements of Hydrograph
● Time Lag
○ The time interval between the rainfall hyetograph to the peak ruoff.
● Time of Concentration
○ Time taken by a drop of water to travel from the remotest part of
the outlet.
● Time Base
○ The time between starting of the runoff hydrograph to the end of
direct runoff due to the storm.
Factors affecting Hydrograph
● Shape of Basin
○ Fan shaped Basin
■ It distributed over a short time and has a high peak
○ Elongated Basin
■ The runoff continues over a long time and has a low peak.
● Size of Basin
○ Elongated
● Slope of Catchment
● Land use
○ Less runoff due to high resistance of flow, and less discharge at
the outlet will be less.
FLOOD DURATION
CURVE
FDC
● Run off may be plotted as flow duration curve.
● It shows the time when flow rate is equaled or exceeded in any period
(Daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly basis)
● The flow duration curve is a plot that shows the percentage of time that
flow in a stream is likely to equal or exceed some specified value of
interest.
● For example, it can be used to show the percentage of time river flow can
be expected to exceed a design flow of some specified value (e.g., 20 cfs),
or to show the discharge of the stream that occurs or is exceeded some
percent of the time
Importance of FDC
● When construction of hydroelectric power plant, FDC helps us
determine how much amount of power can be generated.
● This curve would represent the average yield of the power from the
hydropower project.
● A flow duration curve characterizes the ability of the basin to provide
flows of various magnitudes.
○ For example, a structure can be designed to perform well within
some range of flows, such as flows that occur between 20 and 80%
of the time
EXAMPLE
The gauge located at Saltan River recorded a year data of streamflow. The
catchment area of the said river is 200 square kilometers. Plot the recorded
data using unit-hydrograph and flow duration curve.
EXAMPLE
The gauge located at Saltan River recorded a year data of streamflow. The
catchment area of the said river is 200 square kilometers. Plot the recorded
data using unit-hydrograph and flow duration curve.

SOLUTION:

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/15QySDMX3paMbYDHBjEpnNqca
zgTYH0PiMbCIwa1Gi8o/edit#gid=0
https://apps.dpwh.gov.ph/streams_public/flowdur.aspx
RUN-OFF
CALCULATIONS
Rational Method
The gauge located at Saltan River recorded a year data of streamflow. The
catchment area of the said river is 200 square kilometers. Plot the recorded
data using unit-hydrograph and flow duration curve.
Time of Concentration
There are a number of empirical equations available for the estimation of the
time of concentration. One of these are described below: Kirpich Equation
(1940). This is the popularly used formula relating the time of concentration
of the length of travel and slope of the catchment
Rainfall Intensity
SCS-CN Method
SCS-CN method, developed by Soil Conservation Services (SCS) of USA in
1969, is a simple, predictable, and stable conceptual method for estimation of
direct runoff depth based on storm rainfall depth. It relies on only one
parameter, CN.

On the basis of extensive measurements in small size catchments SCS (1985)

adopted λ = 0.2 as a standard value
SCS-CN Method
For convenience in practical application the Soil Conservation Services (SCS)
has expressed S (mm) in terms of a dimensionless parameter CN (the Curve
number).

The constant 254 is used to express S in mm.

SCS-CN Method: CN
In the determination of CN, the hydrological soil classification is adopted.
Here, soils are classified into four classes A, B, C and D based upon the
infiltration and other characteristics.

● Group-A: ( Low Runoff Potential ) - high infiltration rates

● Group-B: (Moderately Low runoff Potential) - moderate infiltration rates
● Group-C: (Moderately High Runoff Potential) - low infiltration rate
● Group-D: (High Runoff Potential) - very low infiltration rates
SCS-CN Method: CN
In the determination of CN, the hydrological soil classification is adopted.
Here, soils are classified into four classes A, B, C and D based upon the
infiltration and other characteristics.

● Group-A: ( Low Runoff Potential ) - high infiltration rates

● Group-B: (Moderately Low runoff Potential) - moderate infiltration rates
● Group-C: (Moderately High Runoff Potential) - low infiltration rate
● Group-D: (High Runoff Potential) - very low infiltration rates
SCS-CN Method: CN
Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) refers to the moisture content
present in the soil at the beginning of the rainfall-runoff event under
consideration.
SCS-CN Method: CN
The variation of CN under AMC-II, called CNII, for various land use conditions
commonly found in practice.
SCS-CN Method: CN
The variation of CN under AMC-II, called CNII, for various land use conditions
commonly found in practice.
SCS-CN Method: CN
The variation of CN under AMC-II, called CNII, for various land use conditions
commonly found in practice.
Irrigation

Technological Institute of the Philippines

Germination

● The process of a seed starting to grow, or the act of causing a seed to

start growing
Irrigation

Three basic requirements of agricultural production are soil, seed, and water.
In addition, fertilisers, insecticides, sunshine, suitable atmospheric
temperature, and human labour are also needed.

Of all these, water appears to be the most important requirement of

agricultural production.

This artificial application of water to land for supplementing the naturally

available moisture in the root-zone soil for the purpose of agricultural
production is termed irrigation.
Application of water in soil

● It supplies moisture to the soil essential for the germination of seeds, and
chemical and bacterial processes during plant growth.
● It cools the soil and the surroundings thus making the environment more
favourable for plant growth.
● It washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.
● It softens clods and thus helps in tillage operations.
● It enables application of fertilisers.
● It reduces the adverse effects of frost on crops.
● It ensures crop success against short-duration droughts
Two categories of irrigation schemes

1. Surface Water irrigation schemes

- Use diversion and storage methods and obtain their supplies from
rivers.

2. Ground Water irrigation schemes

- Use open wells, and deep and shallow tube wells to lift water from
the water-bearing strata below the earth’s surface
Factors in choosing between two
categories

The choice of irrigation schemes depends on several factors such as:

● Surface Topography
● Rainfall characteristics
● Type of source available
● Subsoil profile
Impact of irrigation on human environment
Impact of irrigation on human environment
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
● Pulley system
○ Also known as Moat
○ During this method, water is directly collected from the well, using
a pulley to irrigate fields.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
● Chain pump
○ It consists of two large wheels connected with an endless chain. The
bottom wheel is half immersed in the water source. With the
turning of the wheel, the connected buckets dip into the water
source and bring water. Chain lifts them to the upper wheel where
water from the bucket is transferred to the pool.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
● Dhekli
○ During this system, a rope and bucket is connected to a pole or
heavy stick to obtain water from the well. It is also connected to a
heavy counterweight at the other end to draw water.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
● Rahat
○ During this method, water is drawn from the well through a wheel
connected to animals like cows, buffalo, oxen, etc. With the
movement of animals, wheels rotate and it draws the water from
the well.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
Modern Methods of Irrigation
● Furrow Irrigation
○ Furrow irrigation is a method of laying out the water channels in
such a way where gravity plays the role of providing just enough
water for suitable plants to grow. It is usually made by the planned
placement of ridges and furrows. It is a kind of surface irrigation
system.
○ A ridge is the part of the layout of the field that is elevated at
different angles based on the type of soil. This is actually where the
plants are planted. The furrows are the troughs that let the water
flow through it.
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is a more preferred way of irrigation primarily for two
reasons:

