Farming of Ducks: an unnoticed lucrative poultry venture

Mr Kamau sells ducks weighing an average of six kilos, at Sh1,300 to 1,500 and eggs at Sh30
and Sh50 depending on weight and size, respectively.
https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/financial-standard/article/2000107770/start-your-
own-duck-dynasty-with-sh3000

Ducks

Ducks, geese, and swans are members of the biological family of aquatic birds known as the
Anatidae. These birds have swimming, floatation, and occasionally diving abilities in at least
shallow water. It is easy to confuse these waterfowls, ducks, geese, and swans. However, one can
differentiate them in the following way. Ducks are small to medium-sized members of the
Anatidae family. In addition to being the smallest birds in the Anatidae family, they have short
necks, flat bills, and stout bodies. Geese, on the other hand, are medium-to-large waterfowl.
Most geese species are larger and have longer necks than ducks. Geese also have pointier bills
and longer legs than ducks. Behaviorally, ducks generally have milder temperaments, whereas
geese are known for their inclination for aggression. Due to this aggression, they are occasionally
incorporated into a flock to guard other members of domestic flocks. Swans, unlike the other two
members of the Anatidae family, are the largest. Swans are easily identified by their relatively
larger body sizes compared to geese; they also have longer necks and larger feet. In addition,
they also have longer, flat, duck-like bills. Their bills vary in color between species, usually in
shades of orange, red, gray, and black. Ducks and geese are the most economically important
members of the Anatidae family that have been domesticated and raised for meat, eggs, and
feathers for the last few decades. The mallard duck is the ancestor of most domesticated duck
breeds, while the greylag goose is the ancestor of most domesticated geese species.

Ducks are semi-aquatic waterfowl that live a major portion of their lives in or near water in their
natural habitat. Ducks can engage in their complete range of preening and bathing habits, which
are crucial for their welfare and health, in open water sources that enable head or body
immersion. Open water access for ducks in commercial production is difficult, though, because
of issues with biosecurity, contamination, health, and husbandry issues. Therefore, it is necessary
to create management plans that could provide water to support the well-being of ducks while
minimizing any potential detrimental effects or significant management challenges. Access to
water for waterfowls, like ducks, helps in the development of the preen gland. Deprivation of
water blight the development of the preen gland in terms of the gland weight, size, and quality of
its oil secretion. This gland, which is located near the base of the duck’s tail, is mechanically
squeezed by its bill, and it secretes oil-like glycolipids. During preening, the duck distributes the
oil-like secretion through their feathers using bill movements. Preening and oiling accord water-
repellent nature to duck's feathers due to the hydrophobic attribute of the gland’s secretions. This
water repellence ensures protection and buoyancy when in the water for these semi-aquatic
waterfowls.
Water bathing is highly appreciated for its thermo-regulation role in these waterfowls. Ducks’
skin does not contain sweat glands, so they are unable to dissipate excess heat through sweating
when the ambient temperature rises. Due to the lack of sweat glands, ducks rely on evaporative
cooling, where heat is dissipated through panting and from non-feathered body surfaces, such as
feet. When ducks dabble their feet in the water, the excessive body heat is dissipated. The age of
ducks influences the amount of time domestic ducks spend performing bathing and other water-
related behaviors. It has been observed that Pekin ducks in commercial farms spend more time as
they aged using shallow pools in comparison to deep pools. Hence, these findings imply that
increased time performing water-related activities as ducks age may relate to their
thermoregulation requirements. Studies on the impact of water provision have proven Pekin and
Muscovy ducks with water access during hot weather had higher weight gain. Meaning, in
commercial settings water provision is critical for ducks reared for meat production since they
may be slaughtered earlier than usual.

The provision of water is also necessary for mating. Ducks prefer to mate in the water, it is more
natural (they are waterfowls). Nonetheless, ducks will mate on land if there is no access to water.
Also, the size and number of eggs will be affected if adequate water is not provided. It is
generally estimated that ducks require at least a liter of water a day.

