BIOSCIENCES BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH ASIA, June 2023. Vol. 20(2), p.

449-463

Bacterial Cellulose: An Ecological Alternative as A Biotextile

Rekha Mehrotra, Samiksha Sharma, Nidhi Shree and Kohinoor Kaur*

Department of Microbiology, Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women,

Delhi University, Vasundhara Enclave, Delhi – 110096, India.

http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/bbra/3101

(Received: 07 February 2023; accepted: 20 April 2023)

Bacterial cellulose has come forth as a novel nano-material with an extensive range of
distinct properties, making it an excellent industrial alternative to conventional plant cellulose,
as the world moves toward a sustainable and cleaner phase. Bacterial cellulose is a biomaterial
that breaks down naturally in the environment and is produced by natural mechanism in
bacterial cells. It has been considered as a substitute to traditional biomaterials in numerous
sectors, namely, textile, pharmaceutical, food industry, biotechnology, for its features enabling
to achieve sustainable development goals. The present focus is on looking at developing an
inexpensive substrate for the synthesis of bacterial cellulose from industrial waste as its
commercialization is restricted due to social, economic, and environmental considerations.
Upcoming research in biotechnological area of biotextiles and biocomposites aims to integrate
basic knowledge of textiles with biological sciences thereby facilitating production of goods
which are commercially more viable and also less harmful to the environment. The review
discusses the data regarding the use of bacterial cellulose and its production over the years,
notably in the textile sector, with an emphasis on advancement of research to enable its extensive
production and in various other areas like cosmetology, food industry, biomedical and paper
industry. In addition, potential benefits of bacterial cellulose development addressing many
of the global sustainable development goals along with suggestions for its scale-up have also
been discussed.

Keywords: Bacterial Cellulose; Biomaterial; Bio-textile; Clean Biotechnology;

Nano-material; Sustainability.

Biotechnology products have already of properties it offers, BC has become a choice

made use of several polysaccharides derived from of application in many fields including fashion,
microorganisms that have novel and intriguing engineering, medicine, pharmacy, food, chemistry
biological and physical properties. Cellulose and environment 2. When it comes to fashion
obtained from microorganisms is a potential products, clothing, accessories, footwear, and
microbial polysaccharide1. Bacterial cellulose other items that have a short life cycle, the
(BC) is a naturally occurring bio-material, number of textiles created and disposed globally
synthesised by certain bacterial species, have is pretty large. The textiles constructed clothes
higher-grade characteristics, and can be modified and accessories, including non-woven fabrics,
in the desired manner. Owing to the wide range have been interwoven with warp and weft or

*Corresponding author E-mail: Kohinoor.kaur@rajguru.du.ac.in

This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons license: Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY).
Published by Oriental Scientific Publishing Company © 2023
450 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

made from laminated and malleable surfaces using molecules connect together, they produce the
mechanical, chemical, or thermal processes for cellobiose, which is regarded as the building block
thousands of years3. of cellulose molecule. The formation of cellulose
The biodegradability of clothes is one microfibrils, which contribute to the rigor of the
of the latest environmental issues. Even when chain and the development of straight, stable fibres,
multiple people wear the same item of clothing for is made possible by hydrogen bonding. Due to this,
a long time, it still needs to be washed on a regular the pulp has enhanced mechanical resistance and
basis, which frequently causes weaning of fibres is no longer soluble in water and majority of other
into water. These synthetic fibres, which may even organic solvents6,7,8.
reach to the scale of nanometres, are really difficult Since, plants are a major source of
to filter and their accumulation pose a serious cellulose, they have been widely exploited,
threat to the aquatic ecosystem and also leads to which has led to massive destruction of forests.
contamination of potable water4. Moreover, at Consequently, BC would be a step forward to
every stage of clothing production, a lot of harmful protect the environment. In addition to this, its
waste is produced, which impacts the environment, physio-chemical properties make it desirable for
like the use of landfills, pollution of the air and its use in the textile as well as paper industry2.
soil and inefficient use of resources5. Additionally, Cellulose extracted from plants has also other
mass production of BC is and application BC components the most prevalent of which are lignin
because of expensive media and low output and hemicellulose. It also has poor crystallinity as a
commercially, thereby limiting its commercial result of which, substantial processing is required,
use. One of the oldest methods for producing consuming a lot of energy, water, and toxic
BC is fermentation. During the tea fermentation chemicals4. Brown was the first to report BC from
process, BC fermentation results in the formation the bacterium Acetobacter xylinium8. The cellulose
of cellulose-based biofilm at the air-liquid terminal. chains are held together by hydrogen bonds that
The biofilm so formed is an essential source of are both intra- and intermolecular that gives BC its
BC, although it is regarded a waste product as it special features like excellent purity, good water
is derived from the symbiotic culture of bacteria retention, low solubility, mechanical resilience,
and yeasts (SCOBY). Researchers are examining plasticity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-
ways to use sustainable carbon resources through toxicity and non-allergenicity9,10.
bio-process refinement and minimize the price of The plant cellulose differs from the
BC production2,5. biological cellulose chiefly by its micrometric
This review aims to highlight BC as a fibres, whereas the bacterial cellulose contains
potential alternative to bring about a revolution nano-sized fibres that are extruded through the
in the textile industry, so as to diminish the cell wall of the bacterium10. The optical contrast
environmental stress caused by the synthetic fibres. between the two concerns both the appearance
The review also focuses on the possible low-cost and the water content. The plant cellulose is
production substrates for BC production and its fibrous, whereas the other is gel-like. When the
viable applications. fermentation process is immersed static, BC
Properties of Bacterial Cellulose is found to have a 3-dimensional structure and
Cellulose, primarily found in cotton and as a result of certain properties, a high level of
woody plants is a superabundant polymer on the crystallinity is obtained for the BC (60-90%)
planet3,5. The textile industry makes extensive in comparison to the plant cellulose (40%) and
use of cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer having primarily the cotton fibres (70%)3.
a chemical formula (C6H10O5)n. It has a linear The structural properties of BC depend
chain of molecules containing Carbon, Hydrogen on two factors: the origin of the strain and
and Oxygen atoms (Fig. 1). The chain of â-D- composition of growth media. The first determines
glucose is not branched and is connected by the formation of the two distinct crystalline
â-type 1,4-glycosidic linkages. These interact structure, i.e., monoclinic-I â cellulose, and
with one another through the intramolecular and triclinic-cellulose I á as it effects I á/I â. While,
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. When two glucose the latter, affects the dimension of the molecular
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 451