● Cost reduction for irrigation

● A more guaranteed higher yield.
 Modern Methods of Irrigation

RIDGE
FURROWS
Modern Methods of Irrigation
● Basin Irrigation
○ Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation,
particularly in regions with layouts of small fields. If a field is level in
all directions, encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff and
provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is referred to
as basin. (Stauffer & Spuhler 2012)
○ Generally, basin irrigation is favored by moderate to slow intake
soils and deep-rooted, closely spaced crops.
○ Basin irrigation is an effective method of leaching salts from the soil
profile into the deeper groundwater.
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Modern Methods of Irrigation
● Sprinkler Irrigation
○ Sprinkler systems mimic the phenomenon of rain. In sprinkler
systems, the pipes carry water to central locations on the farm. The
sprinklers placed there, distribute the water across the fields. The
sprinkler method is one of the most efficient irrigation methods to
irrigate the uneven land for agriculture. In addition, sprinkler
systems provide the best coverage regardless of the size of the
farm.
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Modern Methods of Irrigation
● Drip Irrigation
○ In the drip irrigation, we lay plastic pipes in rows near the crops or
plants. These pipes have holes in them. The water seeps from these
holes drop by drop, hence the name drip irrigation.
○ Drip irrigation is the most used irrigation system these days.
○ Drip irrigation is one of the most efficient irrigation methods as it
reduces water wastage in agriculture.
○ This method is useful in places where water is not easily available.
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Modern Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation System
Functions of Irrigation System
● General Function
○ To supply crops with irrigation water in the quantities and at the
time it is needed.
● Specific Function
○ Diverting water from the water source
○ Conveying it to individual fields within the farm
○ Distributing it within each field
○ Providing a means for measuring regulating flows
The factors to be consider in Irrigation System

● Topographic Data
○ The field shape must be accurately drawi n showing pertinent
obstructions, features, and elevation details.
● Water Source Capacity
○ The water supply must be clearly indicated showing location and
available capacity
● Soil and Crop Characteristics
○ Soil and crop limitations must be accounted for to reduce runoff
and deep percolation by mismanagement of the irrigation system
The factors to be consider in Irrigation System

● Design Parameters
○ Soil water holding capacity, maximum application rate and climatic
data must be used to select the correct irrigation system design.
● Design Data
○ The nozzle selected, operating pressure, discharge rate and
sprinkler spacing must all be shown on the plan. The irrigation
interval, set time, application rate, and net amount applied must
also be calculated.
Irrigation System

● Main Intake Structure

○ The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system. Its
purpose is to direct water from the original source of supply (lake,
river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.
Irrigation System

● Pumping Station
○ In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the
irrigated fields. Then a pump must be used to supply water to the
irrigation system
Irrigation System

● Conveyance and distribution system

○ The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals
transporting the water through the whole irrigation system.
○ Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of
the water flow.
■ Open Canals
● An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway
whose purpose is to carry water from one place to
another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways
supplying water to one or more farms. Field ditches have
smaller dimensions.
Open Canals

● Canal Characteristics
○ According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called
rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic
(e), and irregular or natural
Open Canals

● Earthen Canals
○ Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made
up from the removed earth
○ The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes
collapsing
● Lined Canals
○ Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent
excessive seepage and growth of weeds
○ Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and
bank erosion. The materials mostly used for canal lining are
concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry
and asphaltic concrete
Open Canals
Irrigation System

● Conveyance and distribution system

○ The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals
transporting the water through the whole irrigation system.
○ Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of
the water flow.
■ Canals Structure
● The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be
under control. For this purpose, canal structures are
required.
● There are four main types of structures: erosion control
structures, distribution control structures, crossing
structures and water measurement structures.
Four Main Types of Structures

1. Erosion Control Structure

○ Canal Erosion
■ Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as
the following example will show.
Four Main Types of Structures

1. Erosion Control Structure

○ Canal Erosion
■ Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as
the following example will show.
■ Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities.
Soil particles along the bottom and banks of an earthen canal
are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited
downstream where they may block the canal and silt up
structures.
■ If the canal is said to be under erosion; the banks might
eventually collapse.
Four Main Types of Structures

1. Erosion Control Structure

○ Drop Structure and chutes
■ Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom
slope of canals lying on steeply sloping land in order to avoid
high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion.
Four Main Types of Structures

2. Distribution Control Structure

○ Division Boxes
■ Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water
between two or more canals or ditches.
Four Main Types of Structures

2. Distribution Control Structure

○ Turnouts
■ Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert
part of the water from the canal to a smaller one.
Four Main Types of Structures

2. Distribution Control Structure

○ Checks
■ To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often
necessary to raise the water level in the ditch.
Four Main Types of Structures

3. Crossing Structure

○ It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides

and natural depressions. Crossing structures, such as flumes,
culverts and inverted siphons, are then required.
Four Main Types of Structures

3. Crossing Structure
○ Culvert
■ Culverts are used to carry the water across roads.
Four Main Types of Structures

3. Crossing Structure
○ Inverted Siphons
■ When water has to be carried across a road which is at the
same level as or below the canal bottom, an inverted siphon is
used instead of a culvert.
Four Main Types of Structures

3. Crossing Structure
○ Inverted Siphons
■ When water has to be carried across a road which is at the
same level as or below the canal bottom, an inverted siphon is
used instead of a culvert.
Four Main Types of Structures

4. Water Measurement Structures

○ The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit
efficient distribution and application.
○ By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is
applied during each irrigation.
○ The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs
and flumes.
Four Main Types of Structures

4. Water Measurement Structures

○ Weir
■ In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or
concrete with an opening with fixed dimensions cut in its edge
Four Main Types of Structures

4. Water Measurement Structures

○ Parshall Flume
■ The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel
structure with three main sections
Four Main Types of Structures

4. Water Measurement Structures

○ Cut-throat Flume
■ The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has
no throat section, only converging and diverging sections
Irrigation System

● Conveyance and distribution system

● Drainage System
○ A drainage system is necessary to remove excess water from the
irrigated land. This excess water may be e.g. waste water from
irrigation or surface runoff from rainfall. It may also include leakage
or seepage water from the distribution system.
○ Excess surface water is removed through shallow open drains.
○ Excess groundwater is removed through deep open drains or
underground pipes.
Irrigation System
Thank You
Water Supply
System

Technological Institute of the Philippines

 Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

Source Conveyance Treatment Transfer Distribution

● Intake ● Pumps ● Coagulation ● Mains ● Network

● Wells ● Aqueducts ● Sedimentati ● Pumping ● Appurtenan
● Reservoir ● Gravity on Station ces
● Filtration ● Fittings
● Disinfection ● Storage
Tanks
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Intake Structure
○ It is used to get
water from the
reservoir and
deliver it through
a special channel
called penstock to
the hydroturbines.
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems
● The primary purposes of the intake system include:
○ Ensuring the intake of the necessary water while minimizing
sediment ingress.
○ Preventing the entrance of trash, debris, and ice along with the
water.
○ Gathering water from the source and delivering it to the
transmission line.
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Pumps
- Machine used to convert
mechanical energy to fluid
energy.
○ Positive Displacement Pumps -
moves a fluid by repeatedly
enclosing a fixed volume and
moving it mechanically
through the system.
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Pumps
○ Rotodynamic or Kinetic Pumps- add energy to the fluid by
accelerating it through the action of a rotating impeller.
■ Centrifugal Pumps - discharges radially
■ Axial-flow Pumps - discharges axially
■ Mixed-flow Pumps - radial and axial
Components of typical water pump

● Valve - type of fitting that allows for regulation, control, and direction of
fluids passing through a pipe.
○ Check Valve - Prevent Backflow
○ Foot Valve - Prevent water from leaving the pump
○ Gate Valve - To stop or start a flow
○ Air - relief valve - Required at high points to release trap air.
Components of typical water pump

● Strainer - To keep the dirt from entering the pump

● Head added by the pump and pump efficiency
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Water Demand
○ The total demand for water, which encompasses the amount of
water required by the community for various purposes, such as
meeting consumer needs, supplying water for fire-fighting, system
flushing, and accounting for potential leaks.
○ Unaccounted Water
■ Real water loss
● System flushing, fire fighting
■ Apparent water loss
● Leakage, meter inaccuracies, billing discrepancies, other non
metered usage
Water Demand

1. Average Daily Demand (ADD)

2. Average Annual Demand (ADD)
3. Maximum Day Demand (MDD)
4. Maximum Month Demand (MMD)
5. Peak Hourly Demand (PHD)
6. Peak Weekly Demand (PWD)

● Per capita - demand per person

● Peaking Factor - Ratio of the demand to the average day demand
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Collection Chamber
○ This involves gathering water from multiple sources and allowing
sediments found in river or spring water to settle out.
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems

● Mains
○ The transportation of water from its source to the treatment
facility utilizes various conduits, such as open channels, aqueducts,
pipelines, and so on, which are collectively referred to as
transmission mains.
○ However, water from the transmission mains is not distributed
directly to end-users.
Basic Elements of Water Supply Systems
Water-Storage
Reservoir
Water-Storage Reservoir

● System storage facilities have

a far-reaching effect on a
system’s ability to provide
adequate consumer
consumption during periods
of high demand while meeting
fire protection requirements.
Water-Storage Reservoir Methods

● Ground Storage Tanks

○ Ground storage
reservoirs are
constructed at or below
ground level and usually
discharge water to the
distribution system
through pumps.
Water-Storage Reservoir Methods

● Elevated Storage Tanks

○ Elevated storage is
useful in the case of fires
and emergency
conditions
○ Elevated tanks allow the
natural force of gravity
to produce consistent
water pressure
throughout the system.
Water-Storage Reservoir Methods

● Standpipes
○ Large column (shaped
like a vertical pipe) that
can store water.
○ The extra height of the
standpipe tank allows it
to use gravity in order to
maintain proper water
pressure.
Pipe Network
Distribution
Layout
Dead-end Systems

● It is the ideal option for urban

areas lacking clearly defined
street layouts.
● Within this system, a primary
pipeline traverses the town or
city, giving rise to secondary
pipelines on both sides. These
secondary pipelines
subsequently split into
numerous smaller branch
lines, facilitating service
connections.
Dead-end Systems

● Advantages
○ It is relatively cheap
○ Easy determinations of discharge and pressure at any point in the
system
● Disadvantages
○ Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
○ When repair have to be made at any part of the system, large
portion of the community may be struggled.
Grid-iron System

● The main water supply line goes

through the central part of the
area, while sub mains branch
out perpendicular to the main
line. This system has no
dead-ends, as all of the
individual pipes are
interconnected.
● This type of water supply
system is great for cities that
have a rectangular layout.
Grid-iron System

● Advantages
○ Water kept in a good circulation due to absence of dead ends.
○ Very small area is affected at the time of repairs.
○ Size of pipe is reduced.
● Disadvantages
○ Provision of large number of joints
○ Exact circulation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of
valves on all branches.
Ring/Circular System

● Circular or ring systems feature

a supply main that forms a circle
or ring around the area of
distribution. In this system, the
branches are cross-connected
to the supply mains and each
other.
● Water can be supplied to any
point from at least two
directions.
Ring/Circular System

● Advantages
○ Higher discharge and minimum loss of head
○ Fewer consumers are affected at the time of repairs as separate
main lines available for each household.
● Disadvantages
○ Higher cost as it requires a longer pipe
○ Several valves are required to control the flow and discharge of
water.
Radial System

● The whole area is divided into a

number of distribution districts.
Each district has a centrally
located distribution reservoir
(elevated) from where
distribution pipes run radially
towards the periphery of the
distribution district.
Radial System

● Advantages
○ Radial systems offer swift distribution and allow for simpler design
calculations.
○ Water is available with higher discharge and with minimum head
loss.
○ Fewer numbers of the consumer are affected while preparing.
● Disadvantages
○ The design of the pipe lying system is complicated.
○ More length of pipe is required as the connection is more in this
system.
Pipe Network Distribution

Dead-End System One main pipelines runs through the

center of the area. Sub Main lines are
divided into several branch.

Grid-iron System Main supply lines run through the

center of the building and sub mains
branch off in perpendicular directions.

Ring/Circular System The supply mains forms a ring around

the area.

Radial System Elevated reservoir is centrally located

and divided ito several distribution
area
Distribution
System
Pipelines
Transmission Mains

● Transmission lines are large

pipes that carry large quantities
of water from the treatment
plant and storage tanks into the
distribution system.
● Transmission pipes generally
run in straight lines, have few
side connections, and aren’t
tapped for customer services.
Arterial Mains

● Connected to transmission
mains.
● Arterial lines transmit flow to
distribution mains.
Distribution Mains

● Distribution mains carry water

from transmission lines and
distribute it throughout a
community.
● These pipes have many side
connections and are frequently
tapped for customer
connections.
Thank
you
Water
Treatment and
Purification
Technological Institute of the Philippines
Water Treatment
● General Goal
○ Provide potable water that is safe to drink, pleasant in appearance,
pleasant in taste and odor, and cost-effective to produce.
● Specific Goal
○ To remove the contaminants that are harmful to health or those
which can cause diseases
○ To remove contaminants that make the water look, taste, and smell
bad.
What is the differences between pollution
and contamination?
● Pollution
○ Pollution can take the form of microbial, chemical, or energy
(including noise and radiation) in various media.
○ Pollution fits into the concept of the “epidemiological triad”: agent
(pollutant), environment (medium), and host (exposed person).
● Contamination
○ It indicates the presence of an impurity
○ It is maybe natural and is not due to human activity.
QUESTION What is the presence of a
substance where it should not be
or at concentrations above
background?
QUESTION What is the presence of a
substance where it should not be
or at concentrations above
background?

Contamination
QUESTION It is due to the influence or
activities of people
QUESTION It is due to the influence or
activities of people

Pollution
QUESTION It always creates harmful effects?
QUESTION It always creates harmful effects?

Pollutants
QUESTION It does not always create harmful
effects.
QUESTION It does not always create harmful
effects.

Contaminations
“All pollutants are
contaminants, but not
all contaminants are
pollutants.”
Common Chemical Pollutants
Parameters of Water

There are three different parameters of water:

● Physical
● Chemical
● Biological

These parameters include a range of characteristics that make water

appealing and useful to consumers, and that ensure the water presents no
harm or disruption to the environment or to humans within a wide range of
possible water uses.
Health-related Contaminants

Contaminants can affect human health, it can be naturally occuring,

man-made, or a result of the treatment process itself.

● Acute contaminants
○ Those contaminants that can cause sickness or illness at very low
levels or low exposure
● Chronic contaminants
○ Those that can cause sickness or illness only after prolonged
exposure to the contaminant in drinking water
Basic Water Quality Parameters

● pH
● Electrical Conductivity
● Salinity
● Turbidity
● Dissolved oxygen
● Biochemical oxygen demand
● Temperature
● Carbon Dioxide
● Solids
● Alkalinity and hardness
● Coliforms
pH

● Measured hydrogen ion concentration

● Negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
● Ranges from 0 to 14 std. Units
● It reflects the acidity or alkalinity of solution

Note: Toxic Metals are less available in water at pH 6 to 8.

Conductivity

The measure of the ability of water to conduct an electric current and

depends upon the number of ions or charged particles in the water, and is
measured by passing a current between two electrodes that are placed into a
sample water.
Salinity

In measuring the salinity of water, we consider the concentration of salt

dissolved in the water.

These are the following classes of salinity used for water:

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in water.

Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration, and
through photosynthesis.
Turbidity

The cloudy or muddy appearance of a naturally clear liquid caused by the

suspension of particulate matter.