Just like other fowls, domestic ducks can be reared under various types of production systems,
including intensive indoor (fully enclosed or open-sided), semi-intensive, or extensive (free-
range). In addition to the aforementioned common systems, ducks are also reared under
integrated farming systems (e.g., with rice paddy or fish farming systems). Under the common
production systems, open water sources are provided using troughs, baths, or showers in indoor
systems (intensive and semi-intensive), and small ponds or pools in extensive systems.

Why rearing ducks is a worthwhile venture

i. Good at lawn and pest management

Ducks have a great appetite for pests, and they’ll eat up slugs and worms. This makes ducks a
great organic choice for pest control in the backyard. Unlike ducks, geese are strictly herbivores.
Geese don’t eat bugs at all, but they mow weeds. Unlike chickens, ducks do not scratch the
ground and so will not scar a lawn. Ducks also find some weeds, such as dandelions, more
delectable than grass. Chickens, on the other hand, within days of being introduced to a new
lawn will have it scratched down to bare dirt. By using ducks, mechanical mowing reduces.

ii. Disease- and parasite-resistant

Ducks tend to have a more robust immune system. They are, therefore, generally healthier than
chickens and resist common fowl infections. Since these waterfowls spend as much time
dabbling in water, they frequently wash away any dropping bacteria from their feet and bellies
and ectoparasites. This makes ducks less susceptible to contracting mites than chickens and
turkeys.

iii. Cost-effective higher growth rate

Ducklings grow faster and move out of a brooder than chicks. A one-week duckling will be
independent enough to go outside the coop and start foraging for its food (bugs and greens). This
reduces the amount of time ducklings spend in a brooder. This faster growth rate saves expenses
on power bills, which translates to a wider profit margin.

iv. Cold-hardy and heat-tolerant

Ducks have an added layer of fat that chickens don’t have. Ducks also have waterproofing on
their feathers to protect against cold. This makes ducks far more cold-hardy than chickens.
Ducks’ thermo-regulation is cost-friendly; ducks handle heat quite easily by merely dabbling in
water provided to cool off.

v. Egg and meat production

Ducks consistently outperform chickens even through the cold months when chicken egg
production plummets. For instance, a farmer in the US opined she averagely gets 3-4 duck eggs
from four female ducks (a 75-100% rate), compared to barely 8-10 chicken eggs from 20 laying
hens (a paltry 40-50% rate) in the winter.

Ducks lay larger, more flavorful eggs that are ideal for baking due to their higher fat and lower
water content. Duck eggs are also slightly higher in nutritional value than chicken eggs. The
confectionery industry prefers duck eggs due to the higher amount of protein. Furthermore, due
to their thicker shells and membranes, they also have a longer shelf life and are less likely to
break.

Duck meat is significantly darker in color and consequently higher in myoglobin and iron
content compared to chicken meat. Duck meat is said to have a stronger, denser flavor, closer to
red meat than chicken due to a higher fat content in duck meat. While duck meat is higher in fat
than chicken meat, the latter has higher protein content than the former. Duck meat is richer in
most vitamins compared to chicken meat. Duck provides almost three times more vitamin B1
and over two times more vitamin K. Duck, unlike chicken meat which is richer in calcium and
magnesium, contains over two times more iron and copper.
Commonest breeds of ducks in Kenya

There are several breeds of ducks kept in Kenya, either for the production of eggs, meat, or both.
The following are the most common breeds reared in the country.

 Pekin duck.

These Pekin-bred ducks are typified by their creamy white feathers, large bodies and, orange
feet. This breed is highly preferred for meat production because it gains weight fast, reaching up
to 3.2 kgs in 6 weeks. They can be dual-purpose since a Pekin duck can lay around 200 eggs per
year. It should, however, be noted that they are poor egg sitters.

 Muscovy duck.

This is the largest and the most common duck domestic duck breed in Kenya. These ducks are
typically black or white and have large red or pink wattles around the beak. Muscovy ducks are
more similar to geese than they are to other ducks. For example, they prefer to graze and sit on
eggs for 35 days, rather than 28 days for other breeds of ducks. These ducks can reach market
weight at about 11 weeks of age, where males are 5 kg and females are 3kgs. Although they
attain market weight after three months, Muscovy ducks do not lay as many eggs as other
breeds.

 Indian runners.

