EDU 110: Special Needs Education: An Introduction Module 3

Unit One

LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

5 hours

Introduction

Communication is the core of human interaction. To most individuals communication is not a

problem, although you may not like what they are communicating. On the other hand, some
individuals have communication problems that may interfere with their daily activities. In a
classroom situation a pupil with communication problems is a concern to teachers. In this unit,
we will examine disorders in communication and how it may interfere with learning.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

(i) Define communication disorders

(ii) State education approaches for learners with communication disorders
(iii) Explain causes of communication disorders
(iv) State the difference between speech and language disorders
(v) Apply appropriate techniques to help pupils with speech and language disorders

Contents

1.0 What is communication?

Communication may be conceptualized and examined in many different ways. Our definition
may affect our understanding of disorders associated with communication.

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Communication is the exchange of information and ideas. It involves encoding, transmitting,

and decoding messages. It is an interactive process requiring at least two parties, each playing
the dual roles of sender and receiver. Three elements are needed to qualify as communication:

(a) A message,
(b) A sender who expresses the message, and
(c) A receiver who responds to the message.

1.1. Human communication

Human communication does not have to use spoken or written words to deliver or receive a
message. Humans may use paralinguistic and nonlinguistic cues. Paralinguistic behaviors are
non-language sounds (ooh, huh, laugh, mm) and speech modifications (variations in pitch,
intonation, rate of delivery, pauses) that change the form and meaning of the message.
Nonlinguistic cues include body posture, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, head and
body movement, and physical proximity.

Generally, the functions that communication serves especially in a classroom situation are:
(a) Narrating- learner need to tell their learning experiences
(b) Explaining/informing –pupils need to interpret what they have learned in both speech and
writing
(c) Expressing feelings or opinions:-It is important in the classroom for pupils to express their
opinions and feelings.

1.2. What is language?

Language is a common system used by a group of people for giving meaning to sounds, words,
gestures, and other symbols to enable communication with one another. Lahey (1988) defines
language as a “code whereby ideas about the world are expressed through a conventional

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system of arbitrary signals for communication” (p.2). Human language is unique in being a
symbolic communication system that is learned instead of biologically inherited.

Symbols are sounds or things which have meaning given to them by the users. Originally, the
meaning is arbitrarily assigned. For instance, the tonga word "popwe" does not in any way
physically resemble the object it stands for. All symbols have a material form but the meaning
can not be discovered by mere sensory examination of their forms. They are abstractions.

A dialect is a variant of a language. If it is associated with a geographically isolated speech

community, it is referred to as a regional dialect. However, if it is spoken by a speech
community that is merely socially isolated, it is called a social dialect. These latter dialects are
mostly based on class, ethnicity, gender, age, and particular social situations.

1.3 Dimensions of language

(a) Phonology
This is the study of the linguistic rules governing language’s sound system. The sound
elements in the English language are called phonemes.

(b) Morphology
This is the study of how the basic unit of meaning is combined into words. For example
the word netball consists of two morphemes: net and ball.

(c) Syntax
Syntax is the system of rules governing the meaningful arrangement of words into
sentences.

(d) Semantics

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Semantics is a system of rules that relate phonology and syntax to meaning, that is,
semantics describes how people use language to convey meaning.

(e) Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a set of rules governing how language is used to achieve various

communicative functions and goals; using information from the conversational context;
and knowing how to use conversational skills effectively. This can be made through the
beginning and ending a conversation or taking turns when taking.

1.4. What is speech?

Language and speech is not the same thing. Speech is a broad term simply referring to
patterned verbal behaviour. It is the actual behavior of producing a language code by making
appropriate vocal sound patterns (Heward, 1992). Although not the only possible way to
express language, it is one of the most complex and difficult human endeavors. Speech sounds
are the product of four separate but related processes:

(i) Respiration (involves breathing),

(ii) Phonation (production of sound by the vocal folds of the larynx),
(iii) Resonation (involves the throat, mouth, and nasal cavities in determining the
quality of the sound), and
(iv) Articulation (involves the lips, teeth, and mouth in forming specific sounds.

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Figure 1.1 Parts involved in the production of speech

(Adapted from Kirk,S., Gallagher,J.J., Anastasiow,N.J. & Coleman,M.,R. Educating Exceptional

Children,2006,Houghton Mifflin Company)

1.5. Normal Language development

Different theories have been advanced by psychologist and psycholinguists on how children
develop language. However this is not the scope of this course. You may read more in your
Psychology course. Here it will just suffice to describe general characteristics of normal
language development.

Although highly individualistic, normal language development follows a relatively predictable

sequence. Most children learn to use language without direct instruction, and by the time most
children enter first grade, their grammar and speech patterns match those of the adults around
them. However, communicative disorders may interfere with or limit to varying degrees a
person's ability to formulate, express, receive, or interpret oral language.

When a child is born, you may have noticed that it will attract the attention of its caregivers
through different types of crying. A wet napkin, irritating noise, and hunger are all expressed

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differently in crying. Comfort and feelings of enjoyment can be heard in bubbling. Vowel sounds
are produced first before consonants. All this may take place during the first six months of life.
At around 6 to 12 months, most babies may develop inflection – the raising and falling of the
voice. The baby may even repeat some words when told to do so.

Most babies will have learned to say several words with meaning around 1 ½ years.
Pronunciation at this age is far from being perfect. However towards the second birthday most
children would have passed through the stage of echolalia- the repeating of words which they
hear. This stage in language development is normal for most children.

By the age of three, a child is expected to say a sentence, ask questions and may have a
vocabulary of different words.

After five years language continue to develop steadily and the grammar and speech patterns
tend to match those of the family and the surrounding neighbourhood.

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Figure 1.2 Normal Speech organs

1.6. Defining Communication Disorders

According to Van Riper (1978), a person has communication problems when that person’s
speech differs from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with the
intended message, or causes the speaker or listener to be distressed.

In the United States the special education law- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) of 1975 and amended in 1997, defines a communication disorder in terms of speech or
language impaired category of disability and reads: “a communication disorder, such as
stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or voice impairment which adversely
affects educational performance (Public Law 94-142- US Federal Register,42).”

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The American Speech – Language – Hearing Association (ASHA, 1993) defines a communication
disorder as “an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend concepts or
verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems” (p.40).

When does a communication difference become a disorder? It is when an individual when

compared with other persons sharing the same language, dialect and culture has significant
difficulty in formulating, transmitting, receiving, and comprehending information successfully
(Justice, 2006). For a child to be considered eligible for special education services, a
communication disorder must have an adverse effect on learning.

1.7. Causes of communication disorders

Communication disorders can sometimes be linked to physiological causes (organic) such as

cleft palate, absence of teeth and craniofacial abnormalities, however, some causes of
communication disorders can not be classified. Unknown cause of communication disorders are
referred to as functional disorders. Their cause cannot be directly attributed to physical
conditions. Decades of research on the causes of communication disorders have produced few
answers.

Activity 1.2

List characteristics you would look for to identify a child with communication disorders?

1.8. Speech and language impairments

Speech and language disorder are related but they are not the same thing. “Speech problems
are those associated with the production of the oral symbols of language, whereas language
problems are difficulties with the linguistic code or rules or convention for linking, the symbols
and symbol sequences (Cartwright, Cartwright & Ward, 1984).”

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Both these impairments result in communication disorders such as difficulty in fluency,

stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely
affects a pupil's performance. Speech and language disorders have not received great attention
in Zambia. Though quiet a number of learners has these problem very little has been done by
school authorities to help these children. Currently, the Ministry of Education has no
professionally trained speech-language pathologist to provide specialized services on a regular
basis in the classroom setting or away from the classroom. There is also no data on the number
of learners with speech and language disorders in Zambian schools.

1.9. Speech disorders

One widely quoted definition of speech impairment is that of Van Riper & Ericson (1996). It
considers speech to be abnormal when it deviates so far from the speech of other people that it
calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or causes the speaker or his/her
listeners to be distressed.

Activity 1.1

Imagine you have been posted to teach in a province where you do not know the language. You
are expected to communicate with the local people but you can not speak their language.

List ways in which you may get your message across to the local people.

1.9.0. Classification of speech disorders

These are typically classified into five components:

(i) Articulation disorders

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Articulation disorders are the most prevalent type of speech impairment among school-age
children. According to the American Speech-Language- Hearing Association (ASHA) describes
the term articulation disorders as mis-production associated with speech motor activity
(1993).The correct articulation or utterance of speech sounds requires us to activate a
complicated system of muscles, nerves, and organs. Articulation problems occur when a person
cannot correctly pronounce one or more of the phonemes of his or her language. For example,
substitutions of one sound for another (wake for lake); omissions which occurs when a sound
that should be in a word is absent (top for stop); distortion made by producing incorrectly

sounds such as s or sh; and, additions made when an extra sound is used in a word, such as
sting for sing.

(i) Voice disorders

Each one of us has a unique voice. Actually we are recognized sometimes without being seen by
the sound of our voice. Your voice is a product of air that is pushed out from your lungs then
passes through the larynx. Voice impairments are characterized by abnormal pitch, quality,
intensity, or resonance, or a combination of these disorders. For example, speaking with a pitch
inappropriate for age and/or gender; speaking with a strained or harsh or breathy vocal quality;
speaking too softly or loudly; and, speaking with inappropriate oral or nasal resonance, such as
hyper-nasal speech. Dysphonia is a term that has been used to describe any condition of poor
or unpleasant voice quality.