It is usually recorded in nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs)

Importance:

● Aesthetic consideration
● Disinfection
● Affects filtrability
Temperature

● The solubility of dissolved oxygen decreases with increasing water

temperature.
● High water temperature limit the availability of dissolved oxygen for
aquatic life.
● In addition, water temperature regulates various biochemical reaction
rates that influence water quality.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

● Is the amount of oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms in a

body of water to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period.
● BOD test evaluates the loss of oxygen tha accompanies and
decomposition induced and maintained by the aerobic organisms.
● BOD is measured by DO determination before and after an incubation
period of 5 days at 20 degree celcius.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Significance:

● Pollutional strength of domestic and industrial wastewaters

● Evaluation of self-purification capacity of receiving waters
● It is a measure of the strength of wastewater.
Odors and Tastes

● Odors are caused by volatile substances associated with:

○ Organic matter (decaying)
○ Living organisms (algae)
○ Gases (Hydrogen sulfide, chlorine)
● Measurement of odor intensitity: Threshold Odor Number

● Tastes are caused by:

○ Chlorides and sulfates of calcium, magnesium, and sodium
○ Organisms (algae)
○ Industrial Waste
● Measurement of taste: Threshold taste Number
Solids

Three Categories:

● Settleable
○ Settleable solids are relatively larger and heavier particles that can
settle under the influence of gravity within a specified time period
● Suspended
○ Suspended solids refer to solid particles that are small enough to
remain suspended in wastewater without settling.
● Fine or dissolved solids
○ Particles that are dissolved in water and cannot be removed by
physical separation methods.
Solids

Three Categories:

● Settleable
○ Settleable solids are relatively larger and heavier particles that can
settle under the influence of gravity within a specified time period
● Suspended
○ Suspended solids refer to solid particles that are small enough to
remain suspended in wastewater without settling.
● Fine or dissolved solids
○ Can pass through filtration.
Alkalinity

● Known as “Acid neutralizing capacity of water”

● Alkalinity is a measure of the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate, or
hydroxide constituents.
● Concentration less than 100 ppm are desirable for domestic water
supply.
● If the alkalinity is too high, the water can be salty, soda-like, chalky taste,
or dry your skin.
● Formation and creation of chemical scale which would clog piping.
Alkalinity

Significance:

● Important in water treatment (especially in coagulation)

● In industrial waters: deposits, corrosion, cloudiness, off flavors in
beverages and food products.
Hardness

It is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. Usually

expressed as the number of parts per million (ppm).

Water Classified as:

● Soft (0 - 75 mg/L)
● Moderately hard (75 - 150 mg/L)
● Hard (150 - 300 mg/L)
● Very Hard (>300 mg/L)
Coliforms

Coliforms as indicator organisms:

● The number of coliforms in feces is very great; 125 - 400 billion per
capita daily discharge
● If present in water, they indicate the presence of fecal material and
hence the presence of intestinal pathogens.
Standards that are set by the EPA for
drinking water quality.
● Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)
○ The maximum concentration of a chemical that is allowed in public
drinking water systems.
○ The MCL is established by the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
● Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG)
○ The maximum level of a contaminant in drinking water at which no
known or anticipated adverse health effect on the health of persons
would occur, allowing an adequatemargin of safety.
Standards that are set by the EPA for
drinking water quality.
The main difference of MCL and MCLG is:

● MCL is an enforceable standard, where utilities are required by law to

meet the standards.
● MCLG is a non-enforcable standard, where utilities are not required by
law to meet the standards. But is it a goal set at levels that are protected
of even the most vulnerable groups like infants and pregnant people.
Standards that are set by the EPA for
drinking water quality.
● Nephlometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
○ Is a measure of the clarity of water. Turbidity in excess of five NTU
is just noticeable for person.
● Maximum Residual DIsinfectant Level (MRDL)
○ The highest level of a disinfectant allowed in drinking water.
● Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal (MRDLG)
○ The level of a drinking water disinfectant, below which there is
known or expected risk to health.
QUESTION Which water is safe for drinking?
Surface water or groundwater?
 Water Classification by Source

Surface Water Groundwater

Low mineral content High mineral content

High turbidity Low turbidity

Colored Low color

D.O. present Low or no D.O

Low Hardness High Hardness

Fe, Mn may present, usually as organic High Fe, Mn

complexes
Water Treatment
Processes
Typical water treatment plants is made up of a series of reactors or unit operations, with the
water flowing from one to the next to achieve a desired end product.
Water Treatment Processes

● Softening
● Coagulation
● Flocculation
● Adsorption
● Settling
● Filtering
● Disinfection
Water Treatment Processes

● The main materials that contribute to color and turbidity are either
dissolved or too small to settle.
● One of the problem comes from material that is less than one
micrometer (0.001 mm) in size, which is what we called colloidal material.
Coagulation

The process of decreasing the stability of the colloids in water is called

coagulation. Coagulation results from adding salts of iron, aluminum, or
cationic polymer to the water.

Two opposing forces that impact the removal of colloidal material:

● Stability Factors - Stability factors are those factors that help to keep
colloids dispersed.
● Instability Factors - Instability factors are those factors that contribute
to the natural removal of colloids.
Most Common Coagulants

● Aluminum Sulfate
● Sodium Aluminate
● Ferric Sulfate
● Ferrous Sulfate
● Ferric Chloride
● Polyaluminum Chloride
● Cationic Polymers

Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their positive charge, they are
attracted to the negative particles in the water
Purpose of Coagulation

The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges

on the turbidity particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other.
The amount of coagulant which should be added to the water will depend on
the zeta potential , a measurement of the magnitude of electrical charge
surrounding the colloidal particles. If the zeta potential is large, then more
coagulants will be needed.

Positively charged coagulants attract to

negatively charged particles due to electricity.
Coagulation
Flocculation

It is a physical process of slowly mixing the coagulated water to increase the

probability of particle collision.

This process forms the floc. Floc is a snowflake-looking material that is made
up of the colloidal particles, microorganisms, and precipitate.
Adsorption
● It is an adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or
dissolved solid to a surface.
● Adsorption of a substance involves its accumulation onto the surface of a
solid called the adsorbent.
● In water and used water purification, adsorption is applied for the
removal of dissolved impurities
Adsorbents

An adsorbent is a solid substance used to remove contaminants from liquid or

gas that can harm the environment.

● Activated Carbon
● Activated Alumina
● Molecular Sieves (Zeolite)
● Silica Gel
Settling
Sedimentation a process of settling that allows the flocculated or coagulated
particles to settle by gravity in a sedimentation tank.
Filtration
● A physical process of separating suspended and colloidal particles from
water by passing the water through a filter media.
Filtration: Media Filtration
● A filter media can consist of silica sand, greensand, anthracite coal,
activated carbon, and many other types of media. These media can be
used as single media filter or mixed to provide improved filtration
characteristics.
Filtration: Membrane Filtration
● Membrane filtration offers high filtration efficiency due to the smaller
pore sizes of the membranes.
● They can effectively remove a wide range of particles, including
suspended solids, colloids, microorganisms like bacteria and viruses, and
various dissolved substances.
● Membrane filters also provide precise and reliable separation, ensuring
high-quality filtrate.
Filtration: Membrane Filtration
Filtration: Membrane Filtration
● Membrane Catridge Filtration
○ Bag or cartridge filters capable off removing giardia and
cryptosporidium
● Microfiltration
○ Membrane filters capable of removing pathogenic organisms larger
than 0.1 micrometers in size.
● Ultrafiltration
○ Membrane filters capable of removing pathogenic organisms larger
than 0.005 micrometers in size.
Filtration: Membrane Filtration
● Nanofiltration
○ Membrane filters capable of removing pathogenic organisms and
dissolved organic contaminants larger than 0.001 micrometers in
size.
● Reverse Osmosis
○ Membrane filters capable of removing pathogenic organisms,
dissolved organic, and salts contaminants larger than 0.0001
micrometers in size.
Reverse Osmosis
● It is the unit used to remove TDS from water (with about 90% removal
rate)

Osmosis

- Water flows from the side that has the lowest concentration to the side
that has the highest concentration.

Reverse Osmosis

- Water flows from side that has the highest concentration to the side with
the lowest concentration by applied pressure.
Filtration: Reverse Osmosis
Disinfection
- Water is clear after the filtration process but still contaminated by
microorganisms which must be killed by using disinfectant.
Types of Disinfection
● Physical disinfection - boiling water and irradiation with ultraviolet light.
● Chemical disinfection - adding chlorine , bromine, iodine, and ozone to
water.
Physical Disinfection: Boiling
● It kills vegetative bacterial cells, but spores, virus, and some protozoa
may survive long periods of boiling.
● A effective method for small batches of water during water emergencies.
● Boiling is prohibitively expensive for large quantities of water.
Physical Disinfection: UV Radiation
● UV radiation is an effective and relatively safe disinfection method, but is
relatively expensive and not widely used.
● UV light disrupts DNA of microbial cells, preventing reproduction.
● Specific wavelengths, intensities, distances, fowrates, and retention time
are required.
Chemical Disinfection
● Chemicals added to water for disinfection include chlorine, bromine, and
iodine.
● Bromine is not recommended for drinking water disinfection, but may be
used for pool water.
● Iodine is sometimes used for drinking water disinfection, but causes a
bad aftertaste.
Chemical Disinfection: Chlorination
● Chlorination is employed primarily for microbial disinfection.