These ducks are identified by their unique tall upright posture. Due to their upright posture, these
ducks run unlike typical ducks that waddle. Their posture enables them to walk to the fields and
become active foragers, particularly for insects, snails, and slugs. Compared to other ducks, they
also gain a considerable amount of weight. Though Indian Runners are great egg layers,
oftentimes leapfrogging chickens in egg production, they are not very good at incubating their
eggs by sitting on them.

 Khaki Campbell ducks.

This breed was developed in England by crossing an Indian Runner hen with a Rouen Drake, and
its khaki color makes it stand out from other duck breeds. They were bred to create ducks that
would lay more eggs and also have bigger meatier bodies. These ducks lay up to 344 eggs a year;
hence, Khaki Campbell ducks are mostly reared for eggs, though they are also good meat ducks.

 Mulard Ducks

The Mulard ducks, which are also known as mule ducks, are sterile crosses of the Muscovy duck
and common ducks. Since they cannot lay eggs, they are kept for their lean meat.
Duck breeding

The ratio of the number of ducks to one drake hinges on the breed and the production system.
Fewer ducks can be mated by a drake when ducks are reared intensively. On the one hand, for
heavy breeds, such as the Muscovy, a ratio of one drake to five ducks is required. For lighter
breeds, on the contrary, such as the Khaki Campbell, the ratio of one drake to ten ducks could be
sufficient. Water is arguably considered a prerequisite for duck mating. Ducks display
fascinating breeding behaviors, which include head-bobbing, flat-backing, whistle grunt, etc.
After mating, the female duck may store the sperm in specialized internal structures until she is
ready to lay her eggs. This allows her to fertilize multiple eggs from a single mating event.
Ducks, unlike other fowls, meticulously construct egg-laying nests to provide a safe environment
for their eggs and future offspring (ducklings). Duck hens utilize a combination of dry grass,
leaves, and feathers to create comfortable and well-insulated nests for their eggs and ducklings.
Therefore, it’s advisable to provide beddings that enable duck hens to aptly construct nests. Duck
eggs can be incubated artificially or sat on by a broody chicken/duck hen. When duck eggs are
set artificially, the following conditions must be met before setting eggs in the incubator:
temperature at 37.5°C and relative humidity at 55%. Eggs must be turned regularly, either
automatically or by hand, a minimum of 4 times a day. Occasionally, especially after 14 days
after setting eggs, one should candle and remove eggs with dead embryos or unfertile ones.
Candling should show some veining and slight development at day 5 if eggs are fertile and at
above 14 days viable duckling embryos and an expansion of the air sacs. Duration and conditions
of egg storage before setting influence egg hatchability. Duck eggs are said to lose their
hatchability depending on the duration stored from the time they were laid (7-14 days of storage
can lead to a 3-10% loss in hatchability). To significantly maintain good hatchability, duck eggs
should be stored at 13°C and 75% of relative humidity. As ducklings develop inside eggs, there
is a loss of water from the egg; hence, humidity in setters should be increased commensurately as
incubation days advance (at day 25, humidity should be 70-80%). Duck eggs are far more
susceptible to humidity fluctuations than chickens, so an automatic egg-turning provision ramps
up their hatchability. Spraying set eggs with lukewarm water should be done. Egg turning and
water spraying should be stopped at day 26 since ducklings will maneuver themselves into a
hatch position. When it is done naturally, ducks, except Muscovy ducks that hatch at 35 days,
hatch at 28 days. At day 28 pips can be seen, and the hatching process can take up to 48 hours.
After hatching, ducklings should be transferred from the incubator once they are dry into a
temperature-regulated brooder.
Rearing ducklings