(ii) Fluency disorders

This is a disorder of rhythm in which a person's flow of speech is interrupted. It is one of the
most noticeable speech disorders. The most common fluency disorder which may be present in
your classroom or where you live or exhibited by a friend is stuttering. A stuttering pupil draws
a lot of attention from other listeners and sometimes may cause a lot of stress.

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(a)
Stuttering Overview

Stuttering is “a disruption in the fluency of verbal expression characterized by involuntary,

audible or silent, repetitions or prolongations of sounds or syllables (Buchel, 2004).” Such
disruptions are largely uncontrollable and may be accompanied by other physical movements
such as jerking or twitching, as well as negative emotions like fear and embarrassment.
Technically, “stuttering is a symptom, not a disease, but the term stuttering usually refers to
both the disorder and symptom (ibid).” While language development in generally is not
particularly well understood, even less is known about speech disorders like stuttering.

Persistent developmental stuttering usually displays between two and five years of age, and
does not have a known cause. Acquired stuttering is rare and occurs after a definable brain
damage (stroke, hemorrhage, or head trauma).

Famous stutterers include late former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, explorer and
botanist Charles Darwin, and Hollywood actor Bruce Willis. Stuttering may run in families and is
likely to have a genetic basis.

In children, the incidence of Persistence Developmental Stuttering is about 5%, and its recovery
rate is up to about 80%. Girls are more likely to recover than boys, so by adulthood, men are 3-
4 times more likely to stutter than women. There is no way to predict who will recover.
Stuttering occurs in all cultures and ethnic groups, although prevalence might differ.

(b) Causes of stuttering

For most of the century, stuttering was largely thought to be a psychogenic disorder; however,
studies of personality traits and child–parent interactions have not revealed any correlations or
patterns related to stuttering. Improvement in neurological understanding has led to a two-
factor model about causes of stuttering. Stuttering is thought to derive from a structural or
functional central nervous system (CNS) abnormality, accompanied by reinforcing psychological

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factors such as avoidance learning. This physiological model is supported by that fact that other
physical symptoms often occur. For example, stutterers often experience delays in tasks
requiring a vocal response, and may have difficulty with bimanual tasks such as threading a
needle. Various forms of auditory stimulation (chorus reading), and alteration of speech rhythm
(syllable-timed speech) can cause dramatic reduction in stuttering frequency, suggesting
probable abnormalities in a stuttering child’s auditory feedback mechanism.

(c) Characteristics of individuals who stutter:

Pupils or individuals who stutter normally:
 Are rarely disfluent while singing.
 Are rarely disfluent while speaking in unison or in synchronization with a rhythmic beat.
 Are rarely disfluent while alone or while swearing.
 Is disfluency on the same words when reading and rereading the same passage? They
may not have difficulty with these same words in other sentences.
 Tend to be able to predict their disfluency.
 Tend to be more disfluent in response to time pressure.
 Can learn to hear how their speech flows and understand what normal fluency means.
They just cannot attain such fluency.
(d) Implications for a teacher

The primary implication for teachers is that you must not exacerbate stuttering problems by
focusing on them. Such focus can cause increased anxiety, which could make the symptoms
worse and discourage speech in general.

1.9.1. Language disorders

Of all the communication disorders, language disorders may be the most serious. Since oral
and written language are the basis of communication in the classroom, impaired language can

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have a negative impact on all academic areas as well as social interaction with teachers and
classmates.

Simply, a language disorder refers to any consistent difficulty in understanding or expressing

language (Morsink, 1984). Receptive language disorder refers to understanding language; the
sequencing of words may be difficult for some individuals. Expressive language disorder refers
to difficultly in expressing oneself through language. This includes the form of language,
content of language, and the function of language. The term aphasia is frequently used to
describe a breakdown in the ability to formulate, or to retrieve, and decode the arbitrary
symbols of language. Aphasia most often occurs suddenly, following a cardiovascular event
(stroke) and is most prevalent in adults. Head injury is the most prevalent cause of aphasia in
children.

1.9.2. Characteristics of learners with Communication Disorders

Pupils with communication disorders exhibit different characteristics. There are those with
speech problems and language disorders but are homogeneous with any other ordinary peer
and their performance may be the same. There are also those who have communication
disorders but may also have other disabilities. The following are some of the common
characteristics exhibited by learners with communication disorders.

 Inconsistent skills across language domains. The child may be strong in phonology but
weak in syntax and morphology.
 The history of their vocabulary development may have been very slow.
 The experience word finding problems
 Have problems with grammatical production and comprehension
 May have poor social skills
 All communication characteristics of those with cerebral palsy – a neurological
condition that results from brain damage that occur before or after birth

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1.9.3. Identification of learner with communication disorders

It is usually recommended you look at a case history of the child. This involves the analysis of
the child’s developmental history which should include cases of ill health, type of medication
taken, scores on achievement or intelligence tests. You may also go further to ask about the
child’s milestones like when the child started crawling, walking or uttered the first word. A
careful physical examination of the child’s mouth is also important. It may help you to note
some irregularities with the tongue, lips, teeth, palate and any other structures that are
associated with speech. Remember as a teacher you are not a medical practitioner hence
immediately you notice some physical irregularities immediately refer the child to a physician
for further investigations.

1.9.4. Assessment

Evaluation of learners with communication disorders may require formal assessment. The
following are some of the common tests used in assessing learners with communication
disorders;

(a) Articulation test.

This test is used to assess speech errors. A child is made to name different objects. A
record of a pupil’s defective sounds is made and then the teacher analyses the
child’s pronunciation of words and the number of errors made.

(b) Hearing test

Here you test the child’s hearing in order to determine whether he/she has a
hearing problem that may be causing a Communication Disorder

(c) Auditory Discrimination test

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You give this test to determine whether the child is hearing correct sounds.

(d) Vocabulary and language development test

This test is used to determine how much vocabulary a pupil has mastered. A well
developed vocabulary is a good indicator of intelligence.

The child maybe tested using the arena system by a multidisciplinary team. The team seat more
like in an arena and each specialist gives a test item to the child. Those test items that may have
been asked by other specialist are not repeated.

1.9.5. Teaching learners with communication disorders

Communication Disorders involve a wide variety of problems in speech, language, and hearing.
For example, speech and language disorders include stuttering, aphasia, dysfluency, voice
disorders (hoarseness, breathiness, or sudden breaks in loudness or pitch), cleft lip and/or
palate, articulation problems, delays in speech and language, autism, and phonological
disorders.

Individuals with communication disorders have considerable difficulty making themselves

clearly understood and may also have difficulty composing their thoughts and ideas or in
understanding what is said by others. These difficulties are generally due to neurological or
mechanical disabilities involving the voice. A child with a communication disorder may also
present such characteristics as the inability to follow instructions or slow incomprehensive
speech.

(Please note that those communication disabilities due to Hearing or Visual Impairments
were covered in the hearing or vision impairment sections of module 2.)

(a) General Strategies

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 Accept the fact that a disability exists in a pupil. Not acknowledging the fact is not
acknowledging the person.
 Develop a system for the pupils to tell you when he/she anticipates a need for
assistance.
 Speak directly to the pupil with a disability as you would to any other pupil.
 Pupils with communication disorders should be encouraged to discuss their functional
difficulties and needs in private during the first week of classes and to talk about ways to
compensate them.
 When it appears that a pupil needs help, ask if you can help.
 Encourage classmates to accept the pupil with communication problems.
 Be a good speech model. This will indicate to all that good communication is desirable.
 An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be
established and maintained in the classroom.
 Consult a specialist teacher concerning each child with a communicative disorder in your
class and be sure to work with him/her.

(b) Lesson Presentation

 Maintain contact with student.
 Allow students to tape lectures.
 Provide and interpreter (signed English or American Sign Language) to those who
require another form of communication.
 Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.
 Be patient.
 Model an atmosphere of acceptance and understanding in the classroom.
 Be a good listener.

(c) Practical lessons

 Allow more time for the pupils to complete activities.

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 Place the pupils within reasonable distance from you to meet their needs.
 Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the pupil in doing the same. Together,
work out alternate procedures while trying not to disengage the pupil from the activity.
 Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the
pupil, but has the same or similar learning objectives.
 If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the
pupil shows the ability to do something unaided.
 Use a peer-tutoring when appropriate.

(d) Group Interaction and Discussion

 Encourage classmates to accept the pupil with communicative problems.
 Establish an atmosphere conductive for easy and good interactive communication
maintained in the classroom.
 Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.
 Allow more time for the pupil to complete activities.

(e) Testing
 Allow more time for the pupil with communication impairments to complete
assignments and test in their optimal mode of communication.
 Design test that are appropriate for the child's disorder (written instead of oral or vice
versa.)
 Check to be sure that test instructions are completely understood by the child and
provide any additional assistance that may be needed.

