Contents

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 3

Part 1: Fundamentals of housing................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Introduction to Housing ................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Evolution of Housing through History ............................................................................. 3
1.3 Urbanization ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Present Context demand ................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Housing as a basic human right ........................................................................................ 7
Part 2: Theoretical Frameworks in Housing Design ................................................................... 8
2.1 Role of place making in Housing...................................................................................... 8
2.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Housing ........................................................................ 9
2.3 Defensible Space Theory by Oscar Newman ................................................................... 9
2.4 Neighborhood planning .................................................................................................. 10
Part 3: Factors Affecting Housing ............................................................................................ 11
3.1. Environmental and Site-Based Factors .......................................................................... 11
3.2 Socio-Cultural factors ..................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Economic Factors............................................................................................................ 14
Part 4: Housing layouts and typologies: ................................................................................... 17
4.1 Housing typologies ......................................................................................................... 17
4.1. Housing layout ............................................................................................................ 24
Part 6: Services and facilities .................................................................................................... 27
6.1. Physical infrastructure ................................................................................................... 27
6.2. Social Infrastructure ....................................................................................................... 36
Part 6: Housing Policies and Future Trends ............................................................................ 41
6.1 Policies Governing Housing Development ..................................................................... 41
6.2 Future of Housing ........................................................................................................... 52
LITERATURE REVIEW

Part 1: Fundamentals of housing

1.1 Introduction to Housing

The word "shelter," which has a close relationship to the ideal housing proposal globally, is
typically used to define housing. In our minds, the shelter is a "safe," "secure" location that offers
seclusion as well as defense.
In general, housing refers to the design and construction of residential units that allow people to
live in a comfortable, tranquil, and healthful environment. It was once used to refer to a human
community where people lived and worked towards shared objectives. Later on, it developed into
a neighborhood-wide planning unit with the social objectives of housing, family life, and financial
security.

Figure 1:Housing Goals

Housing is one of the major drivers of economic growth. It accounts for a significant portion of
annual GDP in many developed countries whereas it is stimulus to creation of small business in
developing countries. Housing is also an effective way to promote good governance. The need to
improve housing condition stimulates civic organization that acts as incubator for elected
representation. Investing in housing expands the local tax base, thereby facilitating the emergence
of autonomous & responsive local government. Safe homes and neighborhood help build social
stability and security.

1.2 Evolution of Housing through History

Numerous questions are often brought up by the history of housing, such as how cities first came
into being, how they evolved over time, and what changes they brought about. Over time, the
ability to pinpoint the locations of diverse human groups has aided in our comprehension of the
changing traits of the human species, especially the connection between humans. According to a
study, Mesopotamia, the birthplace of civilization, had the earliest known population of any urban
city, dating back to 3700 BC. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that the geographic center of
urban development changed over time, indicating that the urban civilization's geographic center
was not constant and instead shifted from transit non-permanent to Indus valley civilization, which
was the first to arrange permanent housing.
1) Ephemeral Dwellings

Ephemeral dwellings, also known as transient dwellings,

were typical of nomadic peoples. The African bushmen
and Australia’s aborigines are examples of societies
whose existence depends on an economy of hunting and
food gathering in its simple form.
Figure 2:Aborigines of Australia
2) Episodic Dwellings

Episodic housing is exemplified by the Inuit igloo, the

tents of the Tongues of eastern Siberia, and the very
similar tents of the Lapps of northern Europe. These
groups are more sophisticated than those living in
ephemeral dwellings; these groups also construct
communal housing and often practice slash -and -burn
cultivation.
Figure 3: Igloo of the Inuits

3) Periodic Dwellings

Periodic dwellings are also defined as regular temporary

dwellings used by nomadic tribal societies living in a
pastoral economy. This type of housing is reflected in the
yurt used by the Mongolian and Kirgizia groups and the
Bedouins of North Africa and western Asia. These
groups’ dwellings essentially demonstrate the next step in
the evolution of housing, which is linked to societal
development. Pastoral nomads are distinguished from
people living in episodic dwellings by their homogenous
Figure 4: Pastoral Nomad housing
cultures and the beginnings of political organization.

4) SeasonalDwellings
Seasonal dwellings are tribal in nature, semi nomadic, and
based on agricultural pursuits that are both pastoral and
marginal. Housing used by semi nomads for several
months or for a season can be considered semi sedentary
and reflective of the advancement of the concept of
property, which is lacking in the preceding societies. This Figure 5: Hogans
 concept of property is primarily of communal property, as opposed to individual or personal
property.

5) Semi-Permanent Dwellings

According to Schoenauer: sedentary folk societies or

peasants practicing subsistence agriculture by cultivating
staple crops use semi-permanent dwellings. These groups
tend to live in their dwellings various amounts of time,
usually years, as defined by their crop yields. When land
needs to lie fallow, they move to more fertile areas.
Figure 6:Oval houses of the Mayans
6) Permanent Dwellings

The homes of sedentary agricultural societies, whose

political and social organizations are defined as nations
and who possess surplus agricultural products, exemplify
this type of dwelling. (Malik, Fall 2019)

Figure 7:Italian Trullo

1.3 Urbanization

Permanent dwellings went beyond simply providing shelter and protection and moved to the
consideration of comfort. These structures began to find their way into what is now known as the
urban. Urbanization started out somewhat slowly but picked up speed quickly once it got going.
Just 3% of people on Earth lived in cities in the 1800s, but that quickly changed in 1900, rising to
13.6%
The Industrial Revolution was one of the main factors causing urbanization in the western world.
The US's shift from a rural to an urban society was sparked by this industrial revolution. Young
people who grew up on farms relocated to the cities because they perceived more chances there,
as did millions of European immigrants. Many workers ended up living in urban slums as a result
of the difficulty in housing all the new city dwellers; the water supply was frequently contaminated,
and open sewers flowed alongside the streets.
Public to private transition
Public housing concept since 1937 was nothing more than the alternatives for the clearance of the
slum. In seeking to maximize the alternatives, there have been experiments that scattered public
housing into small pieces of neighborhood infill. Starting in 1970s, it was shifted away from
project style housing and instead dispersed the residents into 400 scattered sites, some of them no
more than a single home. In addition to the experimentation with different types of residents,
buildings, locations, the basic public-ness of the housing also began to blur; starting in the 1960s,
all manner of private and not-for-profit entities have entered the fray.16 Programs introduced in
1974 retained the housing concepts from 1937, but shifted the ownership to private sector. Many
public housing authorities engaged in large scale experiments to re-conceptualize public housing
as tenant-based vouchers dispersed across a landscape of private landlords. Moreover after 75
years of experimentation, much of the rest of public housing operation has become completely
privatized as well. In many cities, housing authorities are regularly living over their conventional
housing stock to private manager and often more than the land beneath their redevelopment
endeavor. (ROHIT SHAKYA)

1.4 Present Context demand

Characterless concrete blocks are no longer the only option for social housing. These days, the
goal of housing is frequently to give low-cost housing to those in need while also preserving their
dignity by giving them access to unique and well-designed dwellings. Furthermore, as energy
efficiency is usually a top concern, eco-friendly designs
and features are commonly included in these
contemporary public housing buildings. The Tiny House
Movement has gained popularity because we now want
housing options that are more adaptable and can handle
the danger of living in the twenty-first century. The
necessary flexibility is offered by tiny houses. They are
assets that can be sold, are portable, and can be kept and
packed away.
Energy conservation is just one aspect of sustainability
in housing; other factors include resource utilization,
environmental impact, and living circumstances.
Climate change and the environment have accelerated in
recent years. Every industry is striving to lessen its Figure 8:What makes an ideal housing?
carbon footprint, and the housing sector is contributing
as well. The government is currently providing a range of incentives to encourage environmentally
sustainable development. The emphasis must be shifted to the use of alternative resources and
technologies that save money and resources while also being in line with the goal of having a low
environmental impact for a balanced way of life.
Housing problems
The majority of nations now struggle with housing, especially developing nations that are trying
to find solutions to house large populations. Although demand varies by nation and impacts all
economic sectors, especially the housing sector, the following are the main causes of housing
issues:
• Urbanization and Industrial Development in Cities
• Neglect of Rural Areas
• Declining Financial Resources
• Land Property
Numerous issues are focused on the urban area, especially when it comes to creating a well-
designed neighborhood, and modern housing has numerous hurdles as a result of population
expansion and other causes. Because of the numerous contributing components, the issues are
sometimes more complex than we could have imagined, making it more challenging to identify
and address. The typical housing issues in urban areas comprises of unplanned growth,
overpopulation ,traffic and transportation problems, lack of proper housing policies etc.
While the government implemented some housing programs in the 1970s-1980s, they mainly
benefited local landowners and the private sector developments of the 1990s-2000s were only
accessible to high-income groups. As a result, the urban poor have been forced to live in slums.
Both public and private sector efforts have been inadequate due to weaknesses in planning,
policies, and legal/institutional frameworks. To address the housing needs, the document calls for
clear policies, coordinated efforts between public and private sectors, and empowering local
governments. (Shrestha, 2010)

1.5 Housing as a basic human right

A fundamental human right is to live in a safe and suitable home. However, it has been challenging
to provide housing security for the vast majority of our people, as is the case with all human rights.
Some analysts have identified the years following World War II as a critical turning point in the
sharp escalation of the urban housing crisis. In pursuit of employment, informal settlers—for many
years just referred to as "squatters"—spread throughout Manila and many other large cities. It was
estimated that there were 46,000 squatters in Manila and its suburbs by 1946, following the virtual
destruction of the city during the Liberation. This number increased to 98,000 in 1956 and to
283,000 by 1963. (Review of Related Literature for The Relocation and construction)
The implementation of the Right to Housing Act, 2018; implementation of safe citizen housing
and People’s Housing Programme for the ultra-poor, endangered, and marginalized ethnic groups
by the Government of Nepal; increase in public awareness as well as technical capacity in the
construction of safe housing in aftermath of the catastrophic earthquake of 2015; increase in private
sector investment in planned housing and land development; mobilization of funds from
cooperatives and welfare funds for the construction of systematic housing; relocation of remote
and high-risk settlements with preparations for integrated settlement development; increased
family income due to changes in occupational diversity; and increased need and potential for
urbanization due to increase in household income from remittances. (Consultancy, 2079)
Part 2: Theoretical Frameworks in Housing Design

2.1 Role of place making in Housing

Place-making is a concept used to describe and understand how meaningful places emerge from
interactions between people and their environments. Place making has become an important tool
in the community development toolbox to revitalize disinvested, underutilized areas to attract
people and activities. (Burrowes, n.d.)
It is about fostering a sense of belonging in a place and providing the community an opportunity
to define its use. When done effectively, it can help strengthen local economies, reduce crime,
drive civic engagement, and improve health and well-being.

Attributes of Place making

I. Access and Linkage

You can judge the accessibility of a place by its connections to its surroundings, both visual and
physical. A successful public space is easy to get to and get through; it is visible both from a
distance and up close. When it comes to accessibility, it isn’t simply enough to be able to get to a
place. To fully enjoy a space, people must be able to navigate it and spend time there with dignity
and confidence. Unfortunately, many spaces deliver a message of exclusion to their visitors.

II. Comfort and Image

Comfort includes perceptions about safety, cleanliness, and the availability of places to sit - the
importance of giving people the choice to sit where they want is generally underestimated.
 Does the place make a good first impression?
 Are there enough places to sit? Are seats conveniently located? Do people have is a
choice of places to sit, either in the sun or shade?

III. Uses & Activities

Activities are the basic building blocks of great places: They are the reasons why people visit in
the first place, and why they continue to return. They are also what makes a place special or unique.
When there is nothing to do in a place, it will sit empty and unused—a sure sign something needs
to change.
 Are people using the space or is it empty?
 Is it used by people of different ages?
 Are there choices of things to do?

IV. Sociability
When people see friends, meet and greet their neighbors, and feel comfortable interacting with
strangers, they tend to feel a stronger sense of place or attachment to their community - and to the
place that fosters these types of social activities.