bacterial cellulose chain. The degree of crystallinity air-dried samples produced a material that was
and physicochemical properties of BC are hence less durable and more brittle. Probably, because
determined by these characteristics3. the BC network’s three-dimensional structure
BC entertains many advantages over plant had collapsed, these samples were relatively thin.
cellulose in terms of possessing a range of inherent In addition, the fabric contracted when drying,
physical and mechanical properties. Unlike plant producing wrinkles and uneven widths. The
cellulose, which contains hemicellulose, lignin, latter samples, however, still seemed flexible, the
and pectin, BC is pure and has a polymerization material did not disintegrate when folded, and their
degree of 4000–10,000 anhydro glucose units2. tensile strength was much greater than that of the
The ultrafine network of BC nano-fibres of size undried samples17.
3–8 nm with a high degree of uni-axial orientation BC is therefore, an excellent material
makes up the 3D structure of the thick, gelatinous for use in a various sectors on account of
membrane (hydrogel sheet) that develops under the extraordinary physical and mechanical
static culture conditions and has a high surface characteristics18.
area, high porosity, high crystallinity and extensive Molecular Synthesis and Bioculture Mechanism
durability3,1. BC fibrils are approximately a hundred The precise cause of cellulose formation is
times smaller in proportions compared to plant unknown, as different studies have opposing views.
cellulose; BC material becomes substantially more Certain bacterial strains synthesize cellulose as a
hydrophilic and has a greater capacity of holding defence mechanism against UV radiation, fungus,
water, as much as 100 times its own weight, and yeasts19. Some Sarcina strains may create
when water binds to its OH groups. BC also amorphous cellulose, which causes cells to attach
possess substantial moldability, thickness, density, to one another and aids in nutrient absorption20.
plasticity, thermochemical stability, and mechanical A. xylinum, also called Gluconacetobacter
strength comparable to steel or Kevlar1,2,11,12,5. Table xylinus, is a gram-negative bacterium that can be
1 highlights the differences between bacterial recognized as an example for the study of cellulose
cellulose (BC) and plant cellulose (PC). The BC production as the cellulose fibril is an exceedingly
membranes can be sterilised and are elastic and pure, metabolically inert extracellular deposit. It also
flexible3. possesses quick development and the capacity to be
The traditional methods of patternmaking maintained under regulated circumstances. It can
and sewing can also be used to cut BC into pieces grow and produce cellulose from several substrates,
and assemble it into a garment3. In addition, animal such as hexoses, hexanoates, 3-carbon molecules
studies have shown that BC has no teratogenic or like pyruvate, glycerol, and dihydroxyacetone,
reproductive toxicity, inflammatory reactions, or and 4-carbon citrate cycle dicarboxylic acids. It
adverse effects. BC did not cause eye or dermal could polymerize approximately 200,000 glucose
irritation in the primary animal model studies. monomers per second. The pace of cellulose
Additionally, research demonstrated that BC is synthesis in the resting-cell system is unhindered
not mutagenic and in fact, it has been subjected to by protein synthesis inhibitors, but is altered by
human consumption as a food for years. Surface, the action of inhibitors/uncouplers of the electron
chemical, structural, and a variety of in situ and transport chain21,22.
ex situ functionalisations have all improved BC’s Mechanism Of Cellulose Synthesis in Bacteria
properties for improved performance in a variety Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucose
of applications2,16. is the directly occurring sugar nucleic acid
Recent studies indicate that in the state component of cellulose synthesis. The whole
immediately following harvest, the wet BC sheets process beginswith glucose as a monomer till
were extremely sturdy and unbreakable by hand the culmination of cellulose in four enzymatic
pulling. In addition, they were easy to fold and steps. It involves glucose phosphorylation via
had a supple feel to them. However, during testing, glucokinase, subsequently glucose-1-phosphate
these samples were difficult to clamp, resulting in (Glc-1-P) genesis by glucose-6-phosphate (Glc-
gradual breaks but showed an average ultimate 6-P) isomerisation, lastly, the formation of UDP-
strength of 9.71 MPa. In comparison to these, the glucose (UDPG), and the cellulose synthase
452 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

process by UDPG-pyrophosphorylase. The that a rise in oxygen availability can lower BC

movement of hexose phosphate carbon to cellulose production23.
or through the pentose cycle seems to be regulated Static Culture Method
by an energy-linked mechanism, with the crossover A well-known and well-established
point happening at the ATP-responsive NAD- technique for creating BC is the static culture
linked glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. A key method. This approach involves filling containers
stage in the formation of cellulose fibrils is the with new nutritional solution and incubating them
polymerization of glucose, which occurs mostly in for 1-14 days with proper temperature (28-30°C)
the region immediately outside the cell surface21. and pH conditions (4-7). The static culture approach
(Fig. 2) produces BC, which is in form of a hydrogel sheet
A. xylinum typically generates cellulose I with good structure and characteristics(23). In a
and cellulose II, two different kinds of cellulose. The static culture, the cellulose-producing cells are
former is a ribbon-like highly crystalline polymer, transported to the air-liquid intersection while
whereas, the latter is an amorphous polymer that is remaining attached to the cellulose product the
found to be more thermodynamically stable. The cellulosic layer floats on the surface24. After being
crystalline character of the cellulose I structure is purified with hot water and sodium hydroxide,
majorly as a result of the uni-axial arrangement of new BC is obtained that was primrose yellow.
the 1-4 gluco-chains with Vander Waals attraction, After that, samples are thoroughly rinsed with
however for cellulose II, the 1-4 gluco-chains water until the pH is neutralized, at which point
are placed haphazardly with greater number of the BC became white. The size of the air-liquid
hydrogen bonds. Therefore, this characteristic is intersection directly influences the proportion of
crucial to thermal properties of cellulose II19. BC produced as the production of BC film takes
Conditions required for growing bacterial place on the nutrient solution surface. Cellulose is
cellulose producing strains generated in static cultures in greater amounts than
The properties of BC produced are in shaking cultures. The two primary issues with
influenced remarkably due to the quality of culture static culture methods are however, high cost and
environment —which encompasses the bacteria’s limited output rate23.
strain, nutrition, pH level, and oxygen delivery. Agitation/Shaking Culture Method
Static and agitated/shaking cultures are the The main concept behind the shaking
techniques currently being used for the synthesis culture was to optimise oxygen supply to bacteria
of BC. In contrast to the static culture strategy, during culture. Even while experiments revealed
which produces an asterisk-shaped, sphere-shaped, that not all bacterial strains could benefit from
pellet-like, or irregular mass, the agitated/shaking this method of increasing BC output, it escalated
culture method produces a mucilaginous layer the process by producing BC pellicles in a variety
of cellulose that settles on the nutrient solution of sizes and shapes when given the right rotation
surface23,24. It has been determined that acetic acid speed25. Studies reveal that a rotation speed of
and glucose are essential nutrients for the growth 100 rpm is inefficient for the process whereas
of bacteria. The utilisation of acetic acid and the an increase in speed to about 150 rpm displayed
synthesis of gluconic acid during the earliest changes in the shape of BC pellicles. Raising the
phases of incubation can both maintain a stable rotating speed had no effect on the amount of BC
pH and fermentation environment. The bacteria produced. When BC is produced in an agitated
may aggressively and constantly develop gluconic culture, its morphology and characteristics change,
acid utilizing glucose provided the concentration leading to lower levels of polymerization, a
of glucose remains greater than its acetic acid lower crystallinity index, and worse mechanical
content during the fermentation process. Finally, qualities23.
low pH environments are inappropriate for Production Of Bacterial Cellulose from wastes
bacterial development. According to experimental The prohibitive price of fermentation
data, BC biosynthesis was stopped when the pH media, which makes up approximately 30% of
value dipped below the pH range of 4–7, which BC’s prime-cost, prevents it from being produced
is necessary for BC formation. There is evidence economically. The utilisation of various wastes as
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 453