1.1.7. Educational Implications Of Communication Disorders

Many speech problems are developmental rather than physiological, and as such they respond
to remedial instruction. Language experiences are central to a young child's development. In
the past, children with communication disorders were routinely removed from the regular class

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for individual speech and language therapy. This is still the case in severe instances, but the
trend is toward keeping the child in the mainstream as much as possible. In order to accomplish
this goal, teamwork among teachers, other professional specialist and parents is essential.
Speech improvement and correction are blended into the regular classroom curriculum and the
child's natural environment.

Amplification may be extremely valuable for the child with a hearing impairment. Pupils whose
hearing is not completely restored by hearing aids or other means of amplification have unique
communication needs. Some educators advocate a strict oral approach in which the child is
required to use as much speech as possible. There is, however an increasing consensus that
whatever system works best for the individual should be used.

Pupils whose physical problems are so severe that they interfere with or completely inhibit
communication can frequently take advantage of technological advances that allow the
individual to make his or her needs and wants known, perhaps for the first time.

Unit summary

Communication disorders include both language disorders and speech disorders. Sometimes a
pupil may have both but they are not the same. A language disorder can be a disorder of form;
(phonology, morphology and syntax) content (semantics) or use (pragmatics). These can appear
individually or in combination. Sometimes pupils with language disorders may have other
underlining disabilities.

Speech disorders include articulation disorders, fluency disorders and voice disorders. This may
also occur with other disabilities. It has been observed that children with intellectual
disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders, or traumatic brain injury often have
communication disorders.

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It is important for a teacher to be aware of the difference between a communication disorder

and a communication difference. Some people may be considered to have a communication
disorder when actual sense in their culture it is acceptable to communicate in that way.

The major cause of most communication disorders is unknown. When the cause can not be
identified it is referred to as functional disorder.

There are different types of assessment used to evaluate children with communication
disorders.

Unit two

EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

5 hours

2.0. Introduction

What is normal? What is aberrant? There is no single, standard way of measuring social or
emotional functioning. Judgments are always required to determine whether or not behavior is
"abnormal". What may be considered deviant behavior in one culture may actually be the norm
in another. The Child with social problems may be unable to behave appropriately with peers
and in social situations. In this unit, you shall look at the different definitions of Emotional

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Behavioral Disorders, and how a teacher can help to foster the pupil’s emotional development
as well as their acquisition of social skills.

Learning outcomes

After going through this unit you should be able to:

(i) Give a definition of Emotional Behaviour Disorders

(ii) State characteristics of pupils with Emotional Disorders
(iii) Explain education implications for teachers
(iv) Describe causes of Emotional Behaviour Disorders
Contents

2.1. Defining Emotional Behaviour Disorders

Defining Emotional Behaviour Disorders has proved to be problematic among professionals.

Individuals with emotional and behavioral disorders have been referred to with a variety of
terms: emotionally disturbed, socially maladjusted, psychologically disordered, emotionally
handicapped, psychotic, serious emotionally disturbed, and so forth.

The term behavior disorder is currently and more frequently being used by many professional
and parents for the following reasons:
(i) It has greater utility for education than does the term seriously
emotionally disturbed.
(ii) It is not associated exclusively with any particular theory of causation
and therefore with any particular set of intervention techniques.
(iii) It affords a more comprehensive assessment of the population.
(iv) It is less stigmatizing than the term serious emotional disturbance.

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(v) It is more representative of the students who are disabled by their

behavior and currently served under IDEA.

Fact sheet on Emotional Behaviour Disorder

 Most pupils in schools with behavioral disorders are boys.

 Almost all pupils identified as having emotional and behavior problems are educated in
regular schools.
 Taking into consideration the prevalence rate of emotional and behavior problems,
classroom teachers have to deal more with these pupils than any other disability group
except those with learning disabilities.

2.3. Definition (IDEA)

A condition where individuals exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long
period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects a child's educational
performance:
(a) An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or
health factors;
(b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory relationships with peers and
teachers;
(c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
(d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
(e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal
and school problems.
The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that
they have an underlining emotional disturbance.

2.4. Council of Exceptional Children definition:

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The Council of Exceptional Children is a US organization that looks at education and health
issues related to exceptional children. It defines the term emotional behavioral disorders (EBD)
as a condition in which behavioral or emotional responses of an individual in school are so
different from his/her generally accepted age-appropriate, ethnic, or cultural norms that they
adversely affect educational performance in such areas as self-care, social relationships,
personal adjustment, academic progress, classroom behavior, or work adjustment. EBD is more
than a transient, expected response to stressors in the child's or youth's environment and
would persist even with individualized interventions, such as feedback to the individual,
consultation with parents or families, and/or modification of the educational environment. The
eligibility decision must be based on multiple sources of data about the individual's behavioral
or emotional functioning. EBD must be exhibited in at least two different settings, at least one
of which must be school related. EBD can coexist with other disability conditions.

2.5. Classification of emotional disorders

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) published by the
American Psychiatric Association, (1994) is often used to classify emotional problems. It is an
elaborate classification system consisting of 230 separate diagnostic categories or labels to
identify the various types of disordered behavior.

The DSM-IV offers the following broad categories of behavioral disorders:

Conduct disorder: Pupils may seek attention, are disruptive and act out.

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Socialized aggression: Students join a subculture group of peers who are openly disrespectful
to their peers, teachers, and parents. Common are delinquency, truancy, and dropping out of
school.

Attention problems -- Immaturity: These students may have attention deficit disorders, are
easily distractible and have poor concentration. They may have the tendency to be impulsive
and may not think about the consequences of their actions.

Anxiety/Withdrawal: These students are self-conscious, reticent, and unsure of themselves.

They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities. They are also
anxious and frequently depressed.

Psychotic behavior: This student displays more bizarre behaviors than others do. They may
hallucinate, may deal in a fantasy world, and may even talk in gibberish.

Motor Excess: Students with motor excess are hyperactive. They cannot sit still nor listen to
others nor keep their attention focused.

There is strong criticism with these classifications in the DSM-IV. First, the classifications lack
reliability and second, there are no guidelines for education and treatment.

2.6. Causes of emotional disorders

(i) Biological Factors

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There is growing evidence that behavior and emotional health appears to be influenced by
genetic, neurological, or biochemical factors, singly or in combination. However, even when a
clear biological impairment exists, no one has been able to say with certainty whether the
physiological abnormality actually causes the behavior problem or is just associated with it in
some unknown way.

(ii) Environmental Factors

Environmental factors are considered important in the development of emotional and
behavioral disorders in all conceptual models. However, professionals and researchers view
what behavior is important and how it is analyzed differently. Dodge (1993) has identified three
primary causal factors that contribute to the development of conduct disorder and antisocial
behavior:
(a) An adverse early rearing environment,
(b) An aggressive pattern of behavior displayed on entering school, and
(c) Social rejection by peers. Further research supports contention that these causal factors
operate in temporal sequence. The family or home, school, and society environments have
major influence on the behavior of individuals.

(iii) Family
The relationship children have with their parents, particularly during the early years, is critical
to the way they learn to act. Interactions between parents and their child influence the child's
opinions, behaviors, and emotions. One factor associated with emotional problems is child
abuse. Child abuse may result in poor impulse control and poor self-concepts. Aggression and
anger are often noticed in children who have been abused. It is important to remember that
the relationship between parent and child is dynamic and reciprocal; in other words, the
behavior of the child affects the behavior of the parents just as much as the parents’ actions
affect the child’s actions. Therefore, it is not practical, at the least, and wrong, at the worst, to
place the blame for abnormal behavior in young children on their parents.

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(iv) School
School is where children spend the largest portion of their time outside the home. Teacher
expectations and actions greatly affect a pupil’s life and behavior.

(v) Society
Societal problems can impact on a pupil’s emotional and behavioral status. An impoverished
environment, including poor nutrition, a disrupted family, and a sense of frustration and
hopelessness may lead to aggressive, acting-out behaviors.

2.7. Characteristics of pupils with behavior disorders

(i) Social skills and interpersonal relationships
The ability to develop and maintain interpersonal relationships during childhood and
adolescence is an important predictor of present and future adjustment. Many pupils with
emotional and behavioral disorders often experience great difficulty in making and keeping
friends.
(ii) Antisocial behavior
The most common pattern of behavior consists of antisocial behavior, sometimes called
externalizing behavioral disorders (e.g., out of seat, runs around the classroom, disturbs peers,
hits or fights, ignores the teacher, complains excessively, steals, destroys property, argues,
distorts the truth, and so forth).
(iii) Withdrawn behavior
Some children are anything but aggressive. Their problem is just the opposite, too little social
interaction with others. They are said to have internalizing behavioral disorders. They seldom
play with children their own age. They lack many social skills to make and keep friends. They
retreat into day dreaming, are fearful of things without reason, frequently complain of being
sick or hurt, and go into deep bouts of depression. Since pupils who manifest internalizing

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behaviors may be less disturbing to teachers than antisocial pupils, these withdrawn pupils may
be in danger of not being identified and helped.

2.8. Manifestations of behavior disorders

Environmental conflicts:
Aggression and/or self-injurious behavior such as fighting, bullying, violating rules, overactive,
impulsive, stealing, truancy, and other socially maladjusted behaviors.

Personal disturbances:
Anxiety disorders such as crying and statements of worry. The pupil may withdraw socially.
In addition, he/she may exhibit excessive fear and anxiety.