Raising ducklings is also a daunting responsibility. A lapse of care for ducklings can result in
high mortality of ducklings. Since ducklings lack feathers, cold predisposes them to illnesses
and death. To keep ducklings warm, a 125-watt lamp with a wire guard should be placed away
from any flammable objects and in one corner of the brooder so the ducklings can throng
underneath it when they’re cold and move away from it in the brooder if they get hot. The
temperature in the brooder should be reduced gradually as ducklings get older to acclimatize
them to the outdoor temperature. To feed ducklings, one can use non-medicated (although
medicated feed doesn’t necessarily harm them) starter feed (chick mash). However, to make the
feed so appropriate for ducklings, the following must be modified:

i. Crude protein content: ducklings prefer higher protein content in starter feed, preferably
18-20%. This protein content level encourages ducklings to grow at a healthy, accelerated
rate. As ducklings age, protein content in the feed is reduced to about 16% to avoid leg
and wing deformities. Research has shown that there is no benefit in feeding a diet
composed of more than 16% protein (in a well-balanced feed) after two weeks of age.
ii. Vitamin B3 content: Since ducklings grow faster than chicks, chick mash does not
contain sufficient Vitamin B3 levels that encourage optimal growth for ducklings. For
example, unlike chicks which require 27-35 mg/kg of chick mash, ducklings require
about 55 mg/kg. Deficiencies of vitamin B3 in the feed for ducklings can trigger leg
deformities due to a lack of proper bone and muscle development. To obtain apt content
of vitamin B3 content in the starter feed, one can add nutritional yeast to the feed. When
nutritional yeast is added to the feed, it settles at the bottom of the feed trough. To
overcome this feed challenge and make sure ducklings ingest an apt ratio of niacin with
each bite of feed, one should stir feed and niacin in just sufficient water to make the food
and niacin stick together.

Ducklings, as waterfowl offspring, should be supplied with water. However, water should be put
in shallow waterers that ducklings can easily get out of if/when they happen to get into them. The
provision of shallow waterers is essential to avoid drowning cases in the brooder. Waterers for
ducklings to swim should be provided, and they should be shallow enough for ducklings not to
drown and easily get out on their own. There should be back-up waterers since ducklings can
muck up one waterer and eat dry feed leading to choking. Mucky waterers should be regularly
cleaned up and refilled with water.

Like adult ducks, ducklings also require grit (sand and soil) to grind food in their gizzard (grit aid
digestion in ducklings). To provide grit to ducklings, a bowl of soil from the farmyard can be put
in the brooder. One should avoid grit from a farmyard where synthetic pesticides had been
recently applied. It’s advisable to supply ducklings with clean vegetables to aid digestion.

Once ducklings have their juvenile feathers (look like ducks), which is about weeks 6-8, it’s a
good time to move them out of the brooder into their coop/outdoor.

Duck feeding

Most ducks can fulfill their basic nutritional needs by foraging for green plants, insects, snails,
slugs, and other creatures. However, productivity will be low with just forage, whether it is for
meat or eggs. A supplemental feed must be provided to ducks to increase production. Whatever
ducks consume must meet all of their nutritional requirements for maintenance and growth,
regardless of how the feed is provided. Ducks and chickens require the same nutrients but in
different quantities. It is also crucial to consider the levels of various nutrients in relation to the
energy content of the diet. Ducks, like chickens, eat largely to meet their energy needs, so the
energy content in the diet will determine how much feed the ducks will consume. The following
are the dietary requirements for ducks:

Protein and energy content in the diet: protein and energy are the most important nutritional
requirements that should be considered when formulating a duck diet because they represent the
most expensive dietary components and they are very impactful on the productive and
reproductive performance of flocks for meat or egg production. Generally, the commercially
formulated diet containing 2,500-2,900 kcal of AME/kg and 16-19% CP can satisfy the energy
and protein requirements of egg-laying ducks according to Fouad et al., (2018). Amino acids
play essential roles in duck nutrition due (amino acids affect performance, immunity, and meat
and egg quality). Methionine is the first main limiting amino acid, where 0.337% Methionine led
to the highest average daily body weight gain and 0.41% Methionine improved egg weight.

Minerals: Calcium in the form of calcium carbonate constitutes 96% of the duck eggshell, and
almost 60–70% of the bone weight is Ca and P in the form of hydroxyapatite. Ca deficiency in
laying ducks reduces the egg production rate, egg weight, eggshell thickness, and eggshell-
breaking strength. 3.6% Ca with 0.40% available P was suggested by the above research work
as enough to maximize egg production, egg mass, feed utilization, and enhance bone
characteristics. Copper, on the other hand, is a growth enhancer and antimicrobial as well as
being a cofactor for many enzymes. Meat-type ducks and egg-type ducks require low amounts of
Cu in their diets compared with the requirements needed to reduce the cholesterol levels in their
products. Thus, increasing the Cu concentration in the diets of male White Pekin ducks to
157 mg/kg reduced the cholesterol concentration in their meat.