low-cost media has been the concern of extensive sugars, 15–25% pectin, around 8–10% cellulosic
studies over the past several years with the goal of material and 5-7% hemi-cellulose. A. xylinum is
lowering this cost while also contributing to the being used in BC production to investigate other
solution of environmental issues brought on by the potential sources of carbon from agricultural waste,
disposal of waste products (Fig. 3). Recycling and such as banana peel. Coffee Cherry Husk, a by-
turning these wastes into goods with extra value, product of coffee cherry processing can also be
like BC, would thus be advantageous26,27. employed as a potential medium for BC generation.
Agro-Industry According to the findings of the study, waste sisal
Agriculture Industry produces a range of is also a valuable resource for BC production30.
by-products like sweet potato mulch, bark rice, Beverage Industry
wheat grain straw, dry olive mill and corncob Daily production of large quantities of
which are together known as plant biomass. These by-products remains a concern for management in
low-priced goods are made from resources that are the brewery and beverage industries, which strive
renewable and accessible worldwide and are mostly to keep disposal costs low2. However, much of
made of cellulose, hemicellulose, and sometimes this waste can be employed as a suitable growth
lignin18. Less than ten percent of the total waste substrate for BC generation as it not only furnishes
produced by this industry each day are used as a low-cost method for producing BC, but it also
substitute raw materials in other industries26. protects the environment by preventing the waste
The various sugars in corn stalk hydrolysate accumulation31. A range of these by-products have
include acetic acid, furfural, xylose, mannose and been subject to studies and examined for their
glucose. In a study, by-products from maize stalk potential role in BC synthesis.
hydrolysis were used under ideal conditions and Sludge from makgeolli, which is
methodologies to show the ecological synthesis of frequently discarded in traditional paddy wine
BC. The resulting BC fibrils ranged in length from refineries, includes metal ions, organic acids,
300 nm to several micrometres and had a diameter and nitrogen that sustain microbial growth and
of between 20-70 nm. Additionally, a medium can therefore be used for synthesis of BC using
for BC production can be rice bark made from bacterial strains like G. xylinus. Experiments
agricultural residues.23,2,28 By primarily undergoing have showcased the desired peaks, polymorphic
acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, followed by bacterial structure and fibrous network of BC produced using
fermentation, wheat straw can also be employed this sludge as a substrate32,26. Revin et al. studied
as a feedstock for the manufacture of BC26. Oat the utilisation of stillage (TS), cheese whey, and
hulls, which make up almost 1/3rd of the mass of acidic wastes from the dairy and alcohol industries
the grains and possess a cellulosic content of up for the cost-effective production of BC using G.
to 45%, are a cheap and renewable resource. It is a sucrofermentans. The study demonstrated high
global waste which is industrially sustainable and yield of BC with right structural characteristics
can be employed as a substrate alternative for BC and thus, suggests the use of above-mentioned
synthesis26,2. by-products as an inexpensive and efficient carbon
Majority of agro-industries discard and nitrogen substrates33.
pineapple and coconut juices as waste because Being a plentiful supply of nutrients for
they are high in peptones, sugars, and trace the development of microorganisms, various beer
elements. When these drinks were compared, industry wastes can be utilised for producing BC.
coconut juice outperformed pineapple juice in Waste beer yeast is a by-product of the fermentation
terms of BC productivity2,29. The inedible skins of different cereals and has a high nutritional
of fruits and vegetables, which make up between content with high percentages of proteins, sugars,
5-40% of the overall weight, can act as substrates RNA, vitamins, glutathione and trace quantities of
for BC production since they are a substantial some metals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
source of reducing sugars, essential vitamins, iron, magnesium, and iron. It can thus, be used as
nutritious proteins, and many acids. For instance, a fermentation medium for G. hansenii CGMCC
orange peel can be utilized as a substrate for BC 3917, where it can serve as a source of carbon and
synthesis as it has 10% water content, 30–40% nutrients34,26. For BC production, grape bagasse,
454 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

Table 1. Indicates the numerous structural and biological differences between

Plant Cellulose (PC) and Bacterial Cellulose (BC)

S. Criterion Plant Cellulose (PC) Bacterial Cellulose Reference

No. (BC)

1. Purity It has lesser purity as PC BC has very high purity 1

found in the wall of plant as it contains no
cells, is intimately hemicelluloses, lignin,
associated with an array pectin or waxes.
of hemicelluloses and
lignin.
2. Crystallinity It has comparatively It has a higher 3
lower crystallinity crystallinity of
(40% - 50%). over 60% - 90%.
3. Fibril structure PC microfibrils are The thickness of BC 3
comparatively thicker nanofibrils is generally
than those of BC, 0.1–10 mm, 100 times
leading to lower thinner than that of PC
crystalline domain. fibrils and is composed
of glucan chains
interlocked by hydrogen
bonds so that a
crystalline domain
is produced.
4. Appearance It has a fibrous aspect. It has a gel-like nature. 3
5. Water holding It has comparatively Its water retention 13
capacity a lower water holding capacity is greater
capacity of about than 95% which is
25-35%. much higher than PC.
6. Biodegradability It is comparatively It is comparatively 14
difficult to degrade. easier to degrade.
7. Surface Area (m2/g) <10 >150 13
8. Porosity It has a lower It is a highly porous 1, 13
porosity of about material with porosity
<75%. of about >85%, which
provides high water
holding capacity and
also allows transfer of
antibiotics into the
wound, making it
suitable for use in
wound care.
9. Pore size 1-100 nm 10-300nm 14
10. Degree of polymerization 300-10,000 14,000-16,000 13
11. Young’s modulus (mPa) 25-200 Sheet: 20,000 and single 13
fibre: 130,000
12. Other properties PC generally lacks all It has a low solubility, 3
these properties. high mechanical resistance,
elasticity, flexibility,
biodegradability,
biocompatibility and
non-toxicity.
13. Derivative Cotton, wood and fibers Produced primarily by 14
from seeds, fruits, bacteria belonging to
vegetables, stalk, leaf etc. genus Agrobacterium,
Gluconacetobacter,
Sarcina etc.
14. Function PC is a component of BC is not essential for 15
plant cell wall and is survival but can confer
essential for survival. a selective survival advantage.
455 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