2.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in

Housing

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs describe the

behaviors of people in their pursuit to meet
their physical and social needs .It describes
and visualizes levels of “needs” that must be
reached or gratified prior to an individual’s
attainment of needs on the next level. The
needs, in order from basic to advanced, are
as follows: physiological, safety, love,
esteem, and self-actualization.

“Putting Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the Context of Housing Provision”

(Jusan, 2010) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs provides a framework for understanding how housing
can meet human needs at various levels. Housing, as a physical structure, can fulfill basic needs
for shelter, safety, and security. However, when considering a "home," it represents a deeper
connection to personal identity, social structures, and emotional fulfillment. Research shows that
housing must address not only physical needs but also provide spaces for social interaction,
belonging, and personal expression to support higher psychological needs. Thus, housing designs
should foster active participation from occupants to ensure they meet both individual and
communal needs effectively.

2.3 Defensible Space Theory by Oscar Newman

Defensible Space theory encompasses a wide range of planning and design strategies that focus
attention on reassigning the perceived ownership of residential space. Newman argues that when
common spaces associated with high-rise housing-such as community rooms and outdoor grounds-
lack clear owners or are open to too many users, residents cannot assert responsibility for their
safety and maintenance, and these places are left vulnerable to crime and vandalism. Newman
advocates recreating a sense of ownership in these spaces by dividing and "assigning them to
individuals and small groups to use and control as their own private areas.

(Newman) There are five factors that make a defensible space:

1. Territoriality – the idea that one's home is sacred
2. Natural surveillance – the link between an area's physical characteristics and the residents'
ability to see what is happening
3. Image – the capacity of the physical design to impart a sense of security
4. Milieu – other features that may affect security, such as proximity to a police substation or
busy commercial area
5. Safe Adjoining Areas - for better security, residents obtain higher ability of surveillance of
adjoining area through designing the adjoining area

2.4 Neighborhood planning

Clarence A. Perry, an American planner, presented the Neighborhood Unit Concept in his
influential work, “The Neighborhood Unit: A Scheme of Arrangement for the Family-Life
Community” (1929). Perry’s vision was a response to the challenges posed by rapid urbanization
and industrialization, aiming to create neighborhoods that would cater to the diverse needs of their
residents. (Clarence A. Perry’s Neighborhood Unit Concept: Transforming Communities, n.d.)

Principles of Neighborhood Unit Concept:

I. Self-Sufficiency: At the core of Perry’s concept is the idea of the neighborhood unit as a self-
sufficient entity. Each unit, designed to accommodate a specific population size, would ideally
contain all the necessary amenities such as schools, parks, shopping centers, and community
spaces, aimed to reduce the need for residents to travel outside their immediate neighborhood for
daily necessities.
II. Pedestrian-Friendly Design: Perry emphasized the importance of pedestrian-friendly design
within neighborhood units. He envisioned well-planned networks of streets and pathways that
would prioritize the safety and accessibility of pedestrians. This design not only encouraged
walking but also fostered a sense of community by facilitating easy social interactions among
residents.
III. Hierarchy of Roads: The Neighborhood Unit Concept proposed a hierarchical road system.
Local streets within the neighborhood unit would serve primarily for residential access and local
activities, while arterial roads would connect different units and provide access to transportation
networks beyond. This hierarchical approach aimed to balance local accessibility with connectivity
to the broader urban fabric.
IV. Parks and Green Spaces: Perry recognized the importance of parks and green spaces within
neighborhood units. These areas were intended to serve as communal gathering spots, enhancing
the quality of life for residents and fostering a sense of connection with nature. The inclusion of
green spaces aimed to create a harmonious balance between the built environment and natural
elements.

Part 3: Factors Affecting Housing

3.1. Environmental and Site-Based Factors

3.1.1 Climate and Orientation

The dynamic field of architecture considers several variables, including climate, and is not simply
about aesthetics. A region's climate has a big impact on how buildings are designed and built,
leading to a variety of architectural styles that put convenience and environmental adaptation first.
Building restoration is one of the expert services that are fortunately available. (Squeegee Squad,
2023)

How Climate Changes Affect Housing?

Extreme Temperature
The way housing originate is determined by extreme temperatures, whether they are hot or cold.
Shaded sections, ventilation systems, and reflective surfaces are just a few examples of the
materials and architectural features that assist keep interior spaces cool in hot climates. On the
other hand, insulation and effective heating systems are essential for preserving acceptable indoor
temperatures in cold areas. (Squeegee Squad, 2023)

Wind Patterns
In many places, especially open spaces and coastal regions, strong winds are an issue. In order to
guarantee structural stability, architects take wind patterns into account when designing buildings.
Common tactics to withstand the effects of strong winds include reinforced building envelopes,
aerodynamic forms, and carefully placed apertures. (Squeegee Squad, 2023)

Orientation is simply what compass direction the building faces. In addition to massing, orientation
may be the most crucial element in ensuring passive thermal and visual comfort in a building.
Since massing and orientation cannot be fully optimized without the other, they should be chosen
jointly early in the design process. (venturewell blog, 2014)
The impact of orientation in Housing:
Orientation can impact several aspects of a household or establishment’s performance and
energy savings.
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort and efficiency are the most affected attributes. Depending on how a building is
situated, it can gain more or less sun exposure as the Earth rotates and revolves. Because the sun
rises in the east and sets in the west, the side of the building that is utilized for solar gain needs to
be facing the south to take maximum advantage of the sun’s potential energy. (Long, 2024)
Energy Efficiency
The direction in which a building faces has an effect on its energy efficiency. Buildings that are
oriented towards the south will receive more direct sunlight than those facing other directions,
making them more efficient in terms of heating costs during colder months. (Building Intelligence,
2023)
3.1.2 Topography and Soil Conditions
In architectural design, topography is the study and integration of a site's natural or existing
physical features and contours into the layout and design of a building or other structure. Using
knowledge of the site's topography, elevation fluctuations, soil composition, vegetation, water
features, and other natural features to inform the architecture's design is part of this. (Designboyo,
2023)

How does topography affect housing?

Considering if a site is flat, the topography may not influence the location and layout of the
buildings, but on a sloping site, the topography is likely to be a significant design factor. The slope
of a site or the slope of adjacent sites may affect access to sun and views. For example, an east-
facing hillside will have reduced noon and evening sunlight and depending on the height and
steepness, a south-facing site may receive little or no sun during winter months. (Homes, 2024)

Soil is the foundation of a construction project. It has the power to make or break a building. When
the building is constructed on the wrong soil base, there are chances of land sliding, leaks, etc.
Soils serve as the foundation of any structure; they should be stable and strong. Soil mapping tools
come in handy for engineers during analysis. This way, they are able to select the best location to
begin construction. The stability of soil depends on its texture: stronger the foundation, stronger
the structure. (Construction, 2021)

3.1.3 Proximity to Natural Features (Rivers, Forests, Mountains)

Proximity to natural features such as rivers, forests, and mountains significantly influences housing
choices and real estate trends due to their aesthetic, environmental, and practical implications. Here
are key factors and insights:
Economic and Real Estate Value
Properties near rivers or with mountain views often experience higher demand and prices due to
their scenic appeal and recreational opportunities. However, risks such as flooding near rivers or
landslides in mountainous areas may lower property desirability or require additional insurance
and planning. (Crompton, 2017) (Noni, 2016)
Environmental and Health Benefits
Living close to forests or mountains provides cleaner air, cooler temperatures, and improved
mental well-being due to the calming effects of natural surroundings. (Houstir, 2024) (Noni, 2016)
3.1.4 Impact of Natural Disasters on Housing
A natural disaster is an event caused by a natural hazard, which refers to a natural process or
phenomenon that can result in loss of life, property damage, and environmental impact, such as
earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, landslides, fires etc. (Abhaya S. Prasad, 2017)
Earthquakes: Structural damage or complete collapse due to poor construction practices,
inadequate materials, or seismic activity.
Floods: Water intrusion damages foundations, walls, and interiors; prolonged exposure may
weaken structural integrity.
Hurricanes: Roofs and walls are damaged by high winds; debris can lead to further destruction.
Landslides: Entire buildings may be buried or swept away in hilly regions.
Fires: Complete destruction of structures, especially in flammable materials.
3.1.5 Crime prevention through environmental design
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) significantly impacts housing by
creating safer, more livable environments through strategic design principles. CPTED focuses on
modifying the physical environment to reduce opportunities for crime, thereby enhancing
residents' sense of safety and community well-being.
Key elements include natural surveillance, such as improved street lighting and placement of
windows, which increase visibility; territorial reinforcement, like fencing and clear demarcations
of private and public spaces, which signal ownership and deter unauthorized access; and
maintenance, which ensures spaces remain clean and free from neglect, discouraging vandalism
and crime. These principles not only decrease crime rates but also reduce fear of crime,
encouraging greater social interaction and active living among residents. (Park, 2016)

3.2 Socio-Cultural factors

According to Rapport (1969), home development is an outcome of several socio-cultural variables,

rather than just physical forces or a single causative cause. Overall, housing is a collection of
physical and social systems which come together to form the housing system
3.2.1 Demographics and Family structures
Houses are constructed according to the kind of family structure. For house with large number of
family, additional number of rooms are required while single person household prioritize smaller
more affordable units. And as for demographics, housing design completely depend on age
distribution. Houses with children features play areas while houses for old age should include
wheelchair access, grab bars, etc. (Kandar, 2021)
3.2.2 Cultural influences
House form is not simply the result of physical forces or any single causal factors, but is the
consequence of a whole range of socio-cultural factors seen in their broadest terms. Apart from
the provision of shelter, the function of the house is to create an environment best suited to the
way of life of the people, a social unit of space. (Rapoport, 1969)
Building Materials - The Foundation of Cultural Expression
Construction Techniques - Engineering Marvels Reflecting Cultural Values
Ornamentation - Cultural Symbolism in Architectural Details

3.3.3 Gender Perspective and Equity

Gender is an important lens in the complex interplay of factors that determine how persons interact
with their physical environment. Throughout the history of architecture, homes were built to reflect
and perpetuate these gendered roles.
U. Bauer's 2009 paper "Gender Mainstreaming in Vienna: How the Gender Perspective Can Raise
the Quality of Life in a Big City" explores how incorporating a gender perspective into urban
design improves inclusivity and quality of life in general. Redesigning public areas, housing, and
transportation systems to better serve the needs of women, children, and the elderly is one of
Vienna's gender mainstreaming initiatives. These initiatives put safety, usability, and accessibility
first, demonstrating how well-considered design can produce just urban settings.
3.3.4 Communal and Social Spaces
Urban spaces should be designed to
fulfill human needs and behaviors,
thereby allowing for the development of
communities through communication,
movement and sense of community.
Targeting pedestrians, cyclists and
public transportation, this type of
urbanism is about creating environments
where people can call home, work and
socialize easily. Cities should be the
places that contribute to the thriving of
people, not only their survival. (Gehl).
Social spaces are not just an afterthought
in housing design; they are fundamental elements that shape the character, quality of life, and
sustainability of a community.