Vitamins: ducks require both water- and fat-soluble vitamins. Particularly, niacin deficiency is
attributed to a decrease in the growth rate, feather growth, and an increased incidence of leg
problems in meat-type ducks. For egg-type ducks, niacin deficiency leads to poor eggshell
quality, low egg production, and decreased egg hatchability. The level of vitamin D in the duck
diet affects bone development and eggshell quality due to its roles in the calcium and phosphorus
cycles.

Common duck conditions and diseases

Ducks are waterfowl and scavengers by nature and are relatively resistant to many common
diseases of birds. However, they aren’t immune to all poultry diseases and conditions. The
following are the commonest conditions and diseases that affect ducks.

i. Sticky eye

Foamy eyes can be caused by inflammation, clogging by debris in the eye, or a scratched cornea
by a fencing wire or a branch. Sometimes, sticky eyes can be an indication of an infectious
respiratory disease (indicated by difficulty in breathing, coughing, sneezing, or any discharge
from its nostrils). Over-mating leads to foamy eyes: when a drake mates with a female, it
clutches the back of the duck hen’s neck and holds on, which can cause sinus troubles in the
female ducks. This condition is manifested through tearing eyes, closed eyes, bloodshot eyes,
discharge from nostrils, and missing feathers on the back of the duck hen’s neck.

Providing ducks with fresh, clean water that is deep enough for them to immerse their entire
head in to keep their sinuses clean and working properly can prevent the development of sticky

eyes. A correct ratio of a drake to hens in the duck flock (2-3 hens for each drake) helps prevent
over-mating issues. The addition of garlic, basil, and thyme into drinking water can be a natural
remedy.

ii. Prolapsed vent

Ducks, just as with other birds, are susceptible to the condition known as a prolapsed vent. It
happens when straining causes the rectum or cloaca to be forced out of the body and fail to
retract back. Ducks strain leads to prolapsed vent during laying, when the bird is constipated, or
when it suffers from diarrhea. A prolapsed vent predisposes ducks to bacterial infection, and it
should be addressed by pushing the prolapsed organ back into its position. If it persistently re-
occur, it should be surgically repaired.

iii. Wet feathers

Waterfowl, ducks, feathers are usually waterproof, which protects ducks against getting
waterlogged while swimming. Ducks possess preen glands, at the tail base, that produce the oil
that waterproofs the feathers; during preening, this oil from the preen gland is combed and
spread over the feathers (preening with this oil waterproofs duck feathers). Ducklings hatched
naturally can swim in water on day one since they are waterproofed by their mother from contact
with her feathers. On the contrary, ducklings hatched in an incubator or by a broody hen lack this
waterproofing and should be kept warm after a swim to dry off or they can catch a cold.

The wet feather condition strikes ducks when the feathers stay damp, rather than having the usual
glossy sheen after a swim. This implies feathers are waterlogged and have lost their
waterproofing characteristic, so they absorb rather than repel water. This condition can be caused
by the preen gland not producing sufficient oil (can be caused by a poor diet-lacks vitamin B),
keeping ducks without sufficient water and then moving them to a pool with plenty of water,
infestation with ectoparasites cause over preening that lead to breaking of interlocking barbicelli
feathers, and muddy conditions that deprive feathers of the waterproof trait. Pekin ducks are
apparently most susceptible to the wet feather condition.