Academic deficits
A Pupil’s performance in basic academic skills and educational achievement is typically, below
expected grade level.

Social deficits
Pupils who are unpopular and are actively rejected by their peers.

Irresponsibility:
Acts of irresponsibility is common. Pupils will deny they did anything wrong and when
confronted with evidence blame other pupils.

2.9. Identification and assessment

Activity
List from the Zambian cultural point of view what you consider to be behaviour outside the
accepted norms for children in the high school

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The problem behaviour may be disturbing to the pupil himself, the teachers, parents or peers
who interact with him/her. Assessing the behaviour of a pupil helps the teacher in identifying
social emotional behaviour problems that require immediate attention. There are five ways in
which a teacher may assess emotional behaviour disorders in the classroom.

(i) Direct observations

This includes observing, the behaviour, the teacher-pupil interaction, and the environment.
Systematic observation of the pupil can provide information and insights about the child’s
social-emotional skills. As a teacher you must have received training in personality development
of children and work with children for several hours each day in different situations. You should
thus observe the condition under which the behaviour occurs. And record the frequency of the
occurrence. Careful observations may for example reveal that out-of- seat behaviors occurs
only during individual activities.

In addition to this you may also note the events that occur immediately prior to the behaviour
and the behaviour and the event that immediately follows and reinforce the behaviour.The
teacher must also analyze the pupil teacher interaction. The way the pupil responds to the
teacher, verbal behaviour of the pupil, silence or confusion exhibited by the pupil.

In observation of the environment, the teacher should observe different environments in which
the pupil operates. The teacher then considers the environment’s influence in starting or
maintaining the problem behaviour.

(ii) Commercial instruments

These include checklist, rating scales and self reporting test that have been published and focus
on assessing social-emotional problems. These devices provide methods for obtaining and
recording judgments of teachers, pupils, peers, and parents concerning undesirable social-

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emotional behaviour. Checklists are generally used to record the presence or absence of
specific characteristics or behaviour. Rating scales are designed to indicate the frequency of a
particular behaviors or the degree to which certain characteristics are present (Wallace &
Larsen, 1978).

(iii) Q-sort technique

This is a procedure for investing self-concept that may be used to identify areas for behaviour
modification. This technique is based on the theory that individuals have real and ideal self and
that it is profitable to determine the degree of description between these two evaluations of
self (ibid). The technique offers a way to select specific social – emotional behaviors for
intervention.

(iv)Sociometric techniques
This technique was developed my Moreno (1953), records a child’s standing and the various
peer relationships within the classroom. Each pupil is asked to select one or two classmates
with whom he/she could do a project, share lunch, play or perform any classroom social
activity. The responses are then analyzed and recorded on a tally sheet for the number of time
each child is chosen. The sociagram – the web of relationship in class – provide insight about
which social patterns should be encouraged.

2.9.1. Informal self-report techniques

This technique provides a pupil with an opportunity to report on his/her own specific behaviors.
Self-report procedures obtain information directly from the subject. Its validity depends on the
pupil’s willingness to report the information on ability to understand and perform the task. It
provides a general idea of the pupil’s behaviour problems.

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Teacher made checklists are used where a pupil is asked to indicate which behaviour or
description he/she feels apply to himself/herself (Finishes class work quickly, gets mad with
friends quickly, has lots of friends).The teacher can also use questionnaires with yes/no format.
Do you get mad often Y N
I like to be by myself Y N
An interview is another way of making pupils report about themselves. Pupils are able to
express their opinion and feelings especially when conducted in privacy. Another way of
informal –self reporting is the use of autobiographies. In an autobiography a pupil gives an
account of their feelings about themselves and that of others.

Contingency contracting is another approach that may be used in behaviour modification.

Contracts between a pupil and a classroom teacher may help to motivate the pupil towards
desirable behaviour change. A contract is an agreement – verbal or written – between two
parties. The term contingency means that there is a relationship between what one does and
the consequences. In behaviour motivation, the contingency contracting is based on the
principle that the frequency of a less preferred activity increases when it is followed by the
opportunity to engage in a more preferred activity. If a pupil would rather play outside than sit
quietly on his/her desk, the contingency contract might state that sitting quietly for a certain
amount of time will be followed by outside play.

2.9.2. Emotional and Behavior Disorders in the Classroom

There is growing recognition that early intervention is necessary to prevent troublesome
behaviors from escalating in the classroom. Prevention and best practices for dealing with
behavior disorders can create a safe school environment for accelerating school performance,
increasing readiness for learning and reducing problem behavior. Rather than leaving the
responsibility to the individual teacher, it is being proved that school wide structural strategies
are the key to success. Positive behavior management and social skills instruction should be

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implemented in each classroom, with a school culture of unified discipline and shared
expectations of success based on academic enrichment.

Effective classroom practices such as good organization, engaging lessons with high pupils
response, positive attitudes, and accommodations to match students' ability levels, rewards for
appropriate behaviors and consequences for misbehavior, usually lead to appropriate
outcomes from most pupils. Teachers need to define acceptable behavior clearly, tell pupils
what they are doing correctly and praise them, and make sure that rules, consequences and
enforcement procedures are clearly defined and articulated. However, this may not be enough
for many of today's learners who require additional support.

Positive Behavior Management systems may need to be formally instituted. An important

element is teaching pupils to self-monitor with a strategy for observing their own behavior,
recording it on checklists and evaluating for progress and reinforcement. This becomes a
powerful strategy in teaching pupils how to behave. A practical example is the Good Pupil
Game which can be introduced during periods of independent studies to keep pupils on task.
Behaviors to be rewarded are identified as for example, stay seated, raise your hand if you have
a question, work quietly, raise your hand when you finish. Rewards such as ten minutes of free
time at the end of the day encourage students to self monitor their behavior.

Social skills can be taught to improve social interactions and reduce problem behavior. There
are hundreds of available programs, lesson plans and worksheets , but many teachers prefer to
integrate social skills instruction throughout the whole curriculum because most formats such
as discussion, cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and group problem-solving require social as
well as academic skills.

Pupils with learning disabilities who continue to exhibit behavior problems probably need on-
going remedial programs, but peer tutoring can be a cost-effective alternative and benefits the

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t
eacher's social development as well. A school wide Conflict Resolution curriculum and Peer
Mediation Program helps pupils develop interpersonal skills in understanding and managing
anger, understanding conflict and constructive communication techniques. Above all, pupils
benefit most from messages that are consistent across school, home, family and community.
Parents and teachers should set mutual goals for the child's progress through the school year,
helping to provide better outcomes.

Schools can also play a vital part in ensuring that pupils and their families receive health and
social services, mental health counseling and all non-educational services which are vital to a
child's educational progress. With this holistic approach, the classroom will no longer be a
battlefield for pupils with behavior and emotional disorders and teachers will no longer have
behavior problems as a major concern and can get on with educating pupils instead.

2.9.3. Managing Inappropriate Behavior in the Classroom

(iv) Define teacher expectations
Problems occur where there is a discrepancy between what the teacher expects and what
pupils do. Thus, we are dealing with two dimensions: teacher expectations and pupil behavior.
The atmosphere of the classroom has much to do with pupil behavior. The setting should be
appealing, with attention given to varying the physical features and the schedule to prevent
boredom in both the teacher and the pupil. Teachers should let pupils know specific do's and
don'ts: which behaviors are expected or desired and which will not be tolerated. Then teachers
must consistently reinforce the desired behaviors while ignoring or in some other way
extinguishing the undesirable ones.

If you want to increase appropriate behavior, a necessary first step is for you to explicitly,
clearly, and fairly define behavioral expectations. Where do expectations come from? Such
expectations evolve from the teacher's values and beliefs about how pupils should behave in

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the classroom. It is important to note that the same behavior can be seen differently in
different situations and by different people.

The following steps will provide you with what you need to manage behaviour:
(a) Describe the acceptable behaviours with words and actions; be specific. For instance,
instead of telling them to use acceptable voices. Describe the levels of noise for the
various activities. Ask them to demonstrate what voices are used during reading time,
you should hear silence. Ask them to demonstrate what voices are used during group
work, they should speak relatively quietly to their group members. Ask them who they
should be talking to at group times. When this role play is complete, once again, ask the
pupils to repeat the three types of voice levels and when they are to be used.

(b) Provide opportunities for children to practice expected behaviours. Again, this is like
role playing but is quite necessary if you want children to fully understand your
expectations. Be sure to focus on the pupils who experience behaviours difficulties to
demonstrate and tell you what the acceptable behaviours are in the various situations.

(c) Provide honest and ongoing feedback. Always let your children know if they are
behaving appropriately or if there is something they could be doing to improve their
behaviours. Be specific when telling children what it is about how they're behaving. For
instance, you may say that you really liked the way that they put everything away so
quickly and quietly. Give regular reminders and feedback, this will help to establish a
great climate for learning.
(d) What about the student that breaks the rules? This student should not be embarrassed.
If there are other pupils around, you will need to bring the pupil to a spot that is away
from the other pupils. Ask him/her why he/she thinks you've asked to speak with them.
Usually they can tell you. Ask them how they should have handled the situation and
what they'll do next time. Include them in the consequence that should happen.