3.3 Economic Factors

3.3.1 Affordability and Housing Costs

Affordability is understood as the capability to purchase and maintain something long-term while
remaining convenient for the beneficiary's resources and needs. (Bogdon, 1997)
Supply and Demand
One of the primary factors affecting housing affordability is the balance between supply and
demand in the housing market. When there is a shortage of available housing units compared to
the number of potential buyers or renters, prices tend to rise. This is particularly evident in high-
demand areas such as major cities or regions with limited land for development. (FasterCapital,
2014)
House Hold Income
The ability of families to afford housing depends on their income levels, impacting the type and
quality of housing they can access.
Cost of Materials and Construction
Fluctuations in material costs and labor affect overall housing affordability.
3.3.2 Land Values and Real Estate Trends
Land values and real estate trends profoundly shape housing development and investment
strategies. Here's how these factors interact and influence the housing market:
Land Values and Housing Design
 Cost Allocation: High land values drive developers to optimize space usage, often
resulting in vertical expansion (e.g., multi-story buildings) or compact, efficient
layouts.
 Zoning and Land Use: Expensive urban land often aligns with stricter zoning
regulations, influencing the type of housing (e.g., luxury condos versus affordable
apartments). (Santarelli, 2024)
Affordability and Market Access
Rising land costs reduce affordability, pushing first-time buyers towards rentals or smaller
properties. This dynamic is particularly impactful in high-demand urban areas. The affordability
crisis fosters migration to secondary markets, where land costs and housing prices are lower,
leading to population and infrastructure growth in these areas. (Trusscore, 2024)
Impact of Real Estate Trends
 Rental Market Growth: With homeownership becoming less accessible due to high
land and housing costs, the rental market is expanding. New rental units are being
developed, especially in areas where buying is less feasible.
 Technology Integration: Real estate technologies, such as AI and AR/VR, are helping
buyers and developers evaluate land and housing options efficiently. This shift also
reduces transaction costs and improves decision-making. (Lucarelli, 2023)
3.3.3 Government Subsidies and Incentives
Subsidies are a housing policy tool designed to make the cost of housing affordable for low-
income individuals and families. (Lee, 2018)
Tax Credits and Financial Incentives

One of the most widely used tools in promoting affordable housing is the Low-Income Housing
Tax Credit (LIHTC) which provides tax incentives to private developers to build and rehabilitate
affordable rental housing. In addition to tax credits, governments offer various financial incentives
to encourage affordable housing development. These can include grants and low-interest loans to
cover construction and renovation costs, as well as loan guarantees that reduce the risk for private
lenders. Deductions on mortgage interest or housing loans encourage homeownership. By
lowering the financial barriers and risks, these incentives make it more attractive for developers to
invest in affordable housing projects. (Bwpboris, 2024)

Land Allocation

Governments may provide land at reduced costs for affordable housing projects.

3.3.4 Role of Private Investment in Housing Development

While the government sets the stage, the private sector often takes the lead in actually building
and financing affordable housing. Here’s how:

Investment and Development

Private developers bring capital, expertise, and innovation to the table. They can often build
housing more efficiently and cost-effectively than government entities. Many developers are
finding creative ways to make affordable housing projects financially viable, such as incorporating
mixed-income models or utilizing innovative construction techniques.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Some of the most successful affordable housing initiatives involve collaborations between
government and private entities. These partnerships leverage the strengths of both sectors:
 Government provides land, funding, or regulatory support
 Private companies bring efficiency and innovation to design and construction
(BottomBillionCorporation, 2024)
Part 4: Housing layouts and typologies:

4.1 Housing typologies

(Tomajian, 2024) The typologies are used to understand and analyze the characteristics and needs
of different types of housing, and are used in a variety of contexts, including architectural design,
urban planning, and building science. Building typology is a classification system used to
categorize buildings based on their function, form, and construction. It is a way of grouping
similar types of buildings together and analyzing their characteristics and features. In
architectural design, building typologies help architects to understand the characteristics and
needs of different types of building and make informed design decisions. The different urban
housing typologies that exist in most of the urban contexts of cities, each with its own unique
characteristics and elements. Some of them are:

4.1.1 Urban Villas/Single Family homes

(Tomajian, 2024) These are typically solitary multi-level, single-family, detached homes that are
located in densely populated urban areas, often designed to blend into the existing urban fabric. It
could either be modular houses too, simplex, duplex, triplex and quadriplex. Urban Villas are
designed to provide an alternative to traditional single-family homes, which often require long
commutes to work, schools, and shopping. The design of Urban Villas can vary widely, but they
often feature high-quality finishes and fixtures, large windows, outdoor spaces, and flexible floor
plans that can accommodate a variety of lifestyles, and one of the famous examples of shaping
contemporary urban villa is Le Corbusier's Maison La Roche-Jeanneret.

Fig.: Villa La Roche

Some Urban Villas may also include shared amenities, such as a pool or fitness center, that are
typically found in apartment buildings or condominiums. One of the key benefits of Urban Villas
is that they provide a sense of community and neighborhood that is often lacking in traditional
urban settings. Because they are designed to blend into the existing urban fabric, they can help
create a more vibrant and connected urban environment that promotes social interaction and
community building. Overall, Urban Villas represent a new model of urban housing that combines
the best features of suburban and urban living. They are designed to meet the needs and preferences
of modern urban residents, providing a sustainable, convenient, and high-quality living experience
in the heart of the city.
4.1.2 Row houses and terraces
(Tomajian, 2024) In modern usage, these terms can overlap, especially in newer developments,
but traditionally, terraced housing refers to more uniform, often older, urban housing, while row
housing is a broader, more general term. Terraced dwellings have a rich history and affected
housing typologies in various regions. They were proliferated between the 18th and 19th centuries,
as did many early forms of semi- detached and detached squatter houses, with chaotic backs and
facades. These houses had no gardens, neither front nor back. The master of the house and his
family lived virtually and socially “stuck up” on the upper floors, separate from the street. As for
the back of the house, it was replaced by the back garden of the house and a place for rest and
entertainment. The terrace, as a pattern, was an opportunity to consider the total formation in
modernity. In modern usage, these terms can overlap, especially in newer developments, but
traditionally, terraced housing refers to more uniform, often older, urban housing, while row
housing is a broader, more general term. One of the well-known residence in London, Georgian
terraces of Belgravia are great example of terrace housing.

Fig.: Georgian terrace of Belgravia Fig.: Typical modern row housing

The terraced project is open on both sides and contained between two empty parallel walls
separating the dwellings. The smallest number of buildings that can form a terraced class dwelling
is three. These can be single or multi-family houses, and they can reach 7 floors. Row houses are
groupings of identical or nearly identical low-rise homes, lined up shoulder-to-shoulder and sharing
a roofline and one or both side walls. In this type of housing end unit are more desirable as it has
more windows and less acoustic issues.
4.1.3 City blocks and slabs
(Tomajian, 2024) Slab housing is a type of urban housing typology that is characterized by long,
narrow buildings with a rectangular or square footprint. It can have multiple apartments on each
floor, and it can be in a twin form sharing one staircase or multiple twins attached together forming
linear typology. Slab buildings typically have a low- to mid-rise height and are often oriented
perpendicular to the street. The buildings are typically designed to maximize the number of units
per floor, and may have balconies or terraces to provide outdoor space for residents. It can be used
for a variety of purposes, from affordable housing to luxury apartments, and can be found in both
public and private developments. These Housing structures are often associated with modernist
and Brutalist architecture and have had notable influence in various contexts, like Le Corbusier's
Unité d'Habitation.

Fig.: Unite habitation

4.1.4 Vertical houses (apartments and high rise)

Vertical architecture is associated with height. Vertical housing began to spread as a solution to
the shortage of places, due to the transition from the countryside to the cities, from the industrial
revolution until the height of the modernist movement, when architects began to propose
solutions to contain the working population. Since that time, skyscrapers and residential towers
have been designed in a common pattern that treats height as a succession of horizontal
projections, with one vertical axis (the elevator) connecting them. These types of building did not
have much appeal in the European urban context due to their association with social housing
projects. Woven timber "roots" frame Brisbane high-rise by Koichi Takada Architects and the
“Vertical Forest” in Milan by “Boeri” office, are examples of modern vertical houses.
 Fig.: Brisbane High rise apartment Fig.: Vertical forest, Milan

4.1.5. Narrow houses and infill

(Tomajian, 2024) This classification is used all over the world for the purpose of densifying the
residential areas of the city in order to create the largest amount of housing with controlled
orientation. An example is the “Azuma House”, “Tadao Ando”, (fig 15) and the “Karet House”,
“Jacob Schezenzny” in Warsaw, Poland.

Fig.: Azuma House, in Japan Fig.: Keret House, in Warsaw Poland

As for the challenges facing this classification, they are the access of light to the interior and the
lack of flexibility, which makes it difficult to control and change the dwelling due to its
narrowness, the common social aspects, the façade facing the road, the way it is integrated and
harmonious with the neighborhood, as well as the urban overlaps in terms of density, size and
harmony with the neighborhood. However, the infilling of a vacant lot is a traditional design task
in the city. The piece that joins together two separate buildings has to accommodate the height and
depth of each of its neighbors. In most cases this building has a front-back orientation due to the
presence of firewalls on both sides, in some cases, however, it is its only aspect.
4.1.6 Quadrangles and courtyard
(Tomajian, 2024) These are called urban blocks or the perimeter blocks, which consist of row and
corner floor plans. The primary typological characteristic of this type of block is that it faces
simultaneously inwards onto an interior courtyard and outwards onto the urban surroundings.
Coupled with the need to orient with respect to the sun this results in different floor plan zonings
for the respective sides of the block. It can also be opened from the corners or the sides as a reaction
to the difficult floor plan arrangement of the apartments in the perimeter block. The perforation of
the perimeter building is a strategy that creates external spaces and distance between the separate
parts of the block. The courtyard bungalow appeared in Los Angeles around 1910 as a new form
of low-cost housing consisting of a number of attached dwellings, or small, detached cottages
clustered around a central garden. The designers of New York apartment blocks at the turn of the
last century had explored the quadrangular dwelling, or courtyard block, as a new paradigm. The
inner courtyard was seen in previous designs, as in European models, as a secondary space and as
a service area or light fixture.

Fig.: The Graham courtyard

Architects defined the use of empty spaces between buildings, such as inner courtyards, skylights
and quadrangular openings, as a key organizational or structural tool in the plan. The use of this
type of housing increased, and the inner courtyard became more important and was designed as a
closed space consisting of luxurious gardens that usually contain green spaces, fountains and trees,
and are quiet and separated from the noisy street. The Graham Court, built for the Astor family in
1901, is generally considered the first quadrangular residence to treat the inner courtyard as an
important part of the design. This typology remains relevant today, albeit in evolved forms that
address contemporary needs and preferences.
4.1.7 Stacked housing
(Tomajian, 2024) Stacked clustered housing is a type of residential development where individual
units are stacked on top of each other to create a clustered housing arrangement. In stacked clustered
housing, individual units are arranged vertically, with each unit occupying its own floor. Stacked
clustered housing is typically designed to provide residents with the privacy and autonomy of a
traditional single-family home, while still offering the benefits of clustered housing, such as shared
amenities, common spaces, and a sense of community.
This type of housing can be particularly attractive in dense urban areas, where land is limited and
traditional single-family homes are not practical. Stacked clustered housing can take many forms,
but it is typically designed to maximize living space while minimizing the building footprint. This
can be achieved through the use of compact, efficient floor plans, and by sharing common spaces
and amenities such as parking, laundry facilities, and outdoor areas. Examples of stacked clustered
housing can be found around the world. For instance, in Canada, stacked townhouses are a popular
housing type that offer a compact, efficient living space in urban neighborhoods.

Fig.: Habitat 67, Montreal, by Safdie Architects

In London, England, stacked flats are a common housing type that provides affordable, high-
density housing in the city center. In Hong Kong, many residential towers incorporate stacked flats
to provide high-density housing in a vertical arrangement.

4.1.8 Informal houses

(Tomajian, 2024) Informal housing refers to housing that is built and/or occupied without legal
recognition or regulatory approval, often in violation of building codes and zoning regulations. This
type of housing is also sometimes referred to as "slum" housing, "shanty towns", "squatter
settlements", or "informal settlements". Informal housing is typically characterized by lack of basic
services and amenities. Informal housing is a widespread phenomenon in many parts of the world,
particularly in developing countries where urbanization is rapid and the demand for affordable
housing exceeds the supply, like Mumbai. According to United Nations estimate, one billion people
around the world live in informal settlements. Despite their often-precarious nature, informal
settlements can also be vibrant and resilient communities, with their own social and cultural norms,
and strong social networks.
Many informal settlements are located in urban areas close to jobs and economic opportunities.
Efforts to address informal housing typically involve a combination of policy and regulatory reforms,
increased investment in affordable housing, and community-based approaches to planning and
development. However, addressing informal housing is a complex and long-term challenge that
requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and the
communities themselves.