Chlorine is widely used because it is:

● Readily available
● Cheap.
● Easy to apply (it is highly water soluble).
● Harmless residual in solution which protects the distribution system.
● Very toxic to most micro-organisms.
Chemical Disinfection: Chlorination
● Chlorination is employed primarily for microbial disinfection.

Disadvantages

● It is a suffocating and irritant gas that requires careful handling.

● It gives taste and odour problems.
● Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in
the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection
byproducts (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes
(THMs) which is carcinogenic.
Types of Chlorine Residual
The residual chlorine test determines the amount of residual chlorine in water
that has completed testing and is ready for release into the distribution and
delivery systems. Residual chlorine is an important measure to prevent
microbial contamination.

1. Free chlorine - kills microogranisms more effectively

2. Combined chlorine - formed when free chlorine reacts with other
chemicals in water
3. Total chlorine - the sum of free and combined chlorine
Dechlorination
Dechlorination is the process of removing residual chlorine from disinfected
wastewater prior to discharge into the environment.

The importance of dechlorination is it minimizes the effect of potentially toxic

disinfection byproducts by removing the free or total combined chlorine
residual remaining after chlorination.
Ozonation
Ozone (O3) is an effective, relatively harmless disinfection method, but is
expensive (and therefore less popular than chlorine).

Ozone is a strong oxidant, that produces hydroxyl free radicals that react with
organic and inorganic molecules in water to kill microbes.
Softening
To remove hardness (Ca and Mg) in water.
Softening
Lime Soda-Ash Method

● Lime (Ca(OH)2) is used to remove chemicals that cause carbonate

hardness.
● Soda ash (Na2CO3) is used to remove chemicals that cause
non-carbonate hardness.
● When lime and soda ash are added, hardness-causing minerals form
nearly insoluble precipitates.
Softening
Chemistry of Soda Lime Process

● As slacked lime is added to a water, it will react with any carbo dioxide
present:

● The lime will react with carbonate hardness:

Softening
Chemistry of Soda Lime Process

● The product magnesium carbonate is soluble. To remove it, more lime is

added.

● Also, magnesium non-carbonate hardness, such as magnesium sufate is

removed.
Softening
Chemistry of Soda Lime Process

● Lime addition removes only magnesium hardness and calcium carbonate

hardness. In eq. 5, magnesium is precipitated, however an equivalent
amount of calcium is added.
● Now, the water contains the original calcium non-carbonate hardness
and the calcium non-carbonate hardnedd produced in eq. 5. Soda ash is
added to remove calcium non-carbonate hardness:
Softening
● To precipitate CaCO3, it requires a pH of 9.5. And to precipiatte
Mg(OH2), it requires a pH of about 10.8.
● After softening, the water will have a high pH and contain the excess lime
and the magnesium hydroxide and the calcium carbonate that did not
precipitate.
● Recarbonization is used to stabilize the water which also reduces pH
from 10.8 to 9.5
Softening
● Further recarbonization, will bring the pH to about 8.5 and stabilize the
calcium carbonate
Thank
you
WATER QUALITY
MONITORING

Prepared By: ENGR. AILA BANDOLA

Source: DENR-EMB
Water Quality
Monitoring Manual
Water Quality Monitoring Manual
❖ WQM manual-Volume 1 is the Ambient Water Quality Monitoring.
❖ WQM manual-Volume II - Effluent Quality Monitoring
❖ The primary users of the WQM manual are:
➢ technical staff of the EMB
➢ Central and Regional Offices.
➢ Other users include technical staff of Laguna Lake
Development Authority (LLDA),
➢ Mines and Geo-sciences Bureau (MGB);
➢ and other agencies or individuals under the DENR
Ambient Water Quality
Monitoring
Ambient Water Quality Monitoring
❖ Volume I serves as a manual for overseeing the quality of the
country's surface waters in various environments, including rivers,
streams, lakes, and marine waters (both coastal and offshore).
❖ The purpose is to establish consistent procedures for monitoring
ambient water quality, ensuring that water quality monitoring
initiatives adhere to specific Quality Assurance/Quality Control
(QA/QC) protocols and approved field methods.
Ambient Water Quality Monitoring
❖ Water quality monitoring primarily involves collecting water
samples and measuring the primary and secondary parameters
outlined in ambient water quality guidelines.
❖ Additionally, methods for sampling biological and aquatic life are
provided to assist individuals or groups interested in conducting
targeted monitoring for particular purposes.
Water Quality
❖ The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, also known as RA 9275,
provides a definition for water quality, stating it as “the
characteristics of water which define its use in terms of physical,
chemical, biological, bacteriological or radiological characteristics by
which the acceptability of water is evaluated.”
❖ Determining good water quality isn't based on a single criterion.
Although it is generally accepted that high-quality water should be
clear and devoid of harmful substances, the presence of specific
concentrations of such substances is permissible as long as they fall
within the guideline values corresponding to the intended
beneficial uses of the water.
Water Quality
❖ Water Quality Measurement Purpose
➢ Various water uses different water quality standards.
Assessing water quality is crucial for understanding the
overall condition of a water body. The most commonly
employed approach involves measuring its physical,
chemical, and bacteriological components.
➢ The measurement of water quality aims to ascertain whether
the water meets the specified requirements for its intended
purpose.
Objectives of Ambient WQM
In the Philippines, most ambient water quality monitoring activities are undertaken for
such purposes as:

● Classification of a water body. The water quality is monitored quarterly for a period
of one year. Among other factors, e.g., existing use and social acceptability, the
result of analyses are taken into account in deciding the appropriate classification
of a water body or section of a water body.
● Trend Monitoring to check if a water body is meeting its designated use. The water
quality is monitored at regular frequency to check if the water body is meeting the
guideline values for its classification. The results are used as basis for
decision-making, e.g., whether to institute management interventions to improve
water quality, or to reclassify a water body, etc.
Objectives of Ambient WQM
● Designation of Non-Attainment Areas. A water body or portions of a water body may
be identified as NAA for parameters whose guideline values are not being met. This
is based on: (a) ten monthly sampling in a period of one year within the last two
years, or (b) quarterly sampling within the last two years (except for parameters
requiring more frequent sampling based on the DENR water quality guidelines).
● Monitoring for ECC compliance. If required in the ECC, the quality of a water body is
monitored to ensure that a project or undertaking within or near a water body is
not affecting the water quality.
Objectives of Ambient WQM
● Monitoring to identify causes and sources of water-related problems. In cases of
occurrence of water-related problems, e.g., disease epidemic, fish kills, red tide,
etc., water quality monitoring is undertaken to identify specific problem pollutants
and sources, and used as basis for identification of intervention and management
strategies.
● Monitoring for baseline data and scientific studies. Specific water quality parameters
are analyzed for specified period of time to serve as baseline data or for certain
studies.
● Monitoring for Other Purposes. Monitoring for purposes other than those mentioned
above.
Water Quality for Specific Uses
● The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) categorizes the
country's rivers, streams, lakes, groundwater, coastal, and offshore
waters based on their beneficial uses. Beneficial uses refer to the various
ways in which water is utilized by humans and other living organisms.
● The Revised Water Quality Guidelines, a revision of DAO 34, series of
1990, outlines the specific beneficial uses and guideline values for
different water classes in the country.
Significance of Water Quality
Parameters
● BIOLOGICAL
○ Microscopic Organisms
■ Bacterial, viruses, protozoa
○ Creatures
■ Algae, vertebrates, and invertebrates
○ Photosynthesis, decomposition, respiration, and metabolism of
organisms in water affect BOD, DO, and nutrient levels.
Water and Wastewater Parameters
● CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS (and other pollutants contributing to
aesthetics and oxygen demand)