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Sometimes they'll tell you that they should work alone or that they should give an
apology. Your consequence needs to be logical and fit the behavior deviation.
(e) Although you won't be able to predict absolutely every behaviour problem that you may
encounter, it will be possible to identify many of them. Once you are prepared for the
most common behaviour problems, you will be able to cope and be able to change
many of them. It's often wise to prepare a list of potential behaviour issues and
preventative and reactive strategies that will lead to ongoing acceptable behaviors.
Being prepared for and knowing how you'll handle behaviour deviations is half the
battle!

(II)Set Rules

The best strategies for establishing acceptable behaviors are those strategies that are pro-
active and preventative. If you want cooperative children, they need to understand and be able
to follow your rules and routines. Meeting this goal will ensure that you have a good learning
environment.

Some teachers make too many rules, and the children, confused or frustrated, ignore them.
Teachers should establish only a few rules and should specify the consequences for not
following them.

Clear rule setting is helpful for all pupils. Expectations should be explicit, fair, and within the
pupil’s range of achievement.
 Rules should be reasonable, but to whom? Teachers, administrators, parents, pupils?
The most effective rules are developed by all.
 Rules should be objective. They should be stated in behavioral terms. What is meant by
behavioral?
 Use as few rules as possible. Consider important aspects and ignore the minor aspects.

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 Be consistent with consequences for breaking rules. Use positive reinforcement for
compliance with rules and use negative consequences for breaking rules.

In summary, at the beginning of the school year, involve parents and pupils in setting rules if
possible. Put rules in writing and post them in class. Review rules with your pupils on a periodic
basis to discuss any needed changes. The four rules mentioned above have equal weight. Only
in combination will they be effective in controlling behavioral problems.

2.9.5. Behavioral Disorders: Implications for teachers

The teacher has two overall goals: First, to stop inappropriate behavior, and second, to increase
appropriate behavior. This can be done through Preventive Discipline. Experience tells us that
the most effective means of working with pupils who display emotional or behavioral disorders
is preventive in nature. Rather than responding to inappropriate behaviors, use positive
interactive approaches that remove the need for inappropriate behaviors.

2.9.8. Ten components to a preventive discipline program (Sabatino, 1987)

(i) Inform pupils of what is expected of them
(ii) Establish a positive learning climate
(iii) Provide a meaningful learning experience
(iv) Avoid threats
(v) Demonstrate fairness
(vi) Build and exhibit self-confidence
(vii) Recognize positive student attributes
(viii) Time the recognition of student attributes
(ix) Use positive modeling
(x) Structure the curriculum & classroom environment
Pupils with emotional disorders do well in educational programs that stress positive behavior
management, self-direction, and the development of interpersonal skills. Teachers must

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concentrate on getting disruptive behavior under control before any academic work can be
presented.

Like anyone else, pupils with emotional disorders usually respond to positive, corrective
feedback when they make an error. Teachers need to communicate care and concern rather
than a desire to punish when reacting to inappropriate behaviors. Social skills training are a
critical need of this group. Positive role models are requisite. Social skills are best learned
naturally, from observing others who display appropriate skills.

2.9.9. Managing behaviour and Teaching social skills

(a) Behaviour modification
Depending upon the situation and individuals involved, teachers may use a variety of strategies
to improve and develop social emotional skills.

Behaviour modification derives from the concept of operant conditioning (Skinner, 1953).The
basic premise is that behaviour is learned and is a function of behaviour’s consequences. It is
any systematic arrangement of the environmental events to produce specific changes in
observable behaviour (Wallace & Kauffman, 1986). It is a highly structured and systematic
approach that results in strengthening, weakening, or maintaining behaviours

After identifying and collecting baseline data on target behaviour, the teacher must observe
events that happen just before the child’s behaviour (antecedent events) and just after the
behaviour subsequent events). These events are then manipulated, and various reinforcers or

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rewards are used to elicit a change in behaviour. A reinforcer is any event that follows
behaviour and results in maintaining or increasing the behaviour. Positive reinforcement means
adding pleasurable or positive to the environment, whereas negative reinforcement means
withdrawing something unpleasant or negative from the environment. Reinforcement results in
strengthening or increasing the target behaviour. Various social or tangible reinforcers may be
used – praise, hugs, treats, free time and a pat on the back. Praise is one of the most effective
and convenient positive reinforce for teachers to use when managing behaviour.

Unit summary
There is no single definition of EBD. Most definitions require a child’s behaviour to differ
markedly over time from the current social or cultural norms.

Children with EBD have difficulties in maintaining interpersonal relationships and frequently
exhibit anti-social behaviors. Some are overly withdrawn and lack social skills needed to
interact freely. There are two major suggested causes for EBD are biological and environmental.
Because of its central role in the life of a child, the school can also contribute to behaviour
problems. There are several test used for identifying and assessing pupils with EBD. M

Most pupils with EBD are educated in regular schools. Direct and continuous observations are
used in the management of EBD.

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Unit three

Learning Disabilities
5 hours

3.0. Introduction

No area of special education has received so little attention in Zambia as Learning disabilities.
All pupils are unique, differing from one another intellectually, emotionally, socially and
physically. Teachers in most schools complain about high numbers of low achievers. The public
has attributed several factors to this problem. Some times these learning problems are referred
to as Specific Learning disabilities. This unit will attempt to explain the concept of learning
disabilities and strategies that you may apply in the classroom.

Learning outcomes

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After reading through this unit you should be able to:

(v) Demonstrate understanding of the concept of learning disabilities
(vi) Distinguish learners with learning disabilities with ordinary learning problems
(vii) Explain strategies a teacher may apply to teach learners with specific learning
disabilities.

Content

3.1. Defining Learning Disabilities

Learning disability is a general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems. A
learning disability can cause a person to have trouble learning and using certain skills. The skills
most often affected are: reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and doing
mathematical calculations.

The American law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), defines a learning disability
as . . .

'learning disability' means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest
itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term
does not include children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of
visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or
of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (US Office of Educationm1977b,
p.65083)

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Learning disabilities (LD) vary from person to person. One person with LD may not have the
same kind of learning problems as another person with Learning Disabilities. One pupil for
example, may have trouble with reading and writing. Another pupil with Learning Disabilities
may have problems with understanding mathematics. Still another person may have problems
in each of these areas, as well as with understanding what people are saying.

3.2. Causes of learning disabilities

It is very difficult to pin point exact cause of Learning Disabilities. Research has attributed
Learning Disabilities to the following factors;

(i) Brain dysfunction

Researchers think that learning disabilities are caused by differences in how a person's brain
works and how it processes information. It is believed that abnormalities in the brain
functions contribute to learning Disabilities. However the abnormalities are not as a result
of brain damage or injury but a dysfunction on how it works. Children with learning
disabilities have average or above average intelligence.
(ii) Biochemical imbalance
Chemicals agents like tetrogens can disrupt normal development of the fetus. Researchers
believe that children exposed to such agents have the potential to develop Learning
Disabilities. Some food additives like those used to artificially colour and flavor many foods
have been identified to be the cause of learning Disabilities and hyperactivity in some
children. In Zambia for instance there was a time when there was controversy over “Jiggies”
a popular children corn snack. It contained tetrazzine a colouring chemical that had a
potential of harming children’s health.

(iii) Poor instruction

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Ineffective teaching methods may also contribute to Learning Disabilities. Some pupils who
have being placed in special education programmes exhibited underachievement because
of poor instruction.

3.3. Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

Very common! Though it is not well documented in Zambia, but from informal complaints and
experiences, most teachers and parents complain of children who have problems in written
language and spellings.

3.4. Characteristics of a Learning Disabilities

There is no one sign that shows a pupil has a learning disability. Teachers look for a noticeable
difference between how well a child does in school and how well he or she could do, given his
or her intelligence or ability. There are also certain clues that may mean a child has a learning
disability. Most of these relate to elementary classroom tasks given by a teacher. In countries
where special education delivery programmes are well established, learning disabilities tend to
be identified in Middle basic school. A child probably won't show all of these signs, or even
most of them. However, if a child shows a number of these problems, then parents and the
teacher should consider the possibility that the child has a learning disability.
When a child has a learning disability, he or she may have:
 Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, or connecting letters to their
sounds;
 Many mistakes when reading aloud, and repeat and pause often;
 Not understand what he or she reads;
 Real trouble with spelling;
 poor handwriting or hold a pencil awkwardly;
 Struggle to express ideas in writing;
 Learn language late and have a limited vocabulary;

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 Trouble remembering the sounds that letters make or hearing slight differences
between words;
 Trouble understanding jokes, comic strips, and sarcasm;
 Trouble following directions;
 Mispronounce words or use a wrong word that sounds similar;
 Trouble organizing what he or she wants to say or not be able to think of the word
he or she needs for writing or conversation;
 May not follow the social rules of conversation, such as taking turns, and may
stand too close to the listener;
 May confuse math symbols and misread numbers;

 May not be able to retell a story in order (what happened first, second, third); or

 May not know where to begin a task or how to go on from there.

If a child has unexpected problems learning to read, write, listen, speak, or do math, then
teachers and parents may want to investigate more. The same is true if the child is struggling to
do any one of these skills. The child may need to be evaluated to see if he or she has a learning
disability.