a wine production residue, was also evaluated3. may be both economical and environmentally
Additionally, the by-products of wet maize milling benign 31. As by-products of the manufacture
are a rich supply of vitamins, nitrogen, carbon and of bio-diesel, residual sugars like glucose and
can effectively encourage microbial fermentation arabinose) and exopolysaccharides, which are
and growth, thereby, presenting an appropriate produced as lipid fermentation wastes, and
substrate alternative29. can also be considered as suitable substrates for
The peels and pulp of citrus fruits make up BC production35. Studies also report the production
about 40-60% of their weight; are also rich in water, of BC using Kombucha, which is a microbial
pectin, dietary fibres, and minerals. They also easily consortium of different bacteria and fungi in a
decompose or even become more harmful to the sweetened tea36,37. This way, utilisation of industrial
environment. Therefore, making BC from citrus by-products will not only assist the elevation
peel and pomace via enzyme hydrolysis solution of manufacturing and marketing of BC-based
products, but it will also solve the brewery and
beverage industry’s major waste disposal issue2.
Sugar Industry
Treacles, bagasse, and press mud are the
primary sugar industry by-products which along
with other by-products like factory and brewery
effluents contribute significantly to pollution.
Molasses have been recommended as a viable
substrate media for BC generation by several A.
xylinum isolates in static culture method, making
the process of BC manufacture affordable,
according to multiple studies carried out so far.
Polyphenolic compounds are also present in
Fig. 1. Represents the monomeric structure of molasses and majority of them share similarities
Bacterial Cellulose polymer. (Figure made using with lignin in their guaiacyl and syringyl units2,38,39.
ChemSketch) Molasses have been, for a long time, used to

Fig. 2. Depicts the molecular pathway for the biosynthesis of Cellulose-I and Cellulose-II using glucose and
fructose, in Bacteria. (Figure adapted from reference no. 50)
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 456

produce a variety of industrial products, including The liquid sweeteners known as syrups, on the
lactic acid, polyhydroxybutyrate, ethanol, pullulan, contrary, are derived from carbohydrates like
xanthan gum, and cellulose, as a fermentation maize starch and maple sap. Their high sugar
medium40. Molasses differ from sugar syrups in content, which in maple syrup can reach 67%
having a high concentration of total suspended (weight/weight), sets them apart. Contrary to
solids and carbohydrates. They also have a low molasses, sucrose accounts for 89% of these
level of phosphorus, nitrogen and cysteine. sugars, with fructose and glucose accounting for

Fig. 3. Depicts the various cheap sources for the Fig. 4. Compares the maximum BC productivity
production of bacterial cellulose including (A) by various microbial strains using different (A)
agricultural wastes, (B) beverage industrial wastes, Agricultural Waste (B) Beverage Industrial Waste (C)
(C) sugar industrial wastes, and (D) textile industrial Sugar Industrial Waste (D) Textile Industrial Waste.
wastes. (Figure made using Canva) (Figure made using excel where the data is collected
from reference no. 16, 39, 23)

Fig. 5. Depicts the 17 Sustainable Development Goals formalised by United Nations in 2015 and the 6 SDGs
(6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15) which can be achieved by BC production using industrial waste as its substrate. (Figure
edited using Canva). Fig. Reference: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/12/sustainable-
development-goals-kick-off-with-start-of-new-year/
457 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

the remaining carbohydrates. Though syrups are production requires almost 29 tonnes of water and
also used in microbial cultures, molasses are used a significant number of insecticides and pesticides5.
more often18. Studies report improved physio- Investment in disciplines like bioengineering and
chemical properties of BC produced using molasses bio-fabrication that prospect substitutes, including
medium, with characteristic crystallinity and a high the utilization of specific microbes (A. xylinum
mechanical strength of about 102 ± 16.8 MPa. Pulp being the most efficient), to produce textiles, both
waste, lignocellulosic biorefinery waste, and hot for the apparel and footwear industries, would be
water extract also make up a significant portion one way to address this problem. One of the most
of the pulp mill and lignocellulosic biorefinery important bioeconomy technologies is the bio-
residual by-products consisting of mostly cellulose fabrication of BC. Compared to other methods of
and hemicelluloses. Sugar, organic acids, vitamins, producing materials, bio-fabrication uses fewer
and minerals are also abundant in a few of them. chemicals, less water, and less energy while
These wastes can also be transformed into high- leaving a smaller carbon footprint42. Designers
quality, profitably marketable products2. and scientists are increasingly concentrating
Textile Industry on biomaterials like BC and its biocompatible
Cellulose polymers make up most old characteristics in an effort to make the fashion
clothes made of cotton or regenerated cellulose business more sustainable19.
(like viscose), and might be used as a cheap As part of her “Bio Couture” research
alternate supply of starches for the manufacturing effort, British fashion designer Suzanne Lee
of BC. Other kinds of textile waste that come from established the utilization of BC by experimenting
making yarn, fabric, or clothes could also be used, with Kombucha. After that, numerous studies and
which could help cut down on BC’s production experiments on BC were conducted, resulting in
costs, save natural resources, thereby protecting dyed or undyed BC artefacts, either naturally or
the environment41. synthetically. Using a culture substrate comprising
The bulk of the organic sources utilized of coconut water and factory waste, the “Malai”
in the fibre and textile sector after purification and venture, based in British Columbia, provides vegan
hydrolysis treatments include a lot of cellulosic analogues for leather for fashion products in a
material, therefore the wastes produced may be range of hues43. Using static culture, researchers
used to create a range of valuable products like have recently created BC from green tea medium,
BC. In a study, hydrolysate produced by enzymatic as reported by Ng and Wang. They also claimed
hydrolysis and pre-treatment of cotton-based that the rigidity, flexibility, stability, and tensile
textiles was used as the growth medium for the strength of the BC created made it the material of
synthesis of BC2,26. choice for fashion applications19,44.
Therefore, several industrial by-products Applications Of BC in Other Industries
can be used for BC synthesis, which would not Cosmetology
only commercialise the process, but also provide Due to its great capability for retaining
a sustainable alternative to waste management. water, lack of toxicity, and lack of allergic side
A range of microbial species could be employed effects, BC is a fantastic biomaterial for the
and grown on medium made using these wastes, cosmetics sector(45). Scientists have examined the
according to their nutritional requirements as these use of the BC membrane for cosmetic purposes in
industrial wastes are rich in vitamins and minerals addition to its medical uses and have found that the
which could act as food and energy sources for face masks made of BC, if applied for five minutes,
these microbes (Fig. 4). helped to tighten the skin because the water content
Can BC Bring a Revolution in Textile Industry? of the mask boosted the skin’s ability to absorb
Textile production is one of the earliest water. The bio-cellulose mask has been clinically
and second-most waste producing industries shown to contribute to the skin’s increased
in the world with improper disposal, clothing moisture, thereby nourishing the skin with reduced
wastage, and excessive consumption becoming fine lines and wrinkles. The therapeutic chemicals
a phenomenon42. Cotton, though, is one of the can also permeate deeply into the skin owing to
most common textile options but 1 kg of cotton the three-dimensional “material” formed by the
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 458