○ Color ○ Oil and Grease (Petroleum ether

○ Temperature extract)
○ pH ○ Nitrate as nitrogen
○ DO ○ Phenolic Substances
○ BOD5 ○ Total coliforms
○ TSS ○ Fecal coliforms
○ TDS ○ Chloride
○ Surfactants (Methylene Blue ○ Copper
Active Substances) ○ COD
○ Phosphate (as phosphorus) ○ Settleable solids
Water and Wastewater Parameters
● TOXIC AND OTHER DELETERIOUS SUBSTANCES

○ Arsenic ○ Aldrin
○ Cadmium ○ DDT
○ Chromium ○ Dieldrin
○ Cyanide ○ Heptachlor
○ Lead ○ Lindane
○ Total mercury ○ Endrin
○ Organophosphate ○ PCB
Water and Wastewater Parameters
● The 12 initial Persistent Organic pollutants (POP’s) under the
Stockholm Convention
○ Have been recognized as causing adverse effects on humans and
the ecosystem and these can be placed in 3 categories:
■ Pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor,
hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene;
■ Industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs); and
■ By-products: hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(PCDD/PCDF), and PCBs.
Commonly measures in situ parameters
● In situ water quality sampling is the measurement of physical and
chemical parameters in a water body at the time of sampling
● This is usually done because the measured parameters change rapidly.
○ Conductivity
○ pH
○ DO
○ Salinity
○ Temperature
○ Turbidity
Water Quality Monitoring Activities
Activities are planned depending on the type of assessment required. Some
activities may be extensive and involve multimedia parameters and indicators,
while others may involve only a few parameters. Whatever the objective and
methodology, ambient water quality monitoring would always proceed
according to the steps below

● Preparation
● Sampling
● Field Testing
● Recording Field Observations
● Packing and Transport
● Laboratory Testing
● Documentation
● Reporting
Water Quality
Monitoring Plan
Water Quality Monitoring Activities
● A monitoring plan is a document outlining the methodology for
observing and measuring water quality in a water body. A
properly structured monitoring plan is crucial in ensuring that
the processes related to water sampling and other activities
adhere to the monitoring objectives.
Background
Information
Preliminary Surveys
● Conducting an preliminary survey will aid in pinpointing suitable
sampling locations and methods. This preliminary assessment
enables the monitoring team to comprehend the characteristics
and dynamics of the water body, including spatial and temporal
variations, existing beneficial uses, and potential factors
influencing water quality.
Secondary Data Collection and Analysis

● Look for possible sources of useful information about the water

body to be monitored.
● Review the existing information. Collect data that are deemed
relevant
● Initial analysis and familiarization. The team who will undertake
monitoring must familiarize themselves with the water body to
be monitored. Familiarization with the physical conditions of the
monitoring site will make planning and execution of surveys
easier. Initial analysis and familiarization with the secondary
data available will enable identification of information gaps that
may later be filled in during the primary data collection.
Secondary Data Collection and Analysis

● Look for possible sources of useful information about the water

body to be monitored.
● Review the existing information. Collect data that are deemed
relevant
● Initial analysis and familiarization. The team who will undertake
monitoring must familiarize themselves with the water body to
be monitored. Familiarization with the physical conditions of the
monitoring site will make planning and execution of surveys
easier. Initial analysis and familiarization with the secondary
data available will enable identification of information gaps that
may later be filled in during the primary data collection.
Secondary Data Collection and Analysis

● Mapping, Plot or indicate key information on a topographic map

or prepare a thematic map indicating the following:
○ The river system consisting of the main river and the
tributaries, or the lake basin or the bay area
○ Administrative boundary of the river system or water body
○ Major point sources and non point sources of pollution
○ Intake point of drinking water supply or irrigation water
supply
○ Diversion dams, floodways, or man made channels
Coordination w/ LGU and Concerned
Agencies
● Coordinate with the LGUs and other concerned agencies before
the conduct of field surveys.
○ LGUs could provide valuable information on the water body
to be monitored.
○ Alternatively, the PENROs and/or CENROs of the DENR
could be tapped for assistance in the field surveys
Field Survey
Establish local contact If not one member of the team is familiar with the survey
area it is necessary to establish local contact or point
person in advance.

Verify weather forecast Field work cannot push during rainy periods forr safety
reasons.

Prepare the timetable Make a realistic estimate of the days needed to complete
the fieldwork, providing reasonable allowance for possible
delays

Prepare materials and Before going on fieldwork, be sure that the necessary
equipment materials and equipment have been prepared
Sampling Frequency
● The plan needs to outline the proposed schedule and regularity
of monitoring, which should be contingent on the specific
monitoring objectives. The timing aspect should take into
account the impact of temporal variations on water quality.
● The sampling plan should specify the frequency of sample
collection and the specific seasons during which samples will be
taken, recognizing that water quality can vary with different
times of the year.
Volume I - Manual on Ambient Water Quality Monitoring
Volume I - Manual on Ambient Water Quality Monitoring
Philippine National Standards of Drinking Water 2017
Water Quality
Sampling and Test
Methods
Types of Sample: Grab Sample
● Grab Sample
○ A grab sample is a single
water sample collected at
one time from a single point.
○ A grab sample represents
only the composition of the
water at the time and place
the sample was collected.
Types of Sample: Grab Sample
Grab sampling is suitable when:

● analyzing situations at specific sites

● analyzing for unstable parameters that have to be measured
right away or on site
● a snapshot of water quality at a particular instant is desired
● the characteristics of the waters are known to be relatively
constant over time
● collecting samples to be analyzed for parameters that could be
adversely affected by compositing process.
Types of Sample: Composite Sample
● Composite Sample
○ PNSDW 2007 defines
composite sample as a series
of individual grab samples
taken at different times from
the same sampling point and
mixed together.
Types of Composite Sampling
Fixed Volume Composite The time interval and sample size remain consistent, which
Sample is applicable when the water flow rate deviates by no more
than 15% from the average flow.

Time Composite Sample Collected by mixing samples of equal volume collected at

regular time interval.

Flow-Proportional The sample volume is a proportion of the flow volume and

Composite Sample can be acquired by maintaining a constant time interval
while adjusting the sample volume according to the
fluctuating water flow.

Depth-Integrated Samples are collected at predetermined depths within the

Composite Sample water column, each in equal volumes, and subsequently
combined in a single container.
Types of Sample: Composite Sample
Composite Sampling is suitable when:

● Evaluating the overall concentration of a substance or pollutant

in water (such as total phosphorus available for potential
phytoplankton growth) or the size of an organism's population
(like the bacterial population) involves assessing variables that
are not uniformly distributed.
Manual Grab
Sampling
Manual sampling is a technique used for collecting grab
samples for immediate on-site field analysis
Direct Sampling with the Sample
Container
● Sampling can be conducted using a
sample container such as a
wide-mouthed glass, plastic
container, BOD bottle, or vial with a
cover.
● This method is appropriate when:
○ Sampling in waters that can be
waded.
○ Collecting water samples
exclusively from the surface.
○ The sample, to be transported
to the laboratory, does not
necessitate filtration.
Sampling Procedures
(1) Put on protective gloves and wading boots.
(2) Wade into the water to the center of the river channel where the
water is deepest and current has the greatest velocity. Face upstream
and wait until the plume of sediment has been carried away or has
settled.
(3) Rinse the container at least three times with the river water,
throwing the used water downstream of the sampling location.
(4) Lower the sample container into the water face down. Hold it with
one hand on each side to a depth at least 4 inches below thesurface
or halfway to the bottom of the stream.
 Proper Position in Taking Water Sample in Wadable Waters

Adapted from Water Quality and Sampling Procedures, State of Washington

Sampling Procedures
Note: Do not touch the inner part of the container. If the stream is very
shallow, lower to a depth just above the stream bed but do not touch or
disturb the stream bed with the container

(5) Slowly lift the container towards the flow. Fill it to about 4/5 full
Enough space should be left to allow for addition of preservative, if
necessary, and to allow for mixing the sample.