Fig.: Dharavi, Mumbai Fig.: Favela, Rio de janerio

4.1.9 Lofts and extensive houses

(Tomajian, 2024) Loft apartments are open-concept living spaces that are typically located in
former industrial or commercial buildings. These spaces often feature high ceilings, large
windows, and exposed brick or ductwork. Extensive houses are popular among young
professionals and artists who value the unique character and flexibility of these spaces. While loft
apartments can be found in many cities around the world, they are particularly prevalent in North
America. Some of the popular examples of this housing typology include the "SoHo”
neighborhood in New York City, the Distillery District in Toronto, Canada.
 Fig: SoHo neighborhood lofts, New York, 1870 Fig.: Extensive House, Copenhagen, 2005, by MVRDV

4.1. Housing layout

A housing layout refers to the arrangement and design of residential buildings within a given
space or community. It determines how homes are positioned, how they relate to each other,
and how spaces such as roads, utilities, and common areas are incorporated. The layout of a
housing development influences both the functionality and the aesthetic appeal of the area.
Below are some common types of housing layouts:
4.2.1. Cluster pattern
(designhub1610, 2023) Cluster housing refers to a residential development concept in which
individual homes are grouped together in clusters while sharing common open spaces,
amenities and facilities. These clusters are designed to foster a sense of community and
encourage social interaction among residents. Cluster housing typically features a mix of
housing types, such as detached, semi-detached or townhouses, arranged in a way that
maximizes land efficiency and promotes a vibrant cohesive neighborhood. It offers numerous
benefits that contributes to affordability and sustainability like:
 Cost efficiency
The homeowners share common infrastructure and amenities which reduces
construction and maintenance costs, making it more cost effective.
 Land optimization
It optimizes and utilizes land use, enabling more units without compromising privacy
or living standards.
 Community engagement
The shared spaces help to strengthen socialization, resulting in more inclusive and
cohesive neighborhood.
 Environment sustainability
It incorporates green building practices, energy efficient design and preservation of
open spaces, leading to reduced environmental impact and more sustainable lifestyle.
Some of the disadvantages of cluster pattern are reduced privacy, crowded common areas,
limited parking and potential for noise and maintenance challenges. While these issues can be
mitigated through careful planning and design, they remain important considerations when
deciding whether cluster housing is the right choice for residents.
4.2.1.1.Cul de sac cluster pattern
(Beuzelin, 2024) A cul-de-sac, pronounced “kul-duh-sak,” is a French term that translates to
“bottom of the bag” or “bottom of the sack.” To put it simply, it refers to a dead-end street
with a circular or semi-circular turnaround area at the end. What makes them unique is their
layout, which is designed to limit through traffic, creating a quieter and safer environment for
residents. This feature ultimately plays a role in its reputation for being ideal for families.
Its advantages:
 Safety and security
 Sense of community
 Tranquil environment
Its disadvantages:
 Limited parking
The limited street space might juggle for parking spots, especially if one have
multiple vehicles.
 Limited privacy
 Long driveway
 Noise
Close proximity of homes and shared walls, can cause significant noise issues,
particularly in densely packed areas.
There is an improved version of the cul de sac known as shoe string pattern which have shoe
S shape encircling the linear roads. It ensures separation as well as easy access to the main
road, providing similar merits as cul de sac.
4.2.2. Linear pattern
(fiveable, 2024) A linear housing pattern is a type of residential layout where residents are
arranged in a single straight continuous line or pathway, often along a transportation route such
as a road, river or other linear feature. The linear arrangement is significant for understanding
how human settlements adapt to their environment and the impact of transportation on
settlement growth. Transportation plays a crucial role in shaping linear patterns by determining
how communities are connected to each other and to essential resources.
Living in a linear settlement offers advantages such as easy access to transportation routes and
resources, fostering economic activity through trade. However, it may also have disadvantages,
including limited space for expansion and potential isolation from other communities.
4.2.3. Iron grid or rectangular pattern
(VS, 2020)The grid plan, grid street plan or grid iron plan is a type of city plan in which streets
run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. The geometry helps with orientation and way
finding and its frequent intersections with the choice and directness of route to desired
destinations.
Its advantages are:
 Regulated pathways and easy to extend
 It has easy access and control of path
Its disadvantages are:
 Traffic congestion
 Many nodes and intersections

4.2.4. Radial or concentric pattern

(Moreira, 2020) A radial concentric pattern is formed by streets that extend outward from a
defined center and reach the outer edge, together with concentrically arranged roads that
connect the radial streets to the lots. It concenters the particular common social space like
community center, green parkas and gardens, monuments or commercial area. Example:
Brandy Haveby (Denmark)
Part 6: Services and facilities
6.1. Physical infrastructure

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and
encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to
function.(Infrastructure, 2016) Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures
such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water
supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet
connectivity and broadband access).
6.1.1. Road
A hierarchical road network is crucial for housing projects, with arterial roads linking the
neighborhood to urban areas and collector and local roads supporting internal traffic flow.
Guidelines from the Indian Road Congress (IRC) recommend road widths of 6–12 meters for
arterial roads and 3–5 meters for local streets. Roads should incorporate stormwater drainage
systems to prevent waterlogging during heavy rains. Features like speed breakers and zebra
crossings enhance safety, particularly for pedestrians and cyclists.
Types of road pattern
Grid Pattern:
Straight roads intersect at right angles, forming square or rectangular
blocks. It ensures high connectivity and simplifies infrastructure
planning, as seen in cities like Chandigarh. However, it can lead to
congestion at intersections.
Organic pattern:
This pattern is commonly seen in cities that develop spontaneously
without structured planning. It often results from uncoordinated and
chaotic growth. Such layouts may lead to narrow passageways,
bottlenecks, inefficient use of space, high infrastructure costs, and
increased congestion.
Radial pattern:
Roads extend outward from a central point, a design frequently used in
townships and circular layouts such as Connaught Place, New Delhi.
This pattern provides convenient access to the central area but can make
navigating the outer sections more challenging.
Loophole pattern:
This pattern is often adopted when geographical constraints, such as Figure 9: Different types of road
pattern
gorges or mountains on either side of the main road, limit expansion,
leading to a linear development pattern (similar to a bay). It is also used in quiet residential areas
to discourage through traffic, incorporating features like cul-de-sacs and circular road layouts to
enhance privacy and reduce traffic flow.
Terminologies used for road
 Sidewalk and bicycle traffic
Sidewalks or pavements are often located
alongside on one or usually both sides of the street
within the public land strips beyond the curbs.
Sidewalks serve a traffic purpose, by making
walking easier and more attractive, but they also
serve a social function, allowing neighbors to
meet and interact on their walks. An important
element of sidewalk design is accessibility for
persons with disabilities. Width of footpath:
- Single Lane: 3.75 m
- Two lanes (without raised Krebs): 7m
- Two lanes (with raised Krebs): 7.50m
- Multi-lane pavements: 3.50m per lane

Figure 10: Details of footpath zones according to land use

 Traffic calming activities

Traffic calming uses physical design and other measures to improve safety for motorists, car
drivers, pedestrians and cyclists. It has become a tool to combat speeding and other unsafe
behaviors of drivers. (Encyclopedia of the city, 2005)
 On- street parking
On-street parking is a common form of parking, known for its efficiency in terms of land use and
convenience to motorists as it allows them to park their vehicles nearer to their destinations. On-
street parking reduces the road capacity mainly in two ways. Firstly, it narrows down the
carriageway width by means of bordering the traffic stream. Vehicles are forced to move into this
reduced width and it leads to a reduction in overall stream speed. Secondly, frequent parking and
unparking manoeuvres create complex situations result-ing in congestion on busy urban roads.
(Subhadip Biswas, 2017)
 Pedestrian ways
Pedestrians need continuous and unobstructed moving paths, well-lit spaces, inviting building
edges, shaded places to rest and walk, and wayfinding signs for a safe and comfortable street
experience.
Standards for Pedestrian ways:
 - Pedestrian pathways must be available on both sides of arterial roads.
- The location and dimensions of pedestrian ways on collector and local streets should be
guided by Local Development Plans, Detailed Plans, and other relevant studies.
- Pedestrian paths should be elevated 15–20 cm above the road surface.
- A minimum drainage slope of 2.5% is required for these streets.
- Footway capacity should accommodate 30–50 persons per minute per meter of width, after
accounting for approximately 0.9 m of dead width in shopping areas and 0.45 m in other
areas.
- Continuous ramps should have a gradient no steeper than 10%.
- Pedestrian pathways must have a minimum height clearance of 2.3 m.

Figure 11: Pedestrian path

 Noise control
The aim of noise control is to minimize sound pollution by implementing strategies such as
tackling noise at its origin, utilizing effective floor assemblies, and designing spaces to keep noisy
and quiet areas apart. Different ways of noise control are:
- Waterfalls and fountains mask city noise and enrich outdoor environments, often favored
in design.

Figure 12: Noise control

 - Replacing hard surfaces with softer, permeable, or planted ones enhances tranquility, aids
noise reduction, and minimizes surface water runoff.
- Noise barriers, made from materials like concrete, glass, or recycled mixes, can reduce
traffic noise while enhancing urban aesthetics, though careful design is needed to avoid
hard echoes and prioritize softer acoustic transitions.
- Expanding green spaces and adding climbers on walls can attract birds, enhance
tranquility, improve the natural soundscape, and reduce sound reflection in urban areas.

Figure 13: Using of noise buffer zone

6.1.2. Water Supply

A sustainable and efficient water supply system is crucial for housing, ensuring consistent access
to clean water through sources like municipal supplies, groundwater, and rainwater harvesting.
Modern housing developments incorporate features such as rainwater harvesting systems,
underground reservoirs, and automated pumping mechanisms. Practices such as greywater
recycling and rainwater harvesting, as seen in projects like Sobha City, Gurgaon and Palava City,
Mumbai, enhance resource efficiency and reduce dependency on external supplies. By integrating
innovative solutions and addressing challenges like aging infrastructure and overconsumption,
housing developments can achieve equitable and sustainable water management while enhancing
residents' quality of life.
Water supply criteria:
- Water supply mains may be located under the sidewalk, in the planting strip, or under the
street. Minimum design requirements will locate them at least 10ft from the nearest sewer
or gas main and above the highest sewer or gas main.
- All underground pipework except for pipes laid under a building should be laid at a depth
of no less than 750mm from the finished ground level and no more than 1,350mm.
- Hydrants should not have less than a 6-in connection to the water main.
 - Hydrants should be located at each street intersection with additional hydrants provided at
midpoints along all streets, drives, and cul-de-sacs where the distance between
intersections exceeds 500 ft. Spacing between hydrants serving multifamily dwellings and
public buildings should be reduced to 300 ft.
- A hydrant should be located within 200 ft of the standpipe Siamese connection on high-
rise housing.
- Hydrants should be placed within 5 to 10 ft of street or driveway pavement.
- Hydrants should not be placed closer than 50 ft to the building being protected unless the
building is fire-resistive or the hydrant fronts a blank masonry wall.
6.1.3. Electricity
Electricity is crucial in modern housing, ensuring comfort, functionality, and sustainability. It
powers essential daily activities like lighting, heating, appliances, and communication, while also
creating an environment that meets the needs of urban living.
The supply or intake cable may enter building in two ways:
- Overhead supply
- Underground supply
Overhead supply
An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power transmission and distribution to
transmit electrical energy along large distances. It consists of one or more conductors (commonly
multiples of three) suspended by towers or poles. (Overhead power line , n.d.)

Figure 15: Single Sided

Figure 14: Staggered Sided

Figure 16: Double Sided Figure 17: Central Verge Position

Height of pole for:
- High or local roads: 9.9m
- Collector road -10.7m
- Arterial road-12.5m
- Distance between the poles for 9.9m to 10.7m high pole -16.5m
- For 12.5m high poles-20m
Underground supply
In large cities, the use of underground electrical distribution systems is growing, although it
tends to be more expensive than overhead systems. These underground cables are made up of
one or more conductors, each wrapped in insulating material and protected by an outer covering.
The cables are installed below ground to transmit electrical power.