3.5. What about School?

Learning disabilities tend to be diagnosed when children reach school age. This is because
school focuses on the very things that may be difficult for the child — reading, writing,
mathematics, listening, speaking, and reasoning. Teachers may notice that the child is not
learning as expected. They may decide to evaluate the child to see what is causing the problem.
In some cases, the parents may also ask for their child to be evaluated.

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3.6. Identification and Assessment

Assessing pupils with learning disabilities can be a challenge. However, you must remember
that assessing is providing the child with an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skill and
understanding. For most learning disabled pupils, last on the list should be a pencil/paper task.
The following are some of the most common strategies that support and enhance assessment
of learning disabled pupils.

(i) Norm-Referenced tests

Norm-referenced tests allow us to compare a pupil's skills to others in his age group. They are
tests which are developed by creating the test items and then administering the test to a group
of pupils that will be used as the basis of comparison. Statistical methods are used to determine
how raw scores will be interpreted and what performance levels are assigned to each score.

Many norm-referenced tests yield standard scores, which allow comparison of the student's
scores to other tests. They answer questions such as, "does the student's achievement score
appear consistent with his cognitive score?" The degree of difference between those two scores
might suggest or rule out a learning disability.

After the norming process, the tests are used to assess groups of pupils or individuals using
standardized, or highly structured, administration procedures. These students' performance is
rated using scales developed during the norming process. Educators use norm-reference tests to
evaluate the effectiveness of teaching programs, to help determine pupils' preparedness for
programs, and to determine diagnosis of disabilities for eligibility for special education programs
or adaptations and accommodations under.

Most achievement Norn-Referenced Tests are multiple-choice tests. Some also include open-
ended, short-answer questions. The questions on these tests mainly reflect the content of

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nationally-used textbooks, not the local curriculum. This means that pupils may be tested on
things your local schools or what is stated in the national curriculum.

(ii) Criterion-referenced tests

Criterion-referenced test is a term you won't often hear in schools. However, criterion-
referenced tests are used daily in classes in both regular and special education programs. These
tests assess specific skills covered in class.

Teachers use criterion-referenced tests to determine what specific concepts a child has learned.
Some criterion-referenced tests are commercially produced and sold as part of a curriculum.
Criterion-referenced tests measure specific skills and concepts. Typically, they are designed
with 100 total points possible. Pupils earn points for items completed correctly. The pupils'
scores are typically expressed as a percentage. Criterion-referenced tests are the most common
type of test teacher’s use in daily classroom work.

In addition to providing scores to measure progress, criterion test results give specific
information on skills and sub-skills the pupils understands. They also provide information on
skills the pupil has not mastered. Both types of information are useful in determining what type
of specially designed instruction the pupil needs and what the instruction should cover.
Most assessments administered in schools are criterion-referenced. Teachers create these tests
based on the school's curriculum and learning expectations in a given subject area. Teachers
may also use professionally developed, commercially produced criterion-referenced tests.
Educators use criterion-referenced tests to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching programs, to
determine pupils' mastery of concepts and skills, and to measure progress toward IEP goals and
objectives.
In this test, the pupils score is compared with a predetermined criterion or mastery level. The
importance of this test is that they identify the specific skills the child has already learned and
the skill that require instruction.

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3.7. Educational approaches

i. Applied Behaviour Analysis
This approach is based on the work of Skinner. It has been used to control
unacceptable behaviour in school. Some of the techniques here can be used to teach
academic skills and subjects. In theory, the Applied Behaviour Analysis is concerned
with causes of disorder only and helps a teacher to formulate a treatment plan
(Koorland; 1986).

ii. Diagnostic prescriptive Model

This model is designed to remediate executive functions, metacognition or
organizational strategies (Presely et al; 1989).
iii. Mnemonics
A mnemonic or mnemonic device is any learning technique that aids memory.
Commonly, mnemonics are verbal—such as a very short poem or a special word used to
help a person remember something—but may be visual, kinesthetic or auditory.
Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-remember constructs which can be
related back to the data that is to be remembered. This is based on the principle that
the typical human mind much more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising,
sexual, humorous or otherwise meaningful information than arbitrary sequences. For
example in mathematics you may have used the following mnemonics for remembering
sine, cosine and tangent:
SOHCAHTOA

Sin = Opposite/ Hypotenuse

Cos = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
Tan = Opposite / Adjacent

iv. Cooperative learning

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It is a teaching strategy in which small teams, each with pupils of different levels of ability,
use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member
of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates
learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Pupils work through the assignment
until all group members successfully understand and complete it.

Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group
members:
 Gain from each other's efforts.
 Recognize that all group members share a common fate.
 Know that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team
members.
 Feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for
achievement.

v. Assistive technology
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 defines assistive
technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether
acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability" (IDEA, 1997).

The level of guidance and support necessary for each student in the classroom may vary
greatly; the student may need anything from physical, verbal, or visual prompts to high-
technology devices and services

Assistive technology can also help many students work around their learning disabilities.
Assistive technology can range from "low-tech" equipment such as tape recorders to
"high-tech" tools such as reading machines (which read books aloud) and voice
recognition systems (which allow the student to "write" by talking to the computer).

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“Low" technology devices do not require electronic equipment and may need only
simple accommodation, are usually readily available, and are cost effective; "high"
technology requires a high-maintenance electronic system and, hence, is more costly
(Purcell & Grant, 2002).

3.8. What regular class teachers may do to help pupils with learning disabilities
Learn as much as you can about the different types of Learning Disabilities. Seize the
opportunity to make an enormous difference in this pupil’s life! Find out and emphasize
what the pupil’s strengths and interests are. Give the pupil positive feedback and lots of
opportunities for practice.

Review the child’s evaluation records to identify where specifically the he/she has
trouble. Talk to specialists in your school (special education teachers) about methods for
teaching this pupil. Provide instruction and accommodations to address the pupil’s
special needs. Class activities or instruction tasks may include the following:

 breaking tasks into smaller steps, and giving directions verbally and in
writing;
 giving the pupils more time to finish class work or take tests;
 letting the student with reading problems use textbooks-on-tape
 letting the pupils with listening difficulties borrow notes from a classmate or
use a tape recorder; and
 Letting the pupils with writing difficulties use a computer with specialized
software that spell checks, grammar checks, or recognizes speech.

Learn about the different testing modifications that can really help a student with LD show

what he or she has learned.

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Teach organizational skills, study skills, and learning strategies. These help all pupils but are
particularly helpful to those with Learning Disabilities.

Establish a positive working relationship with the pupil’s parents. Through regular
communication, exchange information about the pupil’s progress at school.

Unit summary
There is no universally agreed upon definition of Learning Disabilities, however the US law IDEA
and the NJCLD gives us a more consistent definition.
Many pupils with Learning Disabilities show one or more of the following characteristics;
reading problems, deficits in written language, under achievement in mathematics, social skills
deficits, problems with attention and hyperactivity and behavioral problems.

Although the actual cause of Learning Disabilities is not well known, suspected causal factors
are brain dysfunction, heredity, biochemical imbalance and poor instruction.

Assessment involves norm-referenced achievement test, criterion-referenced test, curriculum

based and teacher informal reading inventories.

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Unit four

GIFTEDNESS AND TALENTED

5 hours
1.0. Introduction
When we talk about special education, what usually come in mind are learners with intellectual,
physical and sensory disabilities. Gifted and talented children are usually left out from special
education programmes. The reality is that these children in most cases do not benefit from
traditional curriculum. Traditional curriculum does not provide the unique challenges they
require to learn most effectively. They also require special education services to reach their
potential. In this unit you will define giftedness and talentedness, identification, and
educational programmes.

Learning outcomes
At the end of the unit you should be able to:
(i) State why gifted and talented pupils require special education
(ii) Explain how the definition of giftedness has changed the was in which pupils are
identified and served
(iii) Describe how teacher may provide instruction to gifted pupils
(iv) Explain the different approaches used to serve gifted pupils.

Content

Gifted children comprise a minority of the population, although not such a small minority as is
sometimes thought. Internationally, the most widely used definition of giftedness and talent is
that of Françoys Gagné . Gagné (1985, 2000) defines gifted children as those who have high
levels of innate ability, in any domain of human ability, that places them within the top 10
percent of their age-peers—even if their high potential is not yet being demonstrated as high
performance. Talented children, by contrast, are those whose abilities have already been
translated into achievements, and who are currently performing at a level that places them

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within the top 10 percent of their age-peers. Gifts are natural abilities whereas talents are
systematically developed skills.

Giftedness is not an automatic guarantee of success. A range of environmental variables affect

talent development, such as parental encouragement, family relationships, the provisions the
child's school makes, or fails to make, to develop his or her gifts into talents, and even the social
ethos of the community that can dictate that talents are valued and, therefore, which programs
of talent development will be established or funded.

Encouragement and assistance from home and school are essential if gifted children are to
develop as talented, but the children themselves must maintain their motivation to succeed.
Children, no matter how gifted, will not achieve high levels of talent unless they are prepared to
work and study to develop their abilities. A child may be gifted in any domain of ability,
intellectual, creative, physical, or social. However, although talent in music, sports, or athletics
is valued and actively sought and fostered in many cultures, high intellectual ability is often
undervalued (Gross 1999). This can affect how gifted children come to view, or value, their gifts.

