Research Design: Research design and methods – Research design – Basic Principles- Need of

research design – Features of good design – Important concepts relating to research design –
Observation and Facts, Laws and Theories, Prediction and explanation, Induction, Deduction,
Development of Models - Developing a research plan - Exploration, Description, Diagnosis,
and Experimentation - Determining experimental and sample designs.

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

“Plan your work and work your plan is the suggestion of Napolean Hill”.

The preparation of the design of the research project is popularly known as the “research
design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research

purpose with economy in procedure.”

“The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is

conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and

analysis of data”.

[Research design is also called as the research strategy and the various steps or stages
1.Research problem selection.
2. Problem presentation.
3. Hypothesis formulation.
4. Conceptual clarity.
5. Methodology.
6. Literature survey.
7. Bibliography.
8. Collection of the data.
9. Hypothesis testing.
10. Interpretation of the result.
11. Report writing.
This specific presentation of the various steps in the process of research was given by
Cook Jahoda.
Factors affecting research design
1. Availability of scientific information
2. Availability of sufficient data
3. Time availability
4. Proper exposure to the data source
5. Availability of the money
6. Manpower availability
7. Magnitude of the management problem
8. Degree of Top management’s support
9. Ability, knowledge, skill, technical understanding and technical
background of the researcher
10. Controllable variables
11. Un–controllable variables
12. Internal variables
13. External variables
Advantages of research design
1. Consumes less time.
2. Ensures project time schedule.
3. Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a
systematic way.
4. Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is
going on.
5. Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right
time.
6. Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of
success from the beginning of the work of the research project[.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
More explicitly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data are found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
The research design has following parts:
a. The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
b. The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c. The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed; and
d. The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.
A research design usually involves the following features
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analysing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—
a. A clear statement of the research problem;
b. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
c. The population to be studied; and
 d. Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. Essentially, the research design
creates the foundation of the entire research work. It is needed because it facilitates the
smooth functioning of the various research operations. It makes the research as efficient as
possible by giving the maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and
money. For construction of a house, we need to have a proper blueprint prepared by an expert
architect. Similarly, we need a proper research design or plan prior to data collection and
analysis of our research project. Preparation of research design should be done carefully as
even a minute error might ruin the purpose of the entire project. The design helps the
researcher to organize his ideas, which helps to identify and correct his flaws, if any. In a
good research design, all the components with each other or go together with each other in a
coherent manner. The theoretical and conceptual framework must with the research goals and
purposes. Likewise, the data collection strategy must fit with the research purposes,
conceptual and theoretical framework and approach to data analysis.
The need or importance for research design is as follows:
1. It reduces inaccuracy;
2. Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
3. Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
4. Minimizes wastage of time;
5. Helpful for collecting research materials;
6. Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
7. Provides an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money,
manpower, time, and efforts;
8. Provides an overview to other experts;
9. Guides the research in the right direction.

FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DESIGN

A characteristic of a good research design is
 Flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so on.
 Minimises the bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed.
 Gives the smallest experimental error in many investigations.
  Yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering
many different aspects of problems.
 Related to the purpose or objective of nature of the problem to be studied.
A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions namely objectivity,
reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.
i. The means of obtaining information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
iii. The objective of the problem to be studied;
iv. The nature of the problem to be studied; and
v. The availability of time and money for the research work.
If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the major
emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must be
flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon. But
when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables (or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a major
consideration and a research design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the
evidence collected is considered a good design. Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis
of a causal relationship between variables require a design which will permit inferences about
causality in addition to the minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability. But in
practice it is the most difficult task to put a particular study in a particular group, for a given
research may have in it elements of two or more of the functions of different studies. It is
only on the basis of its primary function that a study can be categorised either as an
exploratory or descriptive or hypothesis-testing study and accordingly the choice of a
research design may be made in case of a particular study. Besides, the availability of time,
money, skills of the research staff and the means of obtaining the information must be given
due weightage while working out the relevant details of the research design such as
experimental design, survey design, sample design and the like.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
1. Dependent and independent variables
 A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.
Ex.: The concepts like weight, height, income.
 The phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal
points are called ‘continuous variables’.
Ex.: Age is an example of continuous variable
 The integer values are non-continuous variables or ‘discrete variables’.
Ex.: The number of children is non-continuous variable.
 A variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable.
Ex.: Height depends upon age, behavioural changes, occurring as a result of
the environmental manipulations.
 The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent
variable.
Ex.: Readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables.
2. Extraneous variable
Extraneous variables are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable.
Ex.: Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.
In this case, self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is
a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement. But it is not related to
the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher; it will be termed as an extraneous
variable.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the
study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
4. Confounded relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s),
the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable
to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or
the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not termed research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
A Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’.
Ex.: Suppose there are 50 students to take a course in statistics. They are divided into
two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to
Group B the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test to
each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s
performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in
this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.
A Research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading
ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests
their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the
two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.
7. Experimental and control groups
 When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-
experimental design.
 When a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as a ‘control group’.
But when the group is to some novel or special condition, it is termed as
‘experimental group’.
 The different conditions under which experimental group and control group
are put up usually referred to as treatment.
8. Treatments
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usual studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to
determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three
treatments.
9. Experiment
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types
viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of
a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to
determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our
experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake
comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
10. Experimental unit(s)
The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very
carefully.