Figure 18: Underground electrical layout

6.1.4. HVAC
HVAC systems in housing vary depending on factors such as apartment size, climate, and energy
requirements. Smaller units often utilize space-saving options like wall-mounted systems or
PTACs, while larger apartments may opt for centralized systems. Centralized systems, typically
managed from a mechanical room, include configurations like four-pipe systems, which control
temperatures using hot and cold water, and geothermal systems, which efficiently heat and cool
spaces by transferring heat between the ground and air. In contrast, decentralized systems are
designed for individual apartments, offering greater flexibility. These include self-contained units
that provide both heating and cooling within a single unit, as well as PTACs, commonly installed
under windows. Although PTACs require wall modifications for installation, they remain an
affordable choice for smaller spaces. (Conditioning, 2021)
Small Residential HVAC Systems
A typical single-zone residential HVAC system,
including a furnace, air conditioner, and air handling
unit, is effective for heating and cooling but often
lacks proper ventilation and humidity control, crucial
for comfort in humid climates. To improve
efficiency, Heat Recovery Ventilators (HRVs) or
Energy Recovery Ventilators (ERVs) can be used to
exchange heat or moisture between incoming and
outgoing air. While radiant heating and cooling
systems offer comfort, they are costly. For well-
insulated housing, air-based systems with advanced
controls provide a practical, affordable solution for
Figure 19: A single- zone residential HVAC
ventilation, air quality, and humidity management.
(Straube, 2011)
Larger Multi-Zone HVAC Systems

Figure 20:Multi-zone DOAS with dehumidification and temperature control

Efficient HVAC systems in housing prioritize energy efficiency, indoor air quality, and occupant
comfort. Liquids like water or refrigerants are used for energy transfer, with ducts mainly for
ventilation. Radiant systems offer quiet, effective temperature control, but fan coil units can be
used in smaller setups for quicker response. A Dedicated Outdoor Air System (DOAS) ensures
fresh air and humidity control, while Heat Recovery Ventilators (HRVs) or Energy Recovery
Ventilators (ERVs) improve energy efficiency by pre-conditioning incoming air. Humidity control
is essential in humid climates to maintain comfort and prevent moisture issues, ensuring
sustainable and practical HVAC solutions. (Straube, 2011)
6.1.5. Flood Management
Flood management is a crucial component of housing development, ensuring the safety and
resilience of residential communities against water-related disasters. Effective flood management
strategies in housing involve both prevention and mitigation measures to protect buildings and
residents from the impact of flooding.
Key flood management techniques include:
- Site Selection: Build on elevated land or
incorporate flood-resistant foundations to
minimize flood risks.
- Stormwater Drainage: Implement systems
such as retention ponds, swales, and
underground drains to manage rainwater
and prevent flooding.
- Permeable Surfaces: Use green spaces and
porous pavements to allow water absorption
into the ground, reducing runoff.
- Flood Barriers and Levees: Install barriers around vulnerable areas to protect buildings
from floodwaters.
- Early Warning Systems: Set up flood monitoring and alert systems to provide timely
evacuation and intervention.
- Adherence to Building Codes: Follow local flood regulations and building codes to ensure
resilience in flood-prone areas.
By integrating these flood management strategies into the housing development process,
communities can reduce the risks and damages caused by flooding, ensuring the safety of
residents and the longevity of infrastructure.

6.1.5. Solid Waste Management and Sanitation

Effective solid waste management is crucial for maintaining cleanliness in housing developments.
Urban residents generate an average of 0.5–1 kg of solid waste daily, necessitating a well-
organized collection and disposal system. Segregated waste bins for organic, recyclable, and non-
recyclable materials encourage household participation in sustainable waste practices.
Community-level composting systems reduce organic waste, while partnerships with recycling
companies ensure that recyclable materials are processed effectively. Smart bins equipped with
sensors can alert waste collection teams when full, optimizing collection schedules and reducing
operational costs. The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which
classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste
minimization. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from
products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste.
Solid waste management is equally critical, with modern housing communities adopting waste
segregation, composting, and recycling practices. For example, Palava City, Mumbai integrates
biogas generation from organic waste. Proper hygiene facilities, including accessible toilets,
further support public health, especially in low-income or high-density housing projects like the
Dharavi Redevelopment Project.
Sustainable practices, such as decentralized treatment plants and eco-friendly composting toilets,
reduce environmental impacts while enhancing sanitation efficiency. By addressing challenges
like resource constraints, overburdened systems, and behavioral issues, housing developments can
achieve improved sanitation, ensuring healthier living conditions and contributing to urban
sustainability.
Waste collection systems:
No collection
The "No collection" system is common in low-density housing areas, where waste is placed 20 to
50 meters from homes. Animals like chickens, goats, and pigs eat the biodegradable parts, reducing
decomposition and fly breeding. In dry climates, the sun dries the waste, minimizing gas
emissions, and any remaining waste is occasionally burned.
Door-to-door collection
In this method, the collection vehicle stops near the house entrance, and a collector empties the
household container into the truck. Residents only need to place a small container outside, which
is then emptied and returned by the collection staff. In some cases, one person from a group of
households can be responsible for collecting and transferring the waste from individual containers
to a communal block depot. This solution works well in densely populated areas or small
compounds where vehicles cannot access.
Kerbside collection
In this system, each household places its
waste container at the edge of the
pavement for collection at a scheduled
time, and the collection staff empties it
into the vehicle. Standardized refuse
bins are provided to households,
typically designed to be compatible with
the truck's lifting devices.
Figure 21: Kerbside collection
Block collection
Block collection minimizes stops for the
collection vehicle, which arrives at a
scheduled time, place, and date to collect
waste from residents who bring their bins to
the vehicle. This system requires
coordination between the residents and the
collection service, as waste is not left at the
roadside. Instead, residents must take their
bins to the collection point, empty them into
the vehicle, and return the empty containers
to their homes.
Figure 22: Block collection

Communal depots
Communal depots minimize vehicle stops by allowing collection from a few locations, avoiding
narrow alley access issues. However, they require local waste transport by residents, as willingness
decreases with distance, and the effort of loading the vehicle at the depot is a drawback.
(Community Participation − Solid Waste Management in Low−Income, n.d.)

6.2. Social Infrastructure

Social and recreational facilities enhance community well-being and provide spaces for residents
to interact and relax. These amenities are crucial for fostering a sense of belonging within a
neighborhood.

HEALTH SERVICES

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

COMMUNITY CENTRES

RECREATION SPACES

COMMERCIAL FACILITIES

SAFETY AND SECURITY

URBAN GARDENING
6.2.1. Health Services
A hospital or healthcare institution is a vital part of social infrastructure, offering specialized
treatment with trained staff and equipment. It is designed to address various diseases and injuries,
typically including an emergency department to handle urgent health threats within a community.
- Health facilities should be centrally located within 5-10 kilometers of residential areas for
easy access. Proximity to transport and parking is essential.
- Healthcare facilities should be within a 20-minute travel time, especially for emergency
cases.
- Noise levels should be kept below 35 dB during the day and 30 dB at night to ensure a
healing environment.
- Bed: population= 5:1000
- Medical centers = minimum of 300 beds
6.2.2. Educational Facilities
Schools within walking distance of residential areas reduce traffic congestion and improve student
safety. Urban planning standards recommend one primary school per 4,000 residents and a
secondary school per 12,000 residents. Daycare centers provide working parents with reliable
childcare options, enhancing the neighborhood’s family-friendly appeal. This includes preschool
and formal school services. These facilities must be within safe walking distance. Ideally, the
children should have walking success without having to cross any vehicular street. The maximum
distance should not exceed 1.5 miles.
Nursery Schools: (average=20 – 25 students per class)
 Maximum travel time: 10 minutes (by foot or vehicle)
 Maximum walking distance- 750 m.
Primary Schools
 Accessible by foot, bicycle and vehicle.
 Maximum travel time: 20 minutes (by foot, bicycle or by vehicle).
 Maximum walking distance: 1.5 km.
High Schools: (max=per class 40 students)
 Situated on a major transport route with public transport stops
 Maximum travel time: 30 minutes.
 Maximum walking distance: 2.25 km
6.2.3. Community centers
A community center is a public space where people of all
ages can gather for various activities, social support, and
public services. These centers may serve the entire
community or focus on specific groups within it. They can
be religious or secular in nature, such as youth clubs,
providing a space for social interaction and engagement. Figure 23: Community space
Community centers act as the heart of residential areas, offering spaces for events, workshops, and
cultural activities. These facilities can be multifunctional, including meeting rooms, libraries, and
recreational halls. Accessible design elements, such as ramps and elevators, ensure inclusivity.
Community centers also double as emergency shelters during natural disasters, enhancing
neighborhood resilience.
It can be used as:
- For all-community celebrations at various occasions and traditions.
- For public meetings of the citizens on various issues.
- As place where community members meet each other socially.
- As place that community members (and sometimes others), can rent cheaply when
a private family function or party is too big for their own home. For instance, the
non-religious parts of weddings, funerals etc.
- a place that passes on and retells local history.
- a place where local non-government activities are organized.
- a place where indoor circuses can entertain the paying public.
- a place of relief in instances of community tragedies.
Planning Standards:
- Walking distance: 1.5 km – 2.25 km
- 5 minutes walking distance of a public transport stop
- Maximum travel time: 20 – 30 minutes
- Estimated minimum size: 2500 m2 per 5000 people
6.2.4. Recreation spaces
Parks and open spaces
Parks are the lungs of any neighborhood,
providing green spaces that improve air quality
and promote physical activity. Urban planning
standards suggest a minimum of 9 square
meters of open space per resident. Parks often
include playgrounds, walking paths, and
seating areas. Landscaping can be designed to
enhance biodiversity by incorporating native
plants and water features. Research indicates
that proximity to parks reduces stress levels and Figure 24: Parks and open spaces
increases property values by 8–20%.
- 5 to 10 ropanies= 5% of total land area10 to 25 ropanies= 4% of total land area
- 25 to 100 ropanies= 3.5% of total land area
- >100 ropanies= 2.5% of total land area
- According to, planning of neighborhood (American public health association)
suggests:
 - A total of 310 Sq.ft. of open space per family as a min for row house
neighborhoods.
- 40% of this area to be in parks
- Remainder in playgrounds.
- Means approx. 9% of net residential area is devoted for open space and
recreational usage.
Sports And Fitness
Facilities such as gyms, swimming pools, and sports courts cater to residents' fitness needs.
Jogging tracks and yoga areas can be integrated into parks or common spaces. Studies show that
neighborhoods with sports facilities have 15% higher participation in physical activities. The
inclusion of such amenities also enhances the neighborhood’s appeal, attracting younger families
and professionals.
6.2.5. Commercial and Economic Facilities
Mixed-usse developments that combine residential and commercial spaces create vibrant
neighborhoods where residents can live, work, and shop in close proximity.
- Retail Spaces
Grocery stores, pharmacies, and cafes located within the housing development provide
convenience and reduce travel time for residents. Planners allocate 5–10% of a
neighborhood’s area for commercial facilities, ensuring they do not disrupt the residential
character. Mixed-use zoning regulations help balance commercial and residential needs
while maintaining a cohesive aesthetic.
- Workspace
The rise of remote work has increased the demand for co-working spaces in residential
developments. These spaces include private meeting rooms, high-speed internet, and
shared office equipment. Access to nearby co-working facilities saves commuting time
and fosters collaboration among residents.
6.2.6. Safety and Security
A secure living environment is a top priority for residents. Modern technologies and well-
planned infrastructure enhance safety.
Surveillance Systems
CCTV cameras installed at key locations, such as entrances and public areas, deter criminal
activities. Integration with central monitoring systems allows for real-time tracking and rapid
response to incidents. Smart surveillance can be further enhanced with facial recognition and
motion detection technologies.
Fire Safety
Fire safety is a paramount concern in architecture and building design. Ensuring that a structure
is resistant to fire, complies with fire regulations, and provides safe evacuation routes in case of
emergencies is essential to protecting lives and property. Fire safety measures include hydrants,
alarms, and sprinkler systems installed per standards such as. Evacuation plans and regular fire
drills ensure preparedness during emergencies. The types of escape routes are:
Horizontal escape:
Horizontal escape routes are vital
components of fire safety within a
building. These routes ensure that
occupants can quickly and safely
exit a building when needed. The
regulations surrounding horizontal
escape routes dictate factors such as
maximum travel distances to an
escape route. For example, if a Figure 25: Travel distance in dead-end condition
building has only one escape route,
no point within it should be more than 18 meters away. However, if multiple escape routes are
available, you can extend this distance to 45 meters, with specific conditions. (Henderson, 2023)

Figure 26: Alternative escape route

Vertical escape:
Vertical escape routes involve staircases and their related
components. The number of escape stairs required depends on
the building’s height, with most regulations recommending at
least two escape routes for buildings exceeding 18 meters in
height. The width of these staircases is also crucial and
determined by factors such as the number of people on each
floor. Handrails, children’s safety, and the final exit design are
other considerations in vertical escape design. (Henderson,
2023) Figure 27: Fire Fighting Shaft
containing firefighting lift, lobby
and stairs.