To manage the situation

 A muddy duck can be washed with antibacterial detergent and blow drying it.
 Allowing ducks to molt and grow in new feathers.
 Supplementation with ingredients supplying vitamin B
 Controlling ectoparasites infestation

iv. Wry neck

This affliction, which is also known as crook neck, makes the afflicted duckling unable to hold
its head up on its own. This condition, if untreated, can be fatal, and the prognosis is better if
treatment or management is done forthwith. The afflicted duckling lies on its back unable to
walk/feed/drink on their own. It is thought to be caused by some of these factors:

 Vitamin E and B1 deficiency: a wry neck is ascribed to the deficiency of these vitamins.
When this condition is detected, it is better to improve the provision of these vitamins.
Selenium increases the efficiency of vitamin E, therefore, addressing this condition with
just a vitamin E supplement is frequently insufficient. Selenium addition is also crucial.
Feeding ducklings with medicated feed is associated with interference with Vitamin B1
absorption. This lead to a deficiency of vitamin B1. To supply this essential vitamin B1,
brewer’s yeast, sunflower seeds, or wheat germ can be good sources of vitamin B1.
 Neck injuries: this occurs when ducklings are housed in a crowded coop or brooder.
When ducklings get this injury, they should be quarantined and separately fed to avoid
them being bullied and stepped on by others. Feed and water should be given to the
afflicted ducklings with the assistance of a duck keeper. Anti-inflammatory meds can be
administered to palliate any swelling and pain in the neck.

v. Impacted crop
This is common for ducks under the foraging production system. While ducks scavenge for food,
they might ingest strong strands of grass, long pieces of string, or other indigestible materials. A
crop should be empty in the morning since ducks digest everything they eat overnight. However
due to ingestion of the abovementioned indigestible unorthodox materials, the crop might be
impacted. If the duck keeper suspects an impacted crop, one should gently massage the crop
area, then offer grit, some olive oil, and plenty of water. To prevent this condition from
happening, the duck roaming area should be kept free of any potentially dangerous indigestible
materials, and ducks under an intensive system should be fed on weeds of fairly short length.

vi. Botulism

Botulism is one of the most common causes of death in poultry. Chickens, ducks, and guinea
fowl are susceptible. Botulinum occurs when ducks consume botulinum toxin-containing food or
water. Clostridium toxin is produced by the bacterium C. botulinum. These bacteria are
ubiquitous in soil and flourish on rotting foliage, food, or carcasses, where they produce a very
toxic toxin. The botulinum toxin ingested affects the neurological system, resulting in weakness
and paralysis. Because ducks are more likely to have access to damp, rotting feed during wet
weather, botulism tends to be more prevalent during rainy seasons.

Affected birds are typically found lying on the ground and unable to stand; they are shaky and
unable to hold their heads up. Sometimes deceased birds are found with no sign of struggle: there
is no diarrhea or nasal drainage, nor is there any evidence of injury.

Since there is no specific treatment for botulism, it’s advisable to prevent botulism. Most
affected ducks will die; ducks die due to paralysis of the muscles needed for breathing.

vii. Avian influenza

This is a respiratory disease of birds caused by influenza A viruses. These viruses are categorized
as either low or high pathogenic, indicating their ability to produce disease in poultry. Low
pathogenic avian influenza viruses are common in wild birds, such as wild ducks. These wild
birds harboring avian influenza viruses are, most of the time, asymptomatic. Highly pathogenic
avian influenza viruses, on the other hand, have been mostly reported in backyard flocks such as
ducks and chickens. Hence, the severity of avian flu varies based on the subtype of the
circulating virus, H1–H16 or N1–N9. Avian influenza viruses are classified based on a
combination of two groups of proteins: the hemagglutinin or “H” proteins (there are 16) and
neuraminidase or “N” proteins (there are 9).

Avian influenza spreads quickly by direct, duck-to-duck, contact. It can also spread indirectly
when ducks are in contact with contaminated surfaces or materials. Migratory waterfowl,
including wild ducks, can also be a source of viruses. Avian influenza viruses can also be
transmitted through manure, contaminated crates, or other farming materials and equipment.
What’s more even people, who may have picked the virus up on their clothing or shoes, can
transmit the virus to ducks and other fowls.

The ducks affected by highly pathogenic viruses depict the following clinical symptoms
(respiratory and digestive): Gasping for air, nasal discharge, sneezing, Swelling & discoloration
of the eyelids & combs, paralysis, twisting of the neck, profuse diarrhea, loss of appetite, and
sudden death.

To prevent this fatal disease, duck keepers should strictly adhere to biosecurity protocols.