interconnecting, highly absorbent fibres of bacterial Ecology And Paper Industry

cellulose. These facial masks adhere to the skin Due to its high purity and microfibril
properly and were therefore proved to be beneficial structure, BC can be employed as a paper substrate.
for the skin with no pungent odours46. The paper’s surface is hydrophobic because of
Food Industry the more compact structure of BC. Wood-based
Due to its exceptional ability to hold paper has negative effects on the environment,
water, high purity, and dietary fibres with low contributes to the loss of large forests, and so
caloric values, BC is a biopolymer that may be on. Additionally, bacteria provide a sustainable
consumed47. It has also been habitually employed alternative to the production of paper. Bio-
in the making of nata de coco, a South-East Asian packages made of BC, which is biodegradable and
native dietary fibre which is a popular munch environmentally friendly, can lessen the impact
choice for people of many countries, especially of plastic on the environment. The highly elastic
in the Philippines. It is widely manipulated in and porous filters made from bacterial cellulose
food refining owing to its chewy, sloppy, and indicate a bright future for wastewater treatment
smooth texture having few calories, little fat, and applications based on the bacterial pulp46. BC, a
no cholesterol48,49. Apart from this, BC has been bio-polymer developed by bacterial fermentation,
proposed as a suitable alternative as thickening and satisfies the criteria for a new class of highly
stabilising agents, low-calorie additives, surface specialized, biodegradable materials for use in
modifiers, pale sauces and fabricated food. It is environmental applications. For applications
also used as an ice-cream additive, which increases involving membrane technology, such as the
the shear stress, thereby preventing ice-cream flow filtration of heavy alloys, the catalysis of organic
after melting. Due to its relevant properties, it has contaminants, the absorption of organic solvents,
been reviewed ‘‘generally recognized as safe’’ and the methods of oil/water separation, it has also
(GRAS) and accepted by the FDA in 1992. It is been extensively used to support a variety of nano-
also currently added in tofu, boiled fish pastes particles, biopolymers, and additives55.
and is known to improve product dispersion, if Bacterial Cellulose – A Sustainable Alternative
used in combination with sucrose and CMC50. BC Satisfying the Global SDGs
also exhibits numerous health benefits including In 2015, the United Nations established
lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases, the 2030 Agenda, comprising of 17 Sustainable
diabetes, obesity, treatment of gastric illnesses and Development Goals (SDGs) and Bacterial
as a pre-biotic51,47. Cellulose production through employment of
Biomedical Field industrial waste as its substrate aims to accomplish
Since the 1980s, BC has been manipulated 7 of these SDGSs, (Fig. 5) making it a perfect
as a natural polymeric medium for nursing of example of sustainable development as it can attain
injuries because it is highly biocompatible and an appropriate balance between social, economic
can provide the ideal 3-D substrate for cell and environmental dimensions of growth.
attachment 45,52. It is also known to speed up SDG 6 focuses on the provision of clean
granulation, reduce pain, and promote autolytic water and sanitation. As seen in the literature,
debridement, ensuring proper wound healing. cotton, which is one of the most popular textile
BC nanocomposites can be used for replacement fabric is also one of the most water consuming
of cardiovascular tissues, artificial cornea, bone and water polluting crops with an average water
tissue engineering and dental root canal treatment. turnover of 4029 m3/ton. Cotton production is
Several biomedical devices designed for cellular linked with approximately 25% of the pesticide
growth screening can also benefit greatly from the consumption and a significant amount of water
configuration of BC ultra-thin films52,53. In addition, is consumed during its processing. The break out
the close contact these BC formulations have of synthetic fibres in the water systems during the
with the diseased region renders them the perfect course of washing further pollutes the environment.
platform for cutaneous therapeutic administration Bacterial Cellulose can thus help in combating all
when the membranes have been fully or partially of these problems and can be used as a suitable and
desiccated51,54. sustainable textile alternative as BC production is
459 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