Emergency Services
Police outposts, fire stations, and ambulance services located within a 5-km radius provide timely
assistance. Digital emergency apps linked to local authorities improve response times and
coordination.
Urban Gardening
Urban agriculture, (urban farming, or urban gardening) is the practice of cultivating, processing,
and distributing food in or around urban areas. It involves animal husbandry, aquaculture,
agroforestry, urban beekeeping, and horticulture. Modern planning and design initiatives are often
more responsive to this model of urban agriculture because it fits within the current scope of
sustainable design.
Impacts:
- Economic state
- Social Behavior
- Energy Efficiency
- Carbon Footprint
- Reduction in particulate matter ozone
- Social decontamination and
- Nutrition and quality of food.

Part 6: Housing Policies and Future Trends

6.1 Policies Governing Housing Development

Housing policy, in a wide sense, can be defined as the set of all measures applied by a government
in order to affect housing market performance. The main purpose of such interventions is to
provide people with affordable housing that simultaneously must satisfy certain quality standards.
Apart from this, the government can pursue additional purposes: political stability,
competitiveness of the domestic economy, and even stimulation of the industrialization. For
instance, during the interwar period, housing rents in Germany were restricted in order to moderate
the workers’ wage increase requests and to make, as a result, domestic products less expensive. In
the 1920s, the Brazilian authorities sought to increase investments in manufacturing by
discouraging real estate investments, which were highly profitable at that time. Eventually, through
rent control, authorities managed to reduce this profitability, thus making investments in the
manufacturing sector relatively more profitable. (Kholodilin, 2022)

6.1.1 International Housing Policies and Charters

International housing policies emphasize ensuring access to affordable, adequate, and sustainable
housing as a fundamental human right. These policies are shaped by global frameworks and
regional strategies, addressing issues such as affordability, urbanization, and climate resilience.
Key International Housing Policies and Frameworks:
  United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11): Focuses on making cities
and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. It calls for improved
access to adequate housing and upgrading slums by 2030.
 UN-Habitat's New Urban Agenda: This framework promotes sustainable urban
development, with a strong emphasis on equitable housing access, slum upgrading, and
resilience to climate change.
 World Bank's Housing for All by 2030: The World Bank collaborates with various
countries to implement policies that increase access to affordable housing while promoting
urban resilience.
 European Social Charter: Protects the right to housing across European nations, ensuring
housing access for disadvantaged groups and preventing homelessness.
 World Economic Forum's Housing Resilience Initiatives: Highlights global efforts to
build climate-resilient housing and reduce the vulnerability of communities to extreme
weather events.

Housing Policies for Asia

Asia's various economic, cultural, and demographic landscapes result in a wide range of housing
policies. Addressing affordability, the need for sustainable development, and the rate of
urbanization are, nevertheless, recurring concerns. Important elements consist of:

 Affordable Housing Initiatives: A number of Asian nations, including China and India,
are funding extensive initiatives for inexpensive housing. The Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana in India, for instance, intends to house everyone by 2024. In a similar vein, China's
policies prioritize expanding the supply of urban housing to meet its increasingly
urbanizing populace.
 Sustainability and Climate Resilience: Due to Asia's high susceptibility to climate
change, resilience is becoming more and more important in housing policies; nations such
as Bangladesh and the Philippines prioritize flood-resistant housing to reduce climate risks,
and the Asian Development Bank also funds projects that promote sustainable urban
development.
 Regional Initiatives and International Cooperation: Institutions such as the World Bank
and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) are essential in providing funding and policy
recommendations for housing projects that support inclusive, resilient, and sustainable
housing solutions.

Organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD)

The OECD is a multi-disciplinary inter-governmental organization of 36 member countries which
engages in its work an increasing number of non-members from all regions of the world. The
Organization’s core mission today is to help governments work together towards a stronger,
cleaner, fairer global economy. Through its network of 250 specialized committees and working
groups, the OECD provides a setting where governments compare policy experiences, seek
answers to common problems, identify good practice, and co-ordinate domestic and international
policies. (SHAKYA, 2023)

6.1.2 National Housing Policies

6.1.2.1 National Shelter Policy 1996
According to the strategy, the private sector should be in charge of providing housing, and the
government should only act as a facilitator, providing basic services and monitoring. The following
are the main strategies for enhancing the housing situation:

 Providing serviced house plots through land development projects implemented by private
developers and Town Development Committees,
 Providing assistance for housing financing,
 The development of construction materials and technologies.

However, the 1996 shelter plan has produced very poor results, mainly because no entity has been
authorized to implement this initiative. Due to insufficient institutional structures and legal
frameworks that did not clearly define roles or assign responsibilities, there was a mismatch
between policy and execution, which resulted in duplication, gaps, conflict, and rivalry. The
Shelter Policy is now revised where the urban poor’s housing as well as slum and squatter
improvements are given priority.

6.1.2.2 National Shelter Policy 2068 (2012A.D)

The policy contains strategies to enhance the living standards of Nepalese inhabitants by
encouraging inexpensive and sustainable housing choice, especially for the underprivileged and
disadvantaged population, with the main goals as:
 To guarantee that all inhabitants of Nepal have access to affordable, safe housing.
 Encourage ecologically friendly sustainable housing methods.
 To enhance the sector’s governance and institutional capacity for the supply of housing.
 To foster a climate that will encourage private sector involvement in the housing industry.
 To encourage the use of suitable tools and materials while building homes.
The strategy also stressed the importance of collaboration between various government
departments, businesses, and non-governmental groups to accomplish its objectives. It promoted
the adoption of community-driven strategies and acknowledged the value of incorporating
communities in the housing construction process. (Anju, 2024)

6.1.2.3 Land Use Policy 2015

The Land Use Policy 2015 created the regulatory framework for land use practices in Nepal,
including land acquisition, land registration, land development and land use planning. The policy
promotes a bottom-up approach to land use planning and management by highlighting the
significance of community involvement in land use decision-making processes. The policy
specifies a number of important goals, such as fostering integrated land use planning, allowing
disadvantaged populations’ access to land, safeguarding and conserving natural resources,
encouraging sustainable agricultural and forestry practices, and handling land use disputes. (Anju,
2024)

6.1.2.4 Land pooling

Land-pooling can be defined as a land management technique for carrying out unified design,
servicing and sub-division of a group of separate land parcels for planned urban development with
the sharing of the project costs and benefits between the land owners and recovery of the project
costs by the sale of some of the developed plots. The concept of land poling can, therefore, be
explained with the help of two key words – 'unification' and 'partnership'. Unification implies
consolidation (merging) of separate land parcels, the unified design, infrastructure provision and
subdivision of these parcels and a unified preparation and implementation of the scheme under a
single management. 'Partnership' indicates the partnership between government, private and
community for urban land development.

The cost of planning and providing infrastructure is covered from the land itself, which is partly
contributed by each landowner. The owners get back about 12-30% smaller piece of land but with
all necessary infrastructure including parks and open spaces. (Aasish Neupane, 2079)
The basic concept of land readjustment in the land pooling project is as shown here.
Figure 28: Basic Concept of Land Pooling

In final stage of land pooling, the pre-pooling area minus the contribution for public facilities and
service plots is distributed to the individual owners of land and all the rights that have existed to
the previous plots are transferred to the new replotted plots. (Aasish Neupane, 2079)

A portion of the land is typically set aside for hard infrastructure but can also be allocated for social
infrastructure (schools, government buildings, etc.) and public amenities such as parks and other
open spaces. This urban planning tool is widely seen as a win–win solution whereby government
can avoid expensive or legally challenging land acquisition through eminent domain, which can
displace landowners. Landowners, in turn, must contribute a portion of their land for a public
purpose, but they are “compensated” through better access to infrastructure and higher land values.
The process varies widely by country and by project, but the common objective is to maximize the
development potential of urban land while minimizing the displacement of landowners.

Figure 29: Land Planned and Serviced through an Area Development Approach

The potential benefits cited by planners and government practitioners in Nepal and globally for
using land pooling and readjustment in lieu of land acquisition or other planning tools (such as
guided land development or sites and services, mentioned earlier) are extensive:
 I. Self-financing schemes: A major benefit is that schemes are intended to be self-financing:
higher-value plots are sold by government to recover the costs of project administration and
infrastructure.
II. Equitable projects: Projects are considered equitable since landowners and government share
in the distribution costs and benefits of urban development. Government obtains land at a lower
cost, landowners share in the gain through higher land values, and displacement is reduced.
III. Inclusive process: Integral to the land pooling process is the participation of landowners, who
voluntarily contribute land and have a say in how the project develops.
IV. Well-planned growth: Government is allowed to control growth patterns and provide more
efficient service delivery in this process than in one where growth happens organically.
Projects can guide future development, and provide a unified process of planning, servicing,
and subdivision.
V. Livability: The city as a whole benefits from less sprawl, infrastructure can be provided more
effectively and efficiently in a planned area with rights-of-way, and public amenities such as
parks and other public goods can be provided.
While the benefits can be far-reaching, however, land pooling can face challenges as well. Projects
can take a long time to prepare and implement, given the need for the continued participation of
landowners and for consensus building. The long time lags can pose problems for financial
viability, since the government’s recovery of infrastructure costs depends on a portion of land
reserved for sale by the government. Additionally, projects involve considerable up-front costs
that local governments may have difficulty financing with their own resources. Without
government intervention, land pooling schemes may not end up as socially inclusive: for example,
because land is returned to the original owners, they will either remain or sell their newly serviced
plots at a higher price that low-income residents cannot afford without a subsidy. (Amy Faust,
2020)

Existing and Potential Uses of Land Pooling in Nepal

The land pooling process was first used informally in Nepal in 1976, before the current legal
framework was in place, for a Chipledhunga, Pokhara project covering 13.5 hectares (ha). Over a
decade later, the Town Development Act (TDA) of 1988 provided supporting legislation for land
pooling, spurring wider and more systematic use starting with the Gongabu project in the
Kathmandu Valley. Land pooling quickly became the preferred method of planned urban
development in place of the sites and services approach, which typically relied on land acquisition
with cash compensation or development of public land rather than voluntary landowner
contributions. In the Kathmandu Valley, 13 projects have been completed and 8 others are in
various stages of implementation. Ten additional projects are in the planning stage but have not
yet been approved. Taken together, the completed projects have developed over 350 ha of land
and nearly 16,000 serviced plots across the Valley in the past 30 years. Smaller cities outside the
Kathmandu Valley have also implemented land pooling projects; 3 have been completed and 15
others are at various stages of planning and implementation (Amy Faust, 2020).
In total, eleven land pooling projects have been implemented in Kathmandu Valley till 2012.Kamal
Binayak LPP was the first implemented project (1987-1995). Due to its usefulness, popularity, and
many advantages, nearly a dozen land pooling projects are being executed in the Valley. (Aasish
Neupane, 2079)