Defining the term gifted is no easy task. Numerous definitions have been suggested, but no
single definition of giftedness is accepted by everyone or even by a majority of people. Because
so many definitions exist, people often get confused over just what it means to be gifted. Not
only that, parents and teachers sometimes find it difficult to communicate because what they
say is based on different definitions! To help eliminate the confusion, it's a good idea to
understand where the term came from and the different perspectives that led to the many
definitions that exist today.

4.1. Origin of the Term Gifted

The term gifted children was first used in 1869 by Francis Galton. He referred to adults who
demonstrated exceptional talent in some area as gifted, for example, a gifted chemist. Children
could inherit the potential to become a gifted adult, and Galton referred to these children as
gifted children. Lewis Terman expanded Galton's view of gifted children to include high

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Intelligence Quotient (IQ). In the early 1900s, he began his a long-term study of gifted children,
whom he defined as children with IQs of 140 or more. His study found that IQ alone could not
predict success in adulthood. Hollingworth (1925), too, believed that the potential to be gifted
was inherited. However, she felt that providing a nurturing home and school environment were
also important in the development of that potential. In her book, Gifted Children, Their Nature
and Nurture, and the term gifted has been used ever since to refer to children of high potential.

4.2. Different Definitions of Gifted

The early uses of the term gifted have led to different uses of the word and different ways of
defining giftedness. Galton’s view left us with the idea that a gifted person is one with a gift, a
special talent demonstrated in adulthood. People today may use gifted child the way Galton
used the term gifted adult. In other words, to be a gifted child is to demonstrate an exceptional
talent in a particular area. Terman’s view led to definitions of gifted, which not only included
high IQ, but also the notion that giftedness should be a predictor of adult achievement.
Hollingworth’s view, however, led to definitions of gifted as childhood potential that must be
nurtured in order for it to be developed in adulthood.

4.3. Giftedness as Predictor of Adult Achievement

Definitions of gifted that consider adult achievement and factors such as task commitment or
motivation. Those who define gifted this way begin by looking at adults who have
demonstrated exceptional achievement in their chosen field, like Einstein, and work backward
to see what traits other than high IQ that adult had in childhood. A child without that trait,
regardless of IQ, is not gifted according to these definitions. Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of
Giftedness is an example. His definition of giftedness is based on the interaction among three
basic clusters of human traits. These are:
(i) Above-average general intellectual abilities
(ii) High level of task commitment
(iii) Creativity

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According to Renzulii Gifted and Talented children are those “possessing or capable of
developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of
human performance. Children who manifest or are capable of developing an interaction among
the three clusters require a wide variety of educational opportunities and services that are not
ordinarily provided through regular instructional programmes”(1978).

above average
ability
General performance areas
Maths -Visual arts- Physical Sciences
Philosophy -Social Sciences -law –Religion-
task Brought Language Arts- Music -Life Sciences-
commitment
creativity to bear Movement Arts
upon
Specific performance areas
Cartooning-Astronomy-public opinion polling-
film making-Chemistry-poetry-Fashion-
Electronics-Archtecture-Pollution control-

Fig 3.Renzulli’s Three Rings

(Adopted from Heward, W.(2000) Exceptional Children: Introduction to Special Education.

Upper Saddle River: Merill)

4.4.Giftedness as Potential That Must be Nurtured

Definitions that consider giftedness as potential to be developed make a distinction between
what a child is capable of achieving and what the child will achieve. The fact that a child has
exceptional potential is part of what makes him or her gifted. The child’s environment
determines whether potential leads to achievement, so people who define gifted this way
stress the importance of providing an appropriate environment. Gagne’s Differentiated Model
of Giftedness and Talent is an example.

4.5. Piirto’s concept of Giftedness

Piirto (1999) defines the gifted as:

Those individuals who, by way of having certain learning characteristics such as superior memory, observation
powers, curiosity, creativity, and the ability to learn school-related subject matter rapidly and accurately with

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minimum of drill and repetition, have a right to an education that is differentiated according to those
characteristics.(p.28)

4.6. Characteristics Gifted children

Wide variations exist among the gifted. The following list of characteristics is a very general
description of the group as a whole.

(i) General characteristics

 Is intellectually curious, innovative, and playful with ideas.
 Enjoys the challenge and involvement of intellectual and creative tasks.
 Has a keen and sometimes unique sense of humor.
 Is an independent thinker and seeks to act independently.
 Develops at an early age an inner control and satisfaction which may lead to divergent
and nonconformist behavior.
 Formulates abstractions while very young and shows facility in moving from concrete to
abstract levels of thinking and of communicating.
 Prefers complex tasks and processes information in complex ways.
 Reads at an early age and comprehends with advanced understanding.
 Reads widely and reads intensively in areas of special interest.
 Acquires basic skills rapidly and with a minimum of practice.
 Comprehends advanced ideas, concepts, and implications.
 Has an unusual ability to memorize.
 Is impatient with detail and drill, which may result in gaps in basic skills for some.
 Resists requirement of unnecessary detail in the completion of tasks.
 Explores wide-ranging and special interests not usually associated with children of his
age and relates well to peers and adults who have similar interests.

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 Expends much energy and time in pursuing special interests and may be involved in
numerous projects and activities.
 Employs high intellectual and creative skills in assessing his physical and social
environment, in solving problems, and in creating products.
 Generates many ideas and multiple solutions to problems.
 Copes with environment situations in resourceful and creative ways.
 Expresses himself fluently, clearly, and forcefully with words, numbers and creative
products.
 Demonstrates richness of imagery in informal language and brainstorming.
 Has capability for extraordinary leadership and tends to assume leadership
responsibility.
 Rebels against irrelevant learning requirements.
 Points out conflicting societal values and challenges authority.
 Becomes excited about new ideas but may not carry them through.
 Creates and invents beyond the parameters of knowledge in the field.
 Can improvise with commonplace materials.
 Has high expectations of self and others which may lead to high levels of frustration
with self, others, and situations.
 May tend to be a loner at least part of the time.
 May have a sense of his/her own uniqueness which leads to feelings of loneliness.

(ii) General Intellectual Ability

Those gifted and talented students with general intellectual ability tend to perform or show
the potential to perform in several fields of study. Spearman (1923) defined this general
ability as “g,” which is common to many tasks. Cattell (1963) further divided “g” into fluid
(inherited ability) and crystallized (abilities acquired through learning). Many general
intelligence tests and checklists include items that assess both fluid abilities, such as

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analogies, block designs, and pattern arrangements, and crystallized abilities, such as
mathematics problems, vocabulary, and comprehension of reading passages.

Researchers have consistently identified these characteristics as relating to general intellectual

ability (Clark, 1997; Colangelo & Davis, 1991; Coleman & Cross, 2001; Davis & Rimm, 1994;
Gilliam, Carpenter, & Christensen, 1996; Khatena, 1992; Piirto, 1999; Renzulli et al., 2002;
Rogers, 2001; Sternberg & Davidson, 1986; Swassing, 1985; Tannenbaum, 1983):
 Has an extensive and detailed memory, particularly in an area of interest.
 Has vocabulary advanced for age—precocious language.
 Has communication skills advanced for age and is able to express ideas and feelings.
 Asks intelligent questions.
 Is able to identify the important characteristics of new concepts, problems.
 Learns information quickly.
 Uses logic in arriving at common sense answers.
 Has a broad base of knowledge—a large quantity of information.
 Understands abstract ideas and complex concepts.
 Uses analogical thinking, problem solving, or reasoning.
 Observes relationships and sees connections.
 Finds and solves difficult and unusual problems.
 Understands principles, forms generalizations, and uses them in new situations.
 Wants to learn and is curious.
 Works conscientiously and has a high degree of concentration in areas of interest.
 Understands and uses various symbol systems.
 Is reflective about learning.

(iii) Specific Academic Field

In this area, gifted and talented pupils exhibit potential or demonstrated accomplishment in
one specific field of study, such as language arts, mathematics, social studies, or science.

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Researchers have identified general and specific characteristics for these academic fields
(Feldhusen, Hoover, & Sayler, 1990; Gilliam et al., 1996; Piirto, 1999; Rogers, 2001;
Tannenbaum, 1983):

(iv) Creative Area

The key characteristic that is often associated with creativity is divergent thinking. As
opposed to convergent thinking (arriving at a single conclusion), divergent thinking requires
the gifted and talented pupil to produce many ideas or ideas that are different from the
norm.
Coleman and Cross (2001) suggest that the comparison group, “whether to self, others, a
situation, a point in time, a field of study, a cultural group, or a combination of these,”
determines how narrowly or broadly creativity is defined (p. 241).

Psychologists tend to agree that creativity is not the same as intelligence, but that creative
individuals tend to have a threshold intelligence score of about 120 (Getzels & Jackson,
1962). Psychometrically, test developers have defined creativity as fluency, flexibility,
originality, and elaboration (Guilford, 1950; Torrance, 1974). Cognitive scientists have
identified characteristics of creative individuals by studying the methods they use in solving
complex problems (Perkins, 1981; Sternberg, 1988), while other researchers have identified
characteristics by examining case studies of creators and how they generated ideas over
longer periods of time (Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962; Gruber, 1982). Taking a case study
approach, Gardner (1993) suggests that creative production emerges only after 10 years of
concentrated study in a specific field. For this reason, teachers clearly would be observing
creative potential in gifted and talented pupils during their school years.