(6) Cap or cover the container and bring the sample to the working
area for the succeeding steps
 Procedure for Collecting Samples in Wadable Waters

Adapted from Water Quality and Sampling Procedures, State of Washington

Sampling with Intermediate Container
● Utilizing an intermediate container,
such as a bucket, beaker, or
wide-mouthed bottle, for collecting
a grab sample is recommended
under the following circumstances:
○ When the water is too deep for
wading.
○ In cases where the water is
highly polluted, and direct
contact is not advisable.
○ If the laboratory supplies
pre-preserved sample
containers.
Sampling with Intermediate Container

● Additionally, the use of intermediate

devices helps prevent undesired
contamination of the outer surface
of the sample bottle, which would
occur if directly immersed in the
water source.
 Pond Sampler Kemmerer Sampler Van Dorn Sampler

Sampling iron

Source: USGS,
Automatic
Sampling
An automated water sampler is capable of collecting water
samples at predetermined intervals automatically. Its
benefit lies in the ability to store water samples for an
extended period, allowing for subsequent analysis.
However, drawbacks include the associated costs and
maintenance requirements.

Placement of an automatic water sampler is essential at a

location in a river, stream, or creek where there is a
potential pollution source. This installation is necessary to
monitor water quality and ascertain whether the source is
contributing to water pollution.
Types of Sample
Container
Source: DENR-EMB
 Sample Containers for Specific Water Quality Parameters and
Recommended Cleaning Procedures

Source: DENR-EMB
 Sample Containers for Specific Water Quality Parameters and
Recommended Cleaning Procedures

Source: DENR-EMB
 Sample Containers for Specific Water Quality Parameters and
Recommended Cleaning Procedures

Source: DENR-EMB
WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS

Technological Institute of the Philippines

Source: DOH AO 2017-0010
Measuring Water
Quality
Need for Testing Water Quality
❖ For drinking water
➢ To assess safety and palatability of water for consumption
❖ For raw water resource
➢ To select treatment systems
➢ To establish pollution control monitoring systems
❖ For wastewaters
➢ To select type and degree of treatment
➢ To control treatment plant operation
❖ For receiving waters
➢ To evaluate their ability to accept pollution loads
➢ To monitor self-purification
Types of Examination
❖ Physical Examination
➢ To determine aesthetic quality
❖ Chemical Examination
➢ To test for chemical which affect the water quality and/or which
indicative pollution
❖ Bacteriological Examination
➢ To test for the presence of bacterial indicators of pollution and
hence safety for consumption
❖ Biological Examination
➢ To determine the cases of objectionable odors, clogging of
filters, etc.
Water Quality
Standards
Water Quality Standards
❖ Water quality standards (WQS) are provisions of state,
territorial, authorized tribal or federal law approved that
describe the desired condition of a water body and the
means by which that condition will be protected or
achieved.
Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water
❖ The history of PNSDW started in the year 1963.
❖ PNSDW 1963 underwent revisions in 1978, 1993, and
2007
➢ 1958 World Health Organization International
Standard for Drinking Water
➢ 1962 United States Public Health Service Standards
Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water 2007
❖ A series of issues and concerns have arisen from diverse
stakeholders
❖ Challenges faced by water service providers in adhering to
the standards and the publication of the fourth edition of
the Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality by the World
Health Organization in 2011.
Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water 2017
❖ Incorporates new parameters and an enhanced framework for
ensuring drinking-water safety, necessitating consideration in
the monitoring, testing, and analysis of water quality.
 PNSDW 2017

Acceptability physical and chemical quality of water that refers to the appearance,
taste and odor of drinking-water satisfactory to the consumer.

Bulk water supply drinking-water supplied to water service providers or associated

infrastructures including pumping stations, reservoirs, and pipelines.

Certified a person who underwent training for drinking-water sampling and

sampling certified by the DOH.
personnel

Contamination a general term referring to the presence of substances found in water

that make water less desirable or unfit for drinking.

Drinking water water intended for direct human consumption or for use in food
preparation and related processes.
 PNSDW 2017

Emergency any situation in which there is actual disruption or damage to

communities, i.e., any actual threat to public health and safety.

Health-based are measurable health, water quality or performance objectives that

targets are established based on a judgement of safety and on risk
assessments of waterborne hazards.

Maximum the highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking-water.

Allowable Level

Method Detection the constituent/contaminant concentration that when processed

Limit through the complete method, produces a signal with a 99%
probability that is different from the blank.
 PNSDW 2017

Mobile water tanks designed to deliver water for domestic use or emergency
tanks purposes.

Potable/Safe water with quality within the standard limits set in this PNSDW both
water for acceptability and health aspects.

Surveillance the continuous and vigilant public health assessment and review of
safety and acceptability of drinking-water supplies.
Classification of
Drinking-Water Quality
Parameters
Mandatory Parameters
❖ It is legally enforceable and must be examined by every provider
of drinking-water services.
❖ The testing frequency for mandatory parameters, excluding E.
coli and residual disinfectant, can be extended to once every
three (3) years if the LDWQMC determines, based on
consolidated water quality reports, that a specific mandatory
parameter has consistently shown undetectable levels for three
(3) consecutive years.
❖ The mandatory parameters represent the minimum parameters
for both initial and periodic examinations.
Primary Parameters
❖ Primary parameters are site-specific. These are chemical
impurities in water that directly affect health through acute or
chronic exposure.
❖ Primary parameters can also be adopted as enforceable
parameters, in addition to the mandatory parameters.
Secondary Parameters
❖ Secondary parameters are those that render the water
unacceptable for drinking.
❖ These include operational parameters which affect the efficiency
of the treatment processes.
Roles and
Responsibilities
Department of Health
❖ Develop systems and procedures to operationalize this Order.
❖ Ensure compliance of all drinking-water service providers and
operators to this Order.
❖ Perform independent surveillance of drinking-water service
providers.
❖ Provide technical assistance to the local government units,
drinking-water service providers and to the general public.
❖ Accredited water laboratories, certify training providers and
water sampling personnel.
Local Government Unit
❖ Enforce the provisions of this Order.
❖ Develop and implement drinking water quality surveillance
program.
❖ Establish a local drinking water quality monitoring committee.
❖ Advocate and create awareness to general population on the
importance of drinking water quality standards, impact of water
contamination on health, and control measures on addressing
water quality issues and problems.
Water laboratory
❖ Comply with the provisions of this Order.
❖ Secure accreditation from the Department of Health.
❖ Implement QS and develop a manual of operations describing
the laboratory's policies and plans for ensuring the quality of
their work provided to the public.
Drinking-Water Service
Provider/Operator of Establishment and
Building
❖ Comply with the provisions of this Order.
❖ Develop and implement WSP.
❖ Institute corrective actions for any unsatisfactory results of water
sampling.
❖ Submit to the accredited laboratories water samples for examination
in a manner and at such intervals prescribed under this Order.
❖ Submit results of water quality testing to the local health authority.
❖ Educate consumers on how to keep drinking-water safe at all times.
Standards for Water
Sampling and
Examination
Water Sampling and Examination
● Initial examination shall be conducted for new or newly
constructed water sources while periodic examination shall be
done for existing water sources.
○ Water samples for initial and periodic examination from all
water sources shall cover microbiological, physical, chemical
and radiological parameters.
● The minimum number of samples to be collected and examined
periodically shall be based on the source and mode of
distribution of drinking-water supply.
Water Sampling and Examination
● The collection of water samples shall comply with the standard
sampling requirements.
● Only certified sampling personnel shall collect water samples for
regulatory purposes.
● All water samples for regulatory purposes shall be examined
only in DOH Accredited Laboratory.
● Examination of water samples for radiological quality shall be
done by the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute.
Standard Values, Methods
of Detection/Analysis,
refer to Annex A of
PNSDW 2017
Standards - Annex A
1. Standard Values, Methods of Detection and Points of
Compliance for Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water
2. Standard Values, Methods of Analysis for inorganic Chemical
Parameters of Drinking Water
3. Standard Values, Methods of Analysis for Organic Chemical
Parameters from Industrial Pollution of Drinking Water
4. Standard Values, Methods of Analysis for Organic Chemical
Parameters (Pesticides) of Drinking Water
Standards - Annex A
5. Standard Values, Methods of Analysis for Physical and Chemical
Quality for Acceptability Aspects of Drinking Water
6. Standard Values and Methods of Analysis for Treatment
Chemicals Used in Treatment and Disinfection and Disinfection
by-products of Drinking Water
7. Standard Values and Methods of Analysis for Radiological
Parameters
Sampling Requirements - Annex D
● Standard Values
● Methods of Analysis
● Point of Compliance
● Chemical Abstracts Service
● Maximum Allowable Level
Drinking Water Quality
Parameters
PNSDW 2017 Annex B
PNSDW 2017 Annex B
PNSDW 2017 Annex B
Minimum Frequency of
Sampling
PNSDW 2017 Annex C
PNSDW 2017 Annex C
PNSDW 2017 Annex C
PNSDW 2017 Annex C
PNSDW 2017 Annex C
Sampling Requirements
for Specific Parameters,
refer to Annex D
Sampling Requirements - Annex D
1. Sampling requirements for Inorganic Parameters
2. Sampling Requirements for Organic Parameters
3. Sampling Requirements for Physical and Chemical Parameters
for Acceptability Aspects
4. Sampling Requirements for Radiological Parameters
Sampling Requirements - Annex D
● Container Material
● Minimum volume of Sample
● Mode of Preservation
● Holding Time
Water Supply
Operation and
Maintenance