Figure 30: Use of Land

witnessed
The housing
a series
sector
of trends
in Nepal has
6.1.3 Zoning Laws and Building Codes
Different contents differ in different zones such as Cultural heritage conservation zone, Residential
zone, Commercial zone, Institutional zone, Recreational zone, etc.
Special Planning Zone
 Ground Floor Coverage (GCR): 50%
 Floor Area Ratio (FAR): 3
 Open space: upto 1500 sq.m=10% of total area
 1500-7000 sq.m. = 5% of total area
 7000 sq.m = 3% of total area
 Frontage: 6m
 Rear, back and side: 4m
 Distance between two blocks: 6m
Zone: Planned Residential
 Floor Area Ratio (FAR): 2
 Ground Floor Coverage (GCR): 70% for land upto 250 sq.m, 60% for above
 Minimum public open space: 2.5% for land above 100 ropanies
 Minimum ROW: 4m (for dead end road less than 200m), 6m (for other roads)
 Minimum Setback from road: 1.5m
 Minimum plot size: 80 sq.m
 Length and Height must not be more than 3 times of breadth
Figure 31: ROW and Setback

I. Building up to 10m ht: 1.5m

 In case the wall is blank without any door, window or ventilator, setback is not
needed.
II. Building ht between 10m and 17m:
 3m for public buildings (school, high school, hospital, government, private and
public limited office, cinema, multiplex, hotel, assembly hall, party hall, etc.)
 2m for other buildings (residential and residential cum commercial)
III. Commercial Building up to 17m ht in Main Market Areas:
 As mentioned above in case the wall is blank without any door, window or
ventilator, setback is not needed.
IV. Building >17m ht:
 Setback = Building Ht/4 But should not be less than 5m
Figure 32: Building Height

Norms and Standards

6.1.4 Legal Aspects of Housing Ownership and Tenure

Company Act 1985 and Nepal Housing Development Finance Company (NHDFC)

Nepal Housing Development Finance Company was established in 1990 under the Finance
Company Act 1985 which is centered on offering financial answers to aid Nepal’s housing sector’s
development. The company provides a range of loans, including mortgages, loans for building
projects, loans for remodeling, and loans for buying land. However, it is mentioned that due to
more avenues for private home loan at lower rate of interest, the future of NHDFC is challenging
and more likely for gradual death. (Nistha Nakarmi, 2023)

Ownership of Joint Housing Act [Apartment Ownership Act] (1997)

In Nepal, Ownership of Joint Housing Act of 1997 governs the administration and operation of
apartment complexes and allows for individual or corporate ownership of flats. The definition of
an apartment, the establishment of apartment ownership and management committees, the rights
and duties of apartment owners, and the processes for the sale and transfer of apartments are among
the principal aspects of the act. The act also specifies the duties of the management committees
and unit owners regarding the administration, maintenance, and repair of the apartment building’s
common spaces and facilities. The act created a foundation for wide spread development of
Apartment in Nepal, especially in Metropolitan city. The Apartment construction and its operation
is under the National building code (NBC), Building Bylaws of Kathmandu valley 2007 with
respect to the seismic safety, fire safety of the apartment buildings and open spaces, setbacks,
heights and access road widths required. (Nistha Nakarmi, 2023)

Building Act 1998

The construction and administration of buildings in Nepal are governed by the Nepal Building Act
of 1998. The legislation, which establishes standards for building design, construction, and
maintenance, was passed by the Nepalese government to safeguard public safety, health, and
environmental protection. The act addresses several construction-related topics, including building
permits, building rules, building standards, building inspection, building materials, and building
safety. The legislation also covers the obligations for building owners, architects, engineers,
contractors, and other parties engaged in the construction of buildings. Before beginning any
construction work, building owners are required under the Nepal Building Act of 1998 to get a
building permission from the local government authority. The legislation also stipulates that
certain building norms and standards, such as those governing fire safety, earthquake-resistant
design and construction, and accessibility for people with disabilities, must be followed by all
structures. The act was strengthened by many policy instruments like building code and building
by laws which have been in a frequently updated especially after 2015 earthquake. (Nistha
Nakarmi, 2023)

Right to Housing Act 2018

The Government of Nepal has enacted the Right to Housing Act 2018, which came into force on
18 September 2018. The purpose of the Act was to provide a legislative framework for the
implementation of the right to housing guaranteed under Article 37 of the Constitution of Nepal
of 2015. It is encouraging to note that country has secured a constitutional guarantee of the right
to housing as a fundamental right. And the enactment of legislation setting normative standards
necessary to put this guarantee into practice also signifies further progression in this regard.
However, based on critical review by, the scope of the Act is found to have narrow focus in
providing housing and financial facility to those in need of housing. And since, adequate housing
is not only about owning a house but also the security of tenure and the act seemed to revolve only
around ownership-based model and act for the rental housing is still missing. This also indicates
the whole issue of secure tenure with a need of National Urban Rental Housing Policy. (Nistha
Nakarmi, 2023)

6.2 Future of Housing

The future roles in housing emphasize a strategic approach to policy-making, focusing on short-
term, medium-term, and long-term solutions for improving living conditions. Slum redevelopment
and relocation programs must prioritize providing basic necessities to the affected populations.
Ensuring that relocated individuals can maintain their existing employment opportunities is
crucial. Additionally, there is a focus on creating a sense of place, with architects resettling
squatters in vertical, high-rise buildings, thus integrating them into urban landscapes.

Planners involved in slum redevelopment are tasked with designing these new structures as
suitable alternatives for squatters, using local and traditional materials like wood and stone to retain
cultural relevance. Furthermore, a comprehensive approach includes the development of social
and community spaces such as temples, churches, shopping malls, and sanitary facilities to foster
community well-being. The overarching goal is to enhance living conditions and provide a better
quality of life.

The self-help approach is highlighted as an essential strategy, encouraging slum dwellers to

actively participate in the construction process of their housing. Lastly, the government plays a
pivotal role by granting tenure rights and providing financial support through loans, ensuring that
slum dwellers have secure and stable living arrangements.

6.2.1 Digital Technologies in Housing Design

Digital transformation in housing is more than just a buzzword; it represents a fundamental shift
in how housing services leverage technology to meet the evolving needs of residents and
communities. This transformation is reshaping the landscape of housing and community
development, ushering in an era of efficiency, accessibility, and innovation.
One of the prominent outcomes of digital transformation is the rise of smart homes. From
intelligent thermostats to security systems with advanced analytics, technology is creating homes
that are not just shelters but interconnected hubs that respond to the needs and preferences of their
occupants. (Agency, 2024)

Smart Home Integration

A smart home is a residence that uses internet-connected devices to enable the remote monitoring
and management of appliances and systems, such as lighting and heating.
Smart home technology -- also often referred to as home automation or domotics from the Latin
word domus, meaning home -- provides homeowners security, comfort, convenience and energy
efficiency by letting them control smart devices, often using a smart home app on their smartphone
or another networked device.
A part of the internet of things (IoT), smart home systems and devices often operate together,
sharing consumer usage data among themselves and automating actions based on the homeowners'
preferences.
Examples of smart home technologies
Nearly every aspect of life where technology has entered the domestic space - including lightbulbs,
dishwashers and other appliances -- has seen the introduction of a smart home alternative:
 Smart TVs. These TVs connect to the internet to access content through applications, such
as on-demand video and music. Some smart TVs also include voice or gesture recognition.
 Smart lighting systems. In addition to being able to be controlled remotely and
customized, smart lighting systems can detect when occupants are in the room and adjust
lighting as needed. Smart lightbulbs can also regulate themselves based on daylight
availability.
 Smart thermostats. Smart thermostats, such as Google Nest, come with integrated Wi-Fi,
letting users schedule, monitor and remotely control home temperatures. These devices
also learn homeowners' behaviors and automatically modify settings to provide them with
maximum comfort and efficiency. Smart thermostats can also report energy use and remind
users to change filters.
 Smart door locks and garage door openers. Homeowners can use smart locks and
garage-door openers to grant or deny access to visitors. Smart locks can also detect when
residents are near and unlock the doors for them.
 Smart security cameras and systems. With smart security cameras and doorbells, such
as Ring, residents can monitor their homes when they're away. Smart motion sensors can
identify the difference between residents, visitors, pets and burglars and can send
notifications to authorities if suspicious behavior is detected.
 Smart pet and lawn care. Pet care can be automated with connected feeders. Houseplants
and lawns can be watered using connected timers.
 Smart kitchen appliances. Brands such as LG, GE and Samsung offer smart kitchen
appliances of all sorts. These appliances include smart coffee makers that can brew a fresh
cup automatically at a programmed time; smart refrigerators that keep track of expiration
dates, make shopping lists or even create recipes based on ingredients currently on hand;
slow cookers and toasters; and, in the laundry room, washing machines and dryers.
 Smart household monitors. Household system monitors can, for example, sense a power
surge and turn off appliances, sense water failures or freezing pipes and turn off the water
so the home doesn't flood.
 Smart plugs. These connect to wall sockets to transform simple home devices, such as
lamps and ceiling fans, so they can be controlled remotely via mobile apps and voice
assistants such as Alexa. (Techtarget, 2024)
Figure 33: Smart Home

6.2.2 Sustainable Design and Green Living

The housing sector is in a prime position to mitigate climate change

and make environmentally-friendly cities. Going Green provides
an overview of sustainable housing practices with a focus on
"green" building materials and construction technologies, and
climate-responsive housing and settlement design.
However, improving the sustainability of housing is not only a
technical challenge and this book shows how environmental
aspects can be successfully interwoven with the social, cultural and
economic milieu in which they are proposed, adopted and, ideally, Figure 34: Sustainability
scaled-up to meet the massive housing demand in developing
countries. (UN-Habitat, 2012)
Figure 35: Sustainable City

Key features of sustainable neighborhoods

 Vibrant street life: Supporting and promoting street life by enabling a variety of activities,
conducive frontage and street width, and reducing the presence and role of private
transport. The Five Principles encourage high density and mixed land use which boost a
lively street life. A high population density generates sufficient industrial and commercial
service demand while mixed land use provides adequate manufacturing and service space.
Cities consistent with the Five Principles are able to link demand with supply and thus
stimulate a prosperous city street life which satisfies people’s material and spiritual needs
and creates a safe and vibrant city life. This is a key feature of sustainable cities.

 Walkability: Promoting walkability as a key measure to bring people into the public space,
reduce congestion and boost local economy and interactions. A vibrant street life
encourages people to walk or cycle around, while a rational street network enables
necessary city administrative services to be offered within walking or cycling distance and
ensures security. High density, mixed land use and a social mix make proximity to work,
home and services possible. Walkability helps to reduce automobile reliance and thus
alleviate relevant congestion, air pollution and resource depletion issues. It is healthier to
“walk more and drive less”. Pedestrians add an incredible amount of vibrancy to city life.

 Affordability: Supporting affordability of transactions and economic activities, as well as

of services and housing, by promoting proximity and reducing costs and building services
 for a diverse group of users. Proximity, brought about by applying the Five Principles,
helps to reduce wastage of time and resources and thus brings down general service costs.
Furthermore, the social mix principle tries to promote a rational distribution of urban public
resources and provides adequate housing for different revenue groups through city
planning regulations - ensuring social equity and promoting economic efficiency. An
affordable and accommodating city is a core feature of a sustainable city. (Unhabitat, n.d.)