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN

After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher
must arrange his ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what
can be described as ‘Research Plan’. This is essential specially for new researcher because of
the following:
(a) It helps him to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him
to look for flaws and inadequacies, if any.
(b) It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be
collected as a preliminary step.
(c) It is a document that can be given to others for comment.
Research plan must contain the following items.
1. Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly
what it is that the researcher expects to do.
2. The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one
may know what information is to be obtained for solving the problem.
3. Each major concept which researcher wants to measure should be defined in
operational terms in context of the research project.
 4. The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An
overall description of the approach to be adopted is usually given and
assumptions, if any, of the concerning method to be used are clearly
mentioned in the research plan.
5. The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted. For
instance, if interview method is to be used, an account of the nature of the
contemplated interview procedure should be given. Similarly, if tests are to be
given, the conditions under which they are to be administered should be
specified along with the nature of instruments to be used. If public records are
to be consulted as sources of data, the fact should be recorded in the research
plan. Procedure for quantifying data should also be written out in all details.
6. A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made. If the study
happens to be sample based, the research plan should state the sampling plan
i.e., how the sample is to be identified. The method of identifying the sample
should be such that generalisation from the sample to the original population is
feasible.
7. The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data.
Statistical and other methods to be used must be indicated in the plan. Such
methods should not be left until the data have been collected. This part of the
plan may be reviewed by experts in the field, for they can often suggest
changes that result in substantial saving of time and effort.
8. Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the
research project should also be prepared and laid down in the plan itself.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Various types of research design are as follow:
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
We can take up each category separately.
1. Research design in case of exploratory or formulative research studies
The main purpose of such studies is
 Exploratory research is used when problems are in a preliminary stage.
  Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is
difficult to collect.
 Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses.
 Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects.
 The discovery of ideas and insights.
 Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types
(what, why, how). But it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".
 Individual surveys, referring to secondary sources of data etc. play an
important role in such research designs.
 Reviewing related literature, following or surveying people having practical
experience in the problem related field act as very important and most
commonly used methods by an exploratory researcher.
Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
1. The survey of concerning literature;
 The survey of concerning literature is the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating the research problem or developing hypothesis.
 Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.
. 2. The experience survey
 Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied.
 The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
3. The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
 For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined.
 The unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach
may be adopted.
 Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of
the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified
interpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
 Descriptive research studies are concerned with describing the characteristics
of a particular individual, or of a group.
Ex.: The studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts
and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples
of descriptive research studies.
 The diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which
something occur or its association with something else.
Ex.: The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
a. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
b. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data
will be adopted?)
c. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
d. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
e. Processing and analysing the data.
f. Reporting the findings.
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:
Hypothesis-testing research studies are generally known as experimental studies.
In this studies
1. The researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
2. The studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but also will permit drawing inferences about causality.
 Table 3.1
Type of study
Research Design Exploratory of Formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic
Overall design Flexible design (design must Rigid design (design must make
provide opportunity for enough provision for protection
considering different aspects against bias and must maximise
of the problem) reliability)
(i) Sampling design Non-probability sampling Probability sampling design
design (random sampling)
(ii) Statistical design No pre-planned design for Pre-planned design for analysis
analysis
(iii) Observational Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
collection of data instruments for collection of data
(iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about
operational procedures. operational procedures

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies)
• Explains the structure of an experiment.
• Involve plans for the testing of the causal hypothesis.
• Studies not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but permit drawing
inferences about causality.
• Decides the number of observations to be taken and also the order in which
experiments are to be carried out.
• Which randomization method to be used.
• Which mathematical model to be used for explaining the experiment.
Important experiment designs are as follows:
1. Informal experimental design
• After only design.
• After only with control design.
• Before and after without control design.
• Before and after with control design.
2. Formal experimental design
• Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
• Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
• Latin square designs (L.S. Design).
• Factorial design.
 Questions
1. Explain the meaning and significance of a Research design.
2. Explain the meaning of the following in context of Research design.
a. Extraneous variables;
b. Confounded relationship;
c. Research hypothesis;
d. Experimental and Control groups;
e. Treatments.
3. Describe some of the important research designs used in experimental hypothesis-
testing research study.
4. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it
must minimise bias and maximise reliability.” Discuss.
5. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research design suitable
in all research studies? If not, why?
6. Explain and illustrate the following research designs:
a. Two group simple randomized design;
b. Latin square design;
c. Random replications design;
d. Simple factorial design;
e. Informal experimental designs.
7. Write a short note on ‘Experience Survey’ explaining fully its utility in exploratory
research studies.
8. What is research design? Discuss the basis of stratification to be employed in
sampling public opinion on inflation.