Technological Institute of the Philippines

Distribution System
Inspection and
Maintenance
Main Break Prediction and Repair
● Main break disrupt water supply
and can cause significant damage to
roads, structures, and property.
● Water main breaks are caused by a
water hammer, land use over the
pipeline, and soil corrosivity.
● Asbestos cement pipe was popular
in the mid-1900’s in potable water
mains.

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Main Break Prediction and Repair
● Predictions of pipe failure are
critical to know.
● Automated meter reading allows to
monitor leak rates by checking
measurements of water delivered
againsts metered water to each
household.
● A number of leak detection devices
are now available to detect leaks
before they grow and cause
significant property damage
Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
Fire Hydrants
● Hydrant maintenance is the
responsibility of the water utility;
however, the fire department may
assist in hydrant inspections.
● Hydrants are used as a source of
water for street cleaning and
construction work must be
restricted and controlled.
● A yearly maintenance must be
performed

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Valves
● Shutoff valves are installed in a
distribution system to isolate pipe
sections for maintenance or to
repair a break.
● Without a periodic inspection and
operation, they may become
inoperable, covered by soils,
repaving of streets or paving of
driveways or difficult to locate to
inaccurate/unupdated mapping

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Valves
● Atleast once a year for
inspection
● To prevent scaling, periodic
opening and closing must also
be performed
● Preventative maintenance
involves location, inspection,
and operation.
Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
Cross-Connection and Backflow
Preventers
● A water utility is responsible for
protection of its potable water
supply from contamination
resulting from cross connection
and back siphonage.
● Many cross connection threats
are the result of potential back
siphonage from a sink hose into Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
a contaminated fluid.
Cross-Connection and Backflow
Preventers
● A water utility is responsible for
protection of its potable water
supply from contamination resulting
from cross connection and back
siphonage.
● Many cross connection threats are
the result of potential back
siphonage from a sink hose into a
contaminated fluid.
● Backflow preventers installed in
Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
service lines require periodic testing
to ensure that it is operational.
Cross-Connection Control
● Cross connection control
requirements are associated with
recycled water distribution system.
● Requirements typically include use
of purple colored plastic pipe or
purple tape to distinguish recycled
water pipe from potable water pipe
in white or blue plastic pipe or black
ductile iron or gray concrete pipe.

Kent County Water Authority

Cross-Connection Control
● Cross connection control requirements are associated with recycled
water distribution system.
● Requirements typically include use of purple colored plastic pipe or
purple tape to distinguish recycled water pipe from potable water pipe in
white or blue plastic pipe or black ductile iron or gray concrete pipe.
● Buildings and residential areas that are dual plumbed for potable and
recycled water must maintain an annual cross connection inspection
program.
Water Loss
● Water loss accounts for the raw
water quantity received and the
finished water delivered to homes.
● In the distribution system,
authorized consumption includes
billed metered consumption,
including meterings that overrecord
water use.
● Water losses are categorized into
two: apparent and real losses.

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Water Loss
● Electronic detectors, capable of
amplifying sound waves and filtering
out unwanted background noise,
can locate leaks.
● Pipes and joints are commonly
repaired by placing an external
cover over the leak.
Distribution System
Testing
Fire Flow Test
● It is important in determining the
efficiency and adequacy of a
distribution system in transmitting
water, particularly during days of
high demand.
● Flow tests consist of discharging
water at a measured rate of flow
from one or more dire hydrants and
observing the corresponding
pressure drop in the mains.
● Flow test results show the strength
of a distribution system but not
necessarily the degree of adequacy BFP NcR Taguig
of the entire water works.
Hydrant tests
● The water flow from fire hydrant
testing is typically discharged to the
street and to the stormwater
system.
● The chlorine residual in water is
toxic to fish and must be
dechlorinated prior to disposal.

Manila Water, Inc.

Unidirectional Flushing
● Water main flushing is used to
remove stagnant water from dead
end lines and scour debris that may
have settled over years of service.
● Unidirectional flushing requires
knowledge of the water distribution
system to close valves in a specific
order to create higher water
velocities in one direction toward
open hydrants.
● The goal is to attain scoring
velocities of 5 to 6 ft/sec. Town of Newmarket
Distribution System
Testing
Water treatment Process Control
● Single-station controllers,
programmable logic controllers, and
supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems
represent increasing capabilities for
automation.
● A single station controller allows
the operator to enter a set point
value and control such functions as
water level and chemical addition.

Manila Water, Inc,.

Water treatment Process Control
● Programmable logic controllers
perform the same function but are
able to control more than one
operation.
● The distribution system serves more
than 180000 connections.

Manila Water, Inc

Water Quality
● A quality program is essential to the
operation of any water treatment
plant.
● Availability of complete laboratory
reports is valuable for public
relations and in accessing system
vulnerability.
● All states require analysis of
finished water for coliform bacteria,
the number of tests required is Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
based on the population served.
Water Quality
● Tests exceeding the maximum
contaminant levels are not
compliance to violation, but may
require a more frequent monitoring
and review of alternative solutions.

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Sanitary Survey
● It is a physical review of the
watershed, water supply, treatment
plant, distribution system, and
operation and maintenance records.
● The purpose of this survey is to
identify all areas that represent a
risk to water quality and delivery.

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Recordkeeping
Recordkeeping
● Efficient management of water
utility is founded on detailed
records of physical facilities,
operation, and maintenance.
● Treatment plant recordkeeping
encompasses water quality and
quantity data and plant operations.
● Some tests on the treated water are
required by regulatory agencies.

Maynilad Water Services, Inc.

Recordkeeping
● The report should compare
laboratory results with regulated
contaminants and recommended
public health levels and information
on compliance with drinking water
standards.

Manila Water
Security
Security
● The waterworks control system
requires the physical security of
SCADA, and control components
should be kept in locked,
access-controlled areas, including
tightly controlled access to remote
locations.
● System backups and restorations
should be available for disaster
HydroLogic
recovery.
Security
● Water treatment plant security is
required to ensure safe drinking
water and fire protection.
● The perimeter of the property
should have barriers to control
vehicle and pedestrian entry.

Santa Paula. PERC Water Corp.