much more environment friendly with no use of Policies to Endorse Bacterial Cellulose
chemicals, less water consumption, biodegradable Production
fibres and minimum wastage42. The government can play an important role
SDG 9 aspires to provide robust in promoting the adoption of bacterial cellulose as a
infrastructure, promote inclusive, long-term sustainable material for clothing. By implementing
industrialisation, and support innovation; and all policies that encourage research, provide tax
of this aligns well with BC production through incentives, set procurement policies, promote
industrial waste utilization as substrate. Biotextiles education and awareness, provide subsidies, and
is a new age innovation harbouring cleaner regulate production and use, the government can
processes which favour industrial scale-ups via help to create a market for sustainable materials
sustainable development directives42,56. and accelerate their adoption. Here are some policy
BC production could also address SDG recommendations:
12 with the goal of ensuring sustainable production 1. Promoting research and development: The
and consumption habits. It strives to significantly government can invest in research and development
reduce waste creation through trash avoidance, of bacterial cellulose and other sustainable
reduction, recycling, and reuse. Consequently, the materials. This could involve funding for academic
virtue of biodegradability is underlined; hence, institutions, research centres, and private companies
biotextiles are not regarded environmentally that are working on developing new materials.
hazardous and may even be disposed in composters. 2. Tax incentives: The government could provide
Microbial fermentative chemical and material tax incentives for companies that use sustainable
production from regenerative resources can help materials in their production processes. This could
SDG 12 both ecologically and economically42,57. encourage more companies to switch to sustainable
Synthetic textile manufacture emits huge materials, as they would be able to save money
amounts of greenhouse gases and depletes fossil on taxes.
fuel and water resources. Moreover, dangerous 3. Procurement policies: The government can set
and poisonous substances are used in their procurement policies that prioritize the use of
manufacture. In comparison, BC production is sustainable materials in government purchases.
far more bio-economically sustainable, requiring This could create a market for sustainable
less land, water, and energy. Even a minor materials, which could help drive down costs and
commercialization of BC as a leather alternative increase adoption.
might result in less demand for animal hides, less 4. Education and awareness campaigns: The
greenhouse gas emissions, and less tanning-related government can launch education and awareness
toxicity, thus addressing one of the most important campaigns to promote the use of sustainable
- SDG 1356. materials. This could include advertising
SDG 14 (Life under water) and SDG campaigns, public service announcements, and
15 (life on land) could also be addressed through educational materials aimed at consumers and
implementation of biotextile production. Not only businesses.
does the synthetic fibres and micro-plastics affect 5. Subsidies: The government can provide
the marine life but their production directly or subsidies to companies that are using sustainable
indirectly affects the life on land as well; PC too materials. This could help to offset the higher costs
leads to destruction of plant life. Microbial BC associated with these materials, making them more
production can therefore reduce the problem of competitive with traditional materials.
water pollution and land mitigation56, 57. Additionally public education can
Lastly, it can be suggested that the textile be a powerful tool for promoting the adoption
manufacturing system should be reformed because of bacterial cellulose and other sustainable
it is still incompatible with both environmental materials/clothes. By raising awareness, educating
and social concerns. As a result, considering new consumers, highlighting sustainable brands,
and more sustainable materials, such as bacterial encouraging clothing swaps, and engaging schools
cellulose, is a type of mitigation that is in line with and universities, public education can help to drive
the environmental interest and global SDGs42. demand for sustainable materials and accelerate
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 460

their adoption. Here are some ways in which public process requires a significant amount of water,
education can be used to promote sustainable energy, and other resources. To mitigate this,
materials: alternative substrate such as that obtained from
1. Raising awareness: Public education can raise agro-industry, beverage industry and sugar industry
awareness about the environmental impact of as discussed above.
traditional materials, such as cotton and polyester. 2. Contamination: Bacterial cellulose production
This can be done through advertising campaigns, can be vulnerable to contamination by other
public service announcements, and educational bacteria or fungi. Production facilities can mitigate
materials that highlight the benefits of sustainable this risk by implementing strict hygiene protocols,
materials and the negative impacts of traditional using sterile equipment, and monitoring the
materials. production process closely.
2. Educating on production processes: Public 3. Ethical considerations: There are ethical
education can help to educate consumers about considerations associated with the use of bacterial
the production processes of sustainable materials. cellulose, such as the use of genetically modified
This can include information about how bacterial bacteria. To mitigate this, companies can use non-
cellulose is produced and the environmental benefits GMO bacteria or develop sustainable production
of these processes. This can be done through methods that do not require the use of genetically
educational materials, videos, and interactive modified organisms.
exhibits. 4. Social impact: The adoption of bacterial
3. Highlighting sustainable clothing brands: Public cellulose could potentially have a significant impact
education can also highlight sustainable clothing on traditional textile industries and communities.
brands that use bacterial cellulose and other Companies can mitigate this by engaging with local
sustainable materials in their products. This can be communities and providing support for sustainable
done through social media campaigns, influencer economic development.
marketing, and collaborations with sustainable Hence, the application of bacterial
brands. cellulose for textile production necessitates rigorous
4. Encouraging sustainable clothing swaps: Public evaluation of possible dangers and ethical issues.
education can also encourage sustainable clothing Companies may contribute to making the use of
swaps, where consumers can exchange their old bacterial cellulose sustainable and advantageous
clothes for sustainable options. This can be done for all parties involved by establishing adequate
through local events and online communities. safety standards, minimising environmental effect,
5. Engaging schools and universities: Public resolving ethical issues, and interacting with local
education can engage schools and universities communities.
to promote the use of sustainable materials. This
can include integrating sustainable materials CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
into school curriculums, hosting sustainability
workshops, and encouraging student-led initiatives In conclusion, bacterial cellulose (BC)
to promote sustainable materials. presents an exciting opportunity to revolutionize
Mitigation of Potential Risk and Ethical the textile industry by providing a sustainable and
Consideration eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fibres and Plant
Bacterial cellulose has the potential Cellulose. The use of BC in the textile industry
to be a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative can significantly reduce the environmental stress
to traditional materials in the clothing industry. caused by synthetic fibres, addressing several of the
However, as with any new material, there are United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
potential risks and ethical considerations that need The potential applications of BC are
to be mitigated. Here are some key areas of concern diverse, ranging from clothing to non-woven
and possible mitigation strategies: fabrics, and can also be modified to meet specific
1. Environmental impact: The production of requirements, making it an attractive option for
bacterial cellulose involves the cultivation of many industries. As the world becomes more
bacteria in large tanks of nutrient-rich liquid. This conscious of environmental issues, the demand for
461 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

sustainable materials is likely to increase, and BC wastes: a review. Cellulose. 2019;26(5):2895-