 Keep Avian influenza at bay: washing and disinfecting shoes, clothes, hands, egg trays or
flats, crates, vehicles, and tires.
 Limit visitors' contact with ducks and other birds: limit visitors from having contact with
ducks and other flocks. When visitors must visit the farm, they must wash their hands,
scrub their boots, and disinfect before coming into contact with ducks.
 Avoid wild birds and rodents: keep wild birds and rodents out of duck coops since they
could be asymptomatic reservoirs of viruses.

viii. Duck plague

Duck plague, also known as duck viral enteritis (DVE), is an acute, extremely contagious disease
of ducks of all ages caused by the alpha herpes virus anatid herpesvirus-1. The severity of the
duck plague depends on the virus strain, and it is characterized by sudden death and high
mortality. All members of the family Anatidae are natural hosts of these viruses, but Muscovy
ducks are most susceptible to herpes viruses.

Duck plague is mainly transmitted by direct contact from infected to susceptible ducks or by
indirect contact with a contaminated environment. Water apparently is a natural route of viral
transmission. The outbreak of duck plague is frequent in duck flocks with access to water bodies
cohabited with free-living waterfowl. Duck plague arises from acute viral damage to the
endothelial lining of small blood vessels, lymphoid tissue, and selected epithelial tissues.

Ducks are typically found dead. Those found depicting clinical signs may be photophobic,
lethargic, nasal discharge, bloody diarrhea, penile prolapse for adult drakes, and polydipsia due
to dehydration. Ducks that survive the infection may have scabs and scars in their mouth upon
recovery.

There is no treatment for duck plague, but vaccination is possible. Prevention is by avoiding
contact with wild, free-flying waterfowl, sanitation, and disinfection.

ix. Avian cholera

This is a highly infectious bacterial, Pasteurella multocida, disease that can cause mass mortality
of birds, particularly ducks. Pasteurella multocida can also cause infections in cattle, rabbits,
cats, and humans from animal-contaminated contact. Fowl cholera is transmitted through direct
contact with infected ducks, by ingestion of arthropods that have eaten contaminated food, and
by ingestion of contaminated food (e.g. infected carcasses). Fowl cholera can range from acute to
chronic and localized infections. The morbidity and mortality of avian cholera may be up to
100%. The sudden appearance of large numbers of dead ducks which are in good body condition
with few sick ducks observed may indicate an outbreak. The few sick ducks Birds may appear
lame, weak, wheezing, with swollen wattles, and twisted necks. Avian cholera in poultry can be
easily confused with other diseases. It is important to do differential diagnoses (definitive
diagnosis) by isolating Pasteurella multocida. A high level of sanitation, adherence to
biosecurity protocols, rodent control, and vaccination could be appropriate to control avian
cholera.

x. Bumblefoot

Is an infection caused by Staph spp. This causative agent enters a duck's foot through a cut
caused by a sharp object and causes an infection which can travel up the leg, causing arthritis or
bone infection. The following factors predispose ducks to this condition:

 Excessive activities such as chasing or mating activities

 Accumulation of mud or feces in the coop
 A cut or abrasion on the bottom of the foot
 A hard landing off a high roost on abrasive objects, particularly for heavy ducks

Ducks with this condition depict the following symptoms

 Lameness
 Puffy redness between the toes
 A small black scab on the underside of the foot
 Swollen and warm pad

It can be treated by scrapping of the black spot, soaking the affected pad in Epsom salt, spraying
broad-spectrum anti-microbial like Microcyn, and bandaging the affected pad/foot.

Parasites infesting ducks

Unlike chickens that suffer parasitic infestation, ducks, kept in good conditions, are less prone to
ectoparasites. A healthy duck will carry a low parasite load because efficient washing and
preening usually keep them at bay. However, ducks housed with poultry and have access to
insufficient water are at a higher risk. These are the most common ectoparasites affecting ducks.

i. Mites (Northern fowl mites)

Except when ducks are kept with other fowls, then only northern mite affects them. The northern
mites live on ducks all the time. They infest only the head and neck region of ducks, and they
are easily visible on white ducks.

ii. Lice

The lice that affect ducks are six-legged greyish long-bodied insects. They do not suck blood but
chew skin scales and fine feathers. Powderly insecticide containing pyrethrum as an active
ingredient is very effective against mites and lice.