Zero-Waste Living
The term zero waste means that nothing is wasted. Zero waste housing is an effort to reduce the
amount of waste created by a building. This type of housing is environmentally friendly and
sustainable. Zero waste buildings are designed in such a way that they generate less trash and use
renewable energy sources to lower their carbon footprint. The goal of designing a zero waste
building is to reduce the environmental impact it has on the environment while still being able to
provide occupants with all their needs and wants.
It is necessary to design houses in such a way that they
are environmentally friendly. This can be done by
designing the house in such a way that it does not have
any waste. The use of natural building materials is one
of the ways to go about this. The zero waste housing
design is an idea which has been around for a number
of years now and it seems like it will be coming into the
mainstream soon enough.
Figure 36: Bullitt – The Living Building in Seattle
Designing a zero waste house is not an easy task. It Credit: World’s “greenest commercial building”
requires careful planning and a lot of thought. There are awarded highest sustainability mark
many factors that need to be considered when designing
a zero waste house. These include the location, the size of the area, the number of people who will
live in it, budget constraints and other factors that may differ from one person to another. The
design process should not be done hastily as it could result in mistakes and inconvenience later on.

The first thing to consider is the location of your house. You should make sure that you have access
to a place where you can have your garbage and recycling picked up and sorted on a regular basis.
You should also make sure that there is somewhere close by where you can buy food in bulk, like
at a grocery store or co-op, so that you don’t need to bring home a lot of bags from different places.
(illustrarch, 2019)

6.2.3 Climate-Resilient Housing

Climate-resilient housing focuses on
designing homes that withstand the growing
impacts of climate change, such as extreme
weather events, heatwaves, and flooding.
These homes incorporate sustainable
materials, innovative construction techniques,
and localized adaptations to mitigate damage
and ensure safety.

For instance, the World Bank’s Global

Program for Resilient Housing emphasizes the
importance of preemptive action to protect
vulnerable communities before disasters
occur, rather than relying on post-disaster Figure 37: Climate and Housing relationship
rebuilding. This approach includes utilizing
advanced data analytics and mapping to identify at-risk structures and connecting residents to
financing for home improvements, reducing overall disaster vulnerability.

In India, innovative community-led initiatives have made significant strides. The Mahila Housing
Trust trains women in informal settlements to implement cooling solutions, such as reflective roof
paints and modular roofs, which mitigate extreme heat effects. Meanwhile, cities like Surat employ
early warning systems and geo-tagging to minimize flood damage, helping thousands of vulnerable
households evacuate safely during emergencies.
Build Change, an organization dedicated to resilient housing, offers practical guidance on cost-
effective upgrades that transform existing homes into safer, more sustainable structures. Their
efforts highlight how improving existing housing stock can save lives and spur local economic
development without the need for entirely new construction.
Here are some key features and strategies for climate-resilient housing:
I. Elevated Structures: In flood-prone areas, homes can be elevated on stilts or designed to
be buoyant to prevent water damage.
II. Reflective and Insulating Materials: Using materials that reflect heat and provide good
insulation helps maintain comfortable indoor temperatures and reduce energy
consumption.
III. Green Roofs and Walls: Incorporating vegetation on roofs and walls can help manage
storm water, reduce heat, and improve air quality.
IV. Solar Panels and Renewable Energy: Integrating solar panels and other renewable energy
sources ensures a reliable power supply and reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
V. Rainwater Harvesting: Systems to collect and store rainwater can provide a sustainable
water source and reduce the strain on local water supplies.
VI. Wind-Resistant Design: In areas prone to hurricanes or strong winds, homes can be
designed with reinforced structures and materials to withstand high winds.
VII. Sustainable Materials: Using locally sourced and sustainable materials reduces the
environmental impact of construction and supports local economies.
VIII. Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in the design and construction
process ensures that homes meet their specific needs and are culturally appropriate.

6.2.4 Urbanization and Its Impact on Housing Needs

Urbanization and pace of urbanization has increased tremendously in last few decades. Cities are
growing very fast, in terms of population as well as size, spreading beyond municipal jurisdiction.
More and more towns are now getting converted in to cities. According to UNFPA (United Nations
Population Fund Agency) in 2008 more than half of World’s population lives in cities.
Urbanization trend is seen all over the world but is becoming most dominant in Asia. In India we
have many metro cities as well as tier two cities which are growing very rapidly because of
migration from surrounding areas. Urbanization has many effects on the city structure. Increasing
population has to be accommodated in the city, so the problems of slums, unauthorized
construction and haphazard development of fringe areas are observed in most of the cities of
underdeveloped countries. (Arati Petkar, 2015)

Figure 38: Issues related to Urbanization

Urban areas are major engines of modern economies, and housing is the largest component of
spatial wealth in developed economies. Throughout history, development slowly transformed
traditional urban settlements so that strongly localized social and housing patterns, both within and
among cities, emerged. For much of the U.S., this created a special housing context where large
regions became high-cost centers characterized by single-family home construction at the urban
fringe. With such patterns, the American population centered itself on preferred low-density living
places, but associated development imposed numerous housing externalities, including an
associated increase in travel costs. Cities reacted with a range of land use controls and adopted
public financial incentives to influence urban development, and soon some larger cities found that
the size and barriers that internal patterns produced required a public policy response. Currently,
about 200 cities either assert housing emergency status or are watching housing price trends with
concern, and many others have aspirations in this direction. (Brodowicz, 2024)

Affordability Issues
Urbanization can also lead to increased land values and housing costs. People are generally willing
to pay a premium to live in more developed areas because of the comfort and added amenities. As
a result, many times low- and middle-income people are displaced as development occurs in
neighborhoods, which once provided affordable housing. Gentrification occurs when higher
income people begin to move into such neighborhoods. When this occurs, the values of the
neighborhood rise making it more difficult for some current residents to remain in their homes as
property taxes increase. The following are some possible solutions to this market imperfection.

I. Cooperate/bargain with developers to include low- and moderate-income housing in new

developments.
II. Keep affordable government-owned housing off the market.
III. Revise local land use regulations and building codes.
IV. Issue more building permits and allow for taller buildings.
V. Create government subsidies and loans for low- and moderate-income households.
VI. Help fund community land trusts.
VII. Free parking space mandates.

In recent years, two of the more popular government solutions to the affordable housing movement
have been physical building limits and rent controls. While these ideas are indeed popular with
residents, they are often unpopular with developers and economists. With regard to physical
building limits, the basic idea is to prevent further land development which would raise property
values. With limit prices for sale or rent, the government establishes the types, shops, and stores,
as well as the prices. While both solutions may help alleviate some displacement, critics argue
both might just increase rents and property values in the long term, actually ultimately leading to
more displacement than had been without the restrictions. They reason that expanding the housing
stock could actually lead to lower rents. (Brodowicz, 2024)

Housing Shortages
The phenomenon that the problems of housing and population growth have shared a place of
central interest in discussions of proposed solutions to the problems of urbanization is
fundamentally based on the fact that both are manifestations of profound and deeply rooted
processes which shape the physical form of the city. In the case of housing, these processes result
from the fact that dwellings are an essential commodity of consumption which is sensitive to
income, but which also involves factors such as land and construction materials as joint products,
and whose internal organization is influenced by economies of scale derived from the direct and
indirect network characteristics of the complex form of the structures. If increases in real income
put additional stress on potential output and use of current stock is at the limit of the cities, which
are networks of individual activities to achieve internal economies of scale on which economic
and social differences respond to different patterns of location within the city. Some disparities in
the valuation of utilities derived from location are due to idiosyncratic differences linked to
different agents' circumstances and tastes. But, other disparities occur because of the existence of
public goods and urban form characteristics that make consumption rival and non-exclusive from
several people. Also, we suggest that households make a neighborhood decision that includes the
valuation of the location of their own home and a comparison with other household locations,
influencing the final utility outcomes by network effects on these variables. That is, by the acts of
other agents, whose valuation use is exogenous to each agent in the network, can provide
externalities. From the social point of view, given that idiosyncratic valuations seem small, those
other network effects also help to explain the most concentration of individuals over a small
amount of land. (Brodowicz, 2024)

Conclusion and Future Perspectives

In recent years, a variety of government sequestration policies have been applied to Taiwan's
military dependents' villages, causing the population to decline, many residents to move, and much
land to be abandoned. Thus, preservation problems have become more urgent. Through the
research case study analysis, we used introspection to understand today's Taiwan military
dependent village's architectural, historical, and social significance. The collective memory and
nostalgic imagery could play an important role in the creation of context-specific. These can assist
community discussion of the relevance of heritage for society. Such a discussion may increase the
capacity of the people involved in redevelopment. In the architecture and society analysis section
of this study, several angles of reflection and questions were posited regarding the connection
between living and space. This study uses the findings to propose separate strategies for an overall
preservation framework, at the levels of architecture, memory sharing, and spatial transformation,
thus rationally reducing concerns about contradictions among architecture-housing-landscape
collective memories and creating practical proposals. In addition to veterans' homes that provide
service to residents, consultations or studies of different preservation methods should be conducted
during building modifications. Such problems are considered at a local scale. However, to build a
community with a holistic vision in addition to one in which stakeholders share visions and
resources, a consistent strategy must be established at both public and private scales. If expected
future general housing tax laws on buildings and land could be relaxed and subsequently attract
young people to move, discuss the possibility of improving and preserving a dwelling space, a
connection between the past and the present. Based on the results, the following conclusions and
suggestions are further listed. (Brodowicz, 2024)
Universal Design
Universal Design (UD) is the design and composition of an environment so that it can be accessed,
understood and used to the greatest extent possible by all people regardless of their age, size, ability
or disability. An environment (or any building, product, or service in that environment) should be
designed to meet the needs of all people who wish to use it. This is not a special requirement, for
the benefit of only a minority of the population. It is a fundamental condition of good design.
Anthropometrical Data for Universal Design

Figure 39: Wheelchair turning space

Figure 40: Minimum clear width

Objects protruding from walls with their leading edges between 680 mm (26-3/4 in.) and 2100 mm
(82-3/4 in.) from the floor shall protrude not more than 100 mm (4 in.) into pedestrian areas, such
as walkways, halls, corridors, passageways or aisles.

Figure 41: Limits of Protruding Objects at or below 680 mm

The minimum clear headroom in pedestrian areas, such as

walkways, halls, corridors, passageways, or aisles, shall be
2100 mm (82-3/4 in.).

A detectable guard, guardrail or other barrier having its

leading edge at or below 680 mm (26-3/4 in.) from the floor
shall be provided where the headroom of an area adjoining
an accessible route is reduced to less than 2100 mm (82-3/4
in.).
Figure 42: Overhead Obstructions

Gates and openings

Where gates or openings are provided through fences or screens to public use areas, such openings
shall be accessible (i.e., a minimum of 915 mm (36 in.) wide, to allow free passage of a person in
a wheelchair.
Figure 43: Access at Turnstile

Ramp
The surfaces of ramps and landings shall

 Have a surface that is slip resistant;

 Have a color contrast to demarcate the leading edge of the landing, as well as the beginning
and end of a ramp.
The ramp slope shall be between 1:15 (6.7%) and 1:20 (5%). In a retrofit situation where it is
technically not feasible to provide a ramp with a ramp slope between 1:15 (6.7%) and 1:20 (5%),
a ramp slope not steeper than 1:12 (8.3%)
may be used. However, more gradual
slopes are preferred.

The maximum horizontal length between

landings shall not exceed 9 m (29 ft. - 6
in.).

 Have a minimum size not less

than 2440 x 2440 mm (96 x 96
in.) if located at the top or bottom
of a ramp or if served by a
doorway. (In a retrofit situation
where creating a suitably sized
landing is technically not
feasible, the required landing size
may be reduced to 1670 x 1670
mm. (65-3/4 x 65- 3/4 in.));
 On an intermediate landing of a
U-shaped ramp have a length not
less than 1670 mm (65-3/4 Figure 44: Minimum Ramp Landing Dimensions
 in.)And a width not less than 2440 mm (96 in.) as per Figure. In a retrofit situation where
creating a suitably sized landing is technically not feasible, the required landing width may
be reduced to 2120 mm (84in);
 On an intermediate landing at the corner of an L-shaped ramp have a length and width not
less than 1670 mm (65- 3/4 in.
 On an intermediate landing at a straight ramp have a length not less than 1670 mm (65- 3/4
in. (Aurora, n.d.)