can play a significant role in meeting this demand. 2911.
Although BC production is still limited by its high 3. Costa A. F. S., Rocha M. A. V., Sarubbo L. A.
production cost, ongoing research aims to reduce Bacterial cellulose: an eco-friendly biotextile.
International Journal of Textile and Fashion
its cost by using sustainable carbon resources and
Technology. 2017;7:11-26.
refining the bio-process. 4. Kamiñski K., Jarosz M., Grudzieñ J., Pawlik J.,
Therefore, future prospects include Zastawnik F., Pandyra P., Ko³odziejczyk A. M.
development of techniques and methods for the Hydrogel bacterial cellulose: A path to improved
development of this biotechnology-based polymer materials for new eco-friendly textiles. Cellulose.
which encourage a shift to a cleaner, greener, 2020;27(9):5353-5365.
renewable and scalable economy(58). In addition, 5. Provin A. P., dos Reis V. O., Hilesheim S. E.,
to promote the adoption of BC as a sustainable Bianchet R. T., de Aguiar Dutra A. R., Cubas
material, governments can implement policies A. L. V. Use of bacterial cellulose in the textile
industry and the wettability challenge—a review.
that encourage research, provide tax incentives,
Cellulose. 2021;28(13):8255-8274.
set procurement policies, promote education 6. Santos S. M., Carbajo J. M., Quintana E., Ibarra
and awareness, provide subsidies, and regulate D., Gomez N., Ladero M., Eugenio M. E.,
production and use. Public education can also be a Villara J. C. Characterization of purified bacterial
powerful tool for promoting the adoption of BC and cellulose focused on its use on paper restoration.
other sustainable materials. Overall, the use of BC Carbohydrate Polymers. 2015;116:173-181.
in the textile industry presents a potential revolution 7. Ul-Islam M., Khan T., Park J. K. Water holding
in sustainable and eco-friendly manufacturing, and release properties of bacterial cellulose
and it is exciting to see the possibilities that this obtained by in situ and ex situ modification.
Carbohydrate Polymers.2012;88:596-603.
biopolymer can offer. As research continues and
8. Brown R. M., Saxena I. M. and Kudlicka, K.
production costs decrease, BC has the potential Cellulose biosynthesis in higher plants. Trends
to become a widely used alternative to synthetic in Plant Science.1996;1:149-56.
fibres in the near future, contributing to a more 9. Pecoraro É., Manzani D., Messaddeq Y., Ribeiro,
sustainable and environmentally friendly world. S. J. Bacterial cellulose from Glucanacetobacter
xylinus: preparation, properties and applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In Monomers, polymers and composites from
renewable resources. Elsevier. 2007;369-383.
The authors would like to thank the 10. D o n i n i Í . A . N . , S a l v i D . T. B . D E ,
Fukumoto F. K., Lustri W. R., Barud H. S.,
management of Shaheed Rajguru College of
Marchetto R., Messaddeq Y., Ribeiro S. J.
Applied Science for Women, University of Delhi, L. Biossíntese e recentesavançosnaprodução
for providing facilities for carrying out the present de celulosebacteriana. Eclética
study. Química.2010;35:165-178.
Conflict of interest 11. Klemm D., Kramer F., Moritz S., Lindström T.,
I hereby declare that all the authors and Ankerfors M., Gray D., Dorris A. Nanocelluloses:
the corresponding author do not have any conflict a new family of nature based materials.
of interest. AngewandteChemie International Edition.
Funding sources 2011;50:(24), 5438-5466.
12. Lee K. Y. (ed.): Nanocellulose and sustainability:
There is no external source of funding for
production, properties, applications, and case
conducting the research. studies. CRC Press. 2018.
13. Coseri S. Insights on cellulose research in
REFERENCES the last two decades in Romania. Polymers.
2021;13(5):689.
1. Ashjaran A., Yazdanshenas M. E., Rashidi 14. Naomi R., Bt Hj Idrus R., Fauzi M. B. Plant-vs.
A., Khajavi R., Rezaee A. Overview of bio Bacterial-derived cellulose for wound healing: A
nanofabric from bacterial cellulose. Journal of review. International journal of environmental
the Textile Institute. 2013;104(2):121-131. research and public health. 2020;17(18):6803.
2. Hussain Z., Sajjad W., Khan T., Wahid F. 15. Augimeri R. V., Varley A. J., Strap J. L. Establishing
Production of bacterial cellulose from industrial a role for bacterial cellulose in environmental
 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023) 462

interactions: lessons learned from diverse 28. Cheng Z., Yang R., Liu X., Liu X., Chen,
biofilm-producing Proteobacteria. Frontiers in H. Green synthesis of bacterial cellulose via
microbiology. 2015;6:1282. acetic acid pre-hydrolysis liquor of agricultural
16. Badshah M., Ullah H., Khan A. R., Khan corn stalk used as carbon source. Bioresource
S., Park J. K., Khan T. Surface modification technology. 2017;234:8-14.
and evaluation of bacterial cellulose for drug 29. Kongruang S.: Bacterial cellulose production by
delivery. International journal of biological Acetobacter xylinum strains from agricultural
macromolecules. 2018;113:526-533. waste products. In Biotechnology for Fuels and
17. Elsacker E., Vandelook S., Damsin B., Van Chemicals. Humana Press. 2007;763-774.
Wylick A., Peeters E., De Laet L. Mechanical 30. Kadier A., Ilyas R.A., Huzaifah M.R.M.,
characteristics of bacterial cellulose-reinforced Harihastuti N., Sapuan S.M., Harussani M.M.,
mycelium composite materials. Fungal biology Azlin M.N.M., Yuliasni R., Ibrahim R., Atikah
and biotechnology.2021;8(1):1-14. M.S.N., Wang J. Use of industrial wastes
18. Velásquez-Riaño M., Bojacá V. Production of as sustainable nutrient sources for bacterial
bacterial cellulose from alternative low-cost cellulose (BC) production: Mechanism,
substrates. Cellulose. 2017;24(7):2677-2698. advances, and future perspectives. Polymers.
19. Rathinamoorthy R., Kiruba T. Bacterial 2021;13(19):3365.
cellulose-A potential material for sustainable 31. Fan X., Gao Y., He W., Hu H., Tian M., Wang
eco-friendly fashion products. Journal of Natural K., Pan S. Production of nano bacterial cellulose
Fibers. 2022;19(9):3275-3287. from beverage industrial waste of citrus peel
20. Li Y., Yang Q., Liu B., Zhang Q., LiuY., Zhao and pomace using Komagataeibacter xylinus.
X., Li S. Improved water dispersion and Carbohydrate Polymers. 2016;151:1068-1072.
bioavailability of coenzyme Q10 by bacterial 32. Hyun J. Y., Mahanty B., Kim C. G. Utilization
cellulose nanofibers. Carbohydrate Polymers. of Makgeolli sludge filtrate (MSF) as low-cost
2022;276:118788. substrate for bacterial cellulose production by
21. Ross P., Mayer R., Benziman M. Cellulose Gluconacetobacter xylinus. Applied biochemistry
biosynthesis and function in bacteria. and biotechnology. 2014;172(8):3748-3760.
Microbiological reviews. 1991;55(1):35-58. 33. Revin V., Liyaskina E., Nazarkina M., Bogatyreva
22. Saxena I. M., Brown R. M. Biosynthesis of A., Shchankin M. Cost-effective production of
bacterial cellulose. Bacterial nanocellulose: a bacterial cellulose using acidic food industry
sophisticated multifunctional material. 2012;1- by-products. brazilian journal of microbiology.
18. 2018;49:151-159.
23. Wang J., Tavakoli J., Tang Y. Bacterial cellulose 34. Lin D., Lopez-Sanchez P., Li R., Li Z. Production
production, properties and applications of bacterial cellulose by Gluconacetobacter
with different culture methods–A review. hansenii CGMCC 3917 using only waste beer
Carbohydrate polymers. 2019;219:63-76. yeast as nutrient source. Bioresource Technology.
24. Rani M. U., Appaiah A. Optimization of culture 2014;151:113-119.
conditions for bacterial cellulose production from 35. Vazquez A., Foresti M. L., Cerrutti P., Galvagno
Gluconacetobacter hansenii UAC09. Annals of M. Bacterial cellulose from simple and low cost
microbiology. 2011;61(4):781-787. production media by Gluconacetobacter xylinus.
25. Hu Y., Catchmark J. M. Formation and Journal of Polymers and the Environment.
characterization of sphere like bacterial 2013;21(2):545-554.
cellulose particles produced by Acetobacter 36. Domskiene J., Sederaviciute F., Simonaityte J.
xylinum JCM 9730 strain. Biomacromolecules. Kombucha bacterial cellulose for sustainable
2010;11(7):1727-1734. fashion. International Journal of Clothing
26. Ul-Islam M., Ullah M. W., Khan S., Park J. K. Science and Technology. 2019:31(5):644-652.
Production of bacterial cellulose from alternative 37. Avcioglu N. H., Birben M., Bilkay I. S.
cheap and waste resources: a step for cost Optimization and physicochemical
reduction with positive environmental aspects. characterization of enhanced microbial cellulose
Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering. production with a new Kombucha consortium.
2020;37(6):925-937. Process Biochemistry. 2021;108:60-68.
27. Ul-Islam M., Wajid Ullah M., Khan S., Kamal 38. Poddar P. K., Sahu O. Quality and management
T., Ul-Islam S., Shah N., Kon Park J. Recent of wastewater in sugar industry. Applied Water
advancement in cellulose-based nanocomposite Science. 2017;7(1):461-468.
for addressing environmental. Recent patents on 39. Keshk S., Sameshima K. The utilization
nanotechnology. 2016;10(3):169-180. of sugar cane molasses with/without the
463 Mehrotra et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 20(2), 449-463 (2023)

presence of lignosulfonate for the production of 49. Mohite B. V., Patil, S. V. A novel biomaterial:
bacterial cellulose. Applied Microbiology and bacterial cellulose and its new era applications.
Biotechnology. 2006;72(2):291-296. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry.
40. Cakar F., Özer I., Aytekin A. Ö., ªahin, F. 2014;61(2):101-110.
Improvement production of bacterial cellulose 50. Lin S. P., LoiraCalvar I., Catchmark J. M., Liu
by semi-continuous process in molasses medium. J. R., Demirci A., & Cheng K. C. Biosynthesis,
Carbohydrate Polymers. 2014;106:7-13. production and applications of bacterial cellulose.
41. Hong F., Guo X., Zhang S., Han S. F., Yang Cellulose. 2013:20(5):2191-2219.
G., Jönsson L. J. Bacterial cellulose production 51. Blanco Parte F. G., Santoso S. P., Chou C. C.,
from cotton-based waste textiles: enzymatic Verma V., Wang H. T., Ismadji S., Cheng, K. C.
saccharification enhanced by ionic liquid Current progress on the production, modification,
pretreatment. Bioresource Technology. and applications of bacterial cellulose. Critical
2012;104:503-508. reviews in biotechnology. 2020;40(3):397-414.
42. Provin A. P., Cubas A. L. V., Dutra A. R. 52. Rajwade J. M., Paknikar K. M., Kumbhar J.
D. A., Schulte N. K. Textile industry and V. Applications of bacterial cellulose and its
environment: can the use of bacterial cellulose composites in biomedicine. Applied microbiology
in the manufacture of biotextiles contribute to the and biotechnology. 2015;99(6):2491-2511.
sector?Clean Technologies and Environmental 53. Picheth G. F., Pirich C. L., Sierakowski M. R.,
Policy. 2021;23(10):2813-2825. Woehl M. A., Sakakibara C. N., de Souza C.
43. da Silva C. J. G., de Medeiros A. D., de Amorim F., Martin A. A., da Silva R., de Freitas R. A.
J. D. P., do Nascimento H. A., Converti A., Bacterial cellulose in biomedical applications:
Costa A. F. S., Sarubbo, L. A. Bacterial cellulose A review. International journal of biological
biotextiles for the future of sustainable fashion: macromolecules. 2017;104:97-106.
a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 54. Lustri W. R., Barud H. G. O. B., Barud H.
2021;19(4):2967-2980. D. S., Peres M. F., Gutierrez J., Tercjak A.,
44. Ng F. M., Wang P. W. Natural self-grown De Oliveira O. B., Ribeiro, S. J. L. Microbial
fashion from bacterial cellulose: a paradigm shift cellulose—biosynthesis mechanisms and
design approach in fashion creation. The Design medical applications. Cellulose-Fundamental
Journal. 2016;19(6):837-855. Aspects and Current Trends. 2015;1:133-57.
45. Song J. E., Kim, H. R. Bacterial cellulose as 55. Urbina L., Corcuera M. Á., Gabilondo N., Eceiza
promising biomaterial and its application. In A., Retegi A. A review of bacterial cellulose:
Advances in textile biotechnology. Woodhead sustainable production from agricultural waste
Publishing. 2019;263-277. and applications in various fields. Cellulose.
46. Niyazbekova Z. T., Nagmetova G. Z., 2021;28(13):8229-8253.
Kurmanbayev A. A. An overview of bacterial 56. García C., Prieto M. A. Bacterial cellulose
cellulose applications. Eurasian Journal of as a potential bioleather substitute for the
Applied Biotechnology. 2018;(2). footwear industry. Microbial Biotechnology.
47. Gregory D. A., Tripathi L., Fricker A. T., Asare 2019;12(4):582.
E., Orlando I., Raghavendran V., Roy, I. Bacterial 57. Jang W. D., Hwang J. H., Kim H. U., Ryu
cellulose: A smart biomaterial with diverse J. Y., Lee S. Y. Bacterial cellulose as an
applications. Materials Science and Engineering: example product for sustainable production
R: Reports. 2021;145:100623. and consumption. Microbial Biotechnology.
48. Esa F., Tasirin S. M., Abd Rahman N. Overview 2017;10(5):1181.
of bacterial cellulose production and application. 58. Schiros T. N., Antrobus R., Farías D., Chiu Y. T.,
Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia. Joseph C. T., Esdaille S., ... & Lu H. H. Microbial
2014;2:113-119. nanocellulose biotextiles for a circular materials
economy. Environmental Science: Advances.
2022;1(3):276-284.