Researchers have identified some of these common characteristics (Clark, 1997; Coleman &
Cross, 2001; Gardner, 1993; Gilliam et al., 1996; Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962; Gruber, 1982;

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Guilford, 1950; Khatena, 1992; Perkins, 1981; Piirto, 1999; Renzulli et al., 2002; Sternberg,
1988; Tannenbaum, 1983; Torrance, 1974):
 Has in-depth foundational knowledge.
 Prefers complexity and open-endedness.
 Contributes new concepts, methods, products, or performances.
 Has extreme fluency of thoughts and a large number of ideas.
 Is observant and pays attention to detail.
 Uses unique solutions to problems, improvises.
 Challenges existing ideas and products.
 Connects disparate ideas.
 Is constantly asking questions.
 Criticizes constructively.
 Is a risk taker, confident?
 Is attracted to the novel, complex, and mysterious.
 Is a nonconformist, uninhibited in expression, adventurous, able to resist group
pressure.
 Accepts disorder.
 Tolerates ambiguity; delays closure.
 Is persistent and task committed in area of interest.
 Has a sense of humor.
 Is intellectually playful.
 Is aware of own creativity.
 Is emotionally sensitive; sensitive to beauty.
 Is intuitive.
 Enjoys alone time.
 Is reflective about personal creative process.

(v) Artistic Area

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In this area, gifted and talented pupils exhibit potential or demonstrated accomplishment in
one or more artistic fields, such as art, drama, or music. Khatena (1992) suggested that
“talented individuals in the performing and visual arts are bright, that creativity is a
significant energizing factor in talent, and that specific to each art form exists highly
specialized abilities that require the language and skills peculiar to that art form for their
expression” (p. 147).
Researchers have identified general and specific characteristics for these artistic fields (Clark
& Zimmerman, 1984; Gilliam et al., 1996; Piirto, 1999; Renzulli, Smith, White, Callahan, &
Hartman, 1976; Khatena, 1988; 1992; Seashore, Leavis, & Saetveit, 1960):

General (demonstrated within artistic area)

 Chooses artistic activity for projects or during free time.
 Studies or practices artistic talent without being told.
 Strives to improve artistic skills.
 Demonstrates talent for an extended period of time.
 Concentrates for long periods of time on artistic projects.
 Seems to pick up skills in the arts with little or no instruction.
 Possesses high sensory sensitivity.
 Observes and shows interest in others who are proficient in the artistic skill.
 Uses the artistic area to communicate.
 Experiments in the artistic medium.
 Sets high standards in the artistic area.
 Demonstrates confidence in the artistic area.

(vi) Art
 Scribbles earlier than most.
 Initiates drawing.
 Incorporates large number of elements into artwork.

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 Provides balance and order in artwork.

 Elaborates on ideas from other people as a starting point.
 Observes details in environment, artistic area.
 Has a unique, unusual solution to artistic problems.
 Uses unusual and interesting visual imagery.
 Is innovative in selecting and using art materials.
 Has a highly developed sense of movement and rhythm in drawings.
 Has a great feel for color.
 Varies organization of elements to suit different situations.
 Uses content that is interesting, tells a story, or expresses feelings.
 Produces many drawings.

(vii) Drama
 Is innovative and creative in performing.
 Easily tells a story or gives an account of some experience.
 Uses gestures or facial expressions to communicate feelings.
 Is adept at role-playing, improvising, and acting out situations.
 Identifies with moods and motivations of characters.
 Handles body with ease and poise.
 Creates original plays or makes up plays from stories.
 Commands and holds the attention of a group when speaking.
 Evokes emotional responses from listeners.
 Communicates feelings through nonverbal means.
 Imitates others, uses voice to reflect changes of idea and mood.

(viii) Music
 Discriminates fine differences in tone, relative, or absolute pitch.
 Identifies a variety of sounds (background noise, singers, orchestral instruments).

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 Varies loudness and softness.

 Remembers melodies and can produce them accurately.
 Plays an instrument or indicates a strong desire.
 Is sensitive to rhythm, changes body movements to tempo.
 Dances to tunes with different rhythms.
 Can complete a melody.
 Creates own melodies.
 Likes listening to music.
 Likes producing music with others.

(ix) Leadership
Leadership is the result of an interaction between a number of variables: the personality,
status, achievement, and intelligence of the leader; the characteristics of the followers; and
the situation (Stogdill, 1974). Since leadership may emerge in various types of situations and
is dependent upon a number of variables being present, professionals may find it difficult to
identify potential leaders. Knowing that the situation will influence leadership, researchers
have identified these general personal characteristics (Davis & Rimm, 1994; Karnes, 1991;
Khatena, 1992; Renzulli et al., 1976)
 Is well-organized.
 Can do backward planning.
 Is visionary, has a holistic view.
 Is a problem finder.
 Is able to see problems from multiple perspectives.
 Is adaptable to new situations.
 Can manipulate systems.
 Is highly responsible; can be counted on.
 Maintains on-task focus.
 Is self-confident.

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 Is a persuasive communicator.
 Has a cooperative attitude; works well in groups.
 Participates in most social activities, enjoys being around other people.
 Influences the behavior of others; recognized as a leader by peers.
 Is respected, liked, or both by others.
 Is aware of verbal and nonverbal cues; sophisticated interpersonal skills.
 Is emotionally stable.
 Is willing to take risks.

(x) Affective
Along with cognitive characteristics, gifted pupils frequently exhibit particular affective
characteristics (Clark, 1997; Colangelo & Davis, 1991; Coleman & Cross, 2001; Khatena,
1992; Piirto, 1999; Rogers, 2001; Sternberg & Davidson, 1986; Swassing, 1985;
Tannenbaum, 1983). Some researchers suggest that these emotional aspects of a gifted and
talented individual may be traits or temperaments (i.e., genetic), while others may be
developed (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Piirto, 1999; Winner, 1996):
 Is motivated in work that excites.
 Persists in completing tasks in areas of interest.
 Is self-directed, independent.
 Evaluates and judges critically.
 Has high degree of concentration.
 Becomes bored with routine tasks.
 Is interested in “adult” problems.
 Is concerned about right and wrong, ethics.
 Has higher self-concept, particularly in academics.
 Have high expectations of self and others.
 Has a sense of humor.
 Is highly sensitive.

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 Takes other perspectives; is empathic.

 Is a perfectionist.

(xi) Lower Income

Children from lower income backgrounds have the most difficulty in being selected for
programs for gifted and talented pupils (Clark, 1997). They may have a family background
that is not rich in language and reading or family members who have not had positive
experiences with school, who have not attained higher education degrees, or who solve
problems using violence (Baldwin, 1973). For these reasons, this group of gifted pupils is
particularly vulnerable to becoming underachievers in school.

Researchers have identified these characteristics that appear to assist in identifying children
from lower income backgrounds (Baldwin, 1973; Clark, 1997; Torrance, 1969):
 Have high mathematical abilities.
 Is curious; has varied interests.
 Is independent.
 Has a good imagination.
 Is fluent in nonverbal communication.
 Improvises when solving problems.
 Learns quickly through experience.
 Retains and uses information well.
 Shows a desire to learn in daily work.
 Is original and creative.
 Uses language rich in imagery.
 Responds well to visual media; concrete activities.
 Shows leadership among peers; is responsible.
 Shows relationships among unrelated ideas.
 Is entrepreneurial.

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 Has a keen sense of humor.

(xii) Disabled
It has been estimated that approximately 2% of the disabled population is gifted. Children
with disabilities include those with learning disabilities, visual or auditory impairments,
physical disabilities, emotional handicaps, or speech delays. Most often, the child may have
extreme ability in one or more areas and need remediation in others. The disability may
mask the ability or vice versa. For example, a gifted child with a hearing impairment may be
delayed in language and may need assistance from a speech therapist. Since special
education services often focus on remediation, the gift might go unrecognized. On the other
hand, a gifted child with a learning disability may be able to answer comprehension
questions on a test by matching words in the passage to the answers even though she
doesn’t know how to read. In this case, the gifted pupil would hide the disability and most
likely not be served by special education or the program for gifted and talented pupils.
4.7. Identification of Gifted Children
(i) The Identification Process
It is recommended that schools identify pupils at least once a year, or elect to identify pupils on
an ongoing basis, referring pupils as they display characteristics in the classroom or in the
community. Identification policies also need to address “furloughs, reassessment, exiting of
pupils from program services. Pupils who fit within these categories may be included in the
overall identification process or may be treated on a case-by-case basis.

The identification process may vary. The schools may choose to administer all of the
assessments to all of the children at a particular grade level and then decide which children will
be referred to a final selection committee for placement into programs for gifted and talented
children. A three-phase process of identifying pupil - nomination, screening, and selection is the
most desirable for most school. At each of these phases, decisions must be made to determine
which children progress to the next phase of assessment or placement. Some researchers

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suggest the addition of a validation phase in which identification procedures are evaluated by
others outside of the school (Feldhusen, Asher, & Hoover, 1984; Feldhusen & Baska, 1985;
Feldhusen, Hoover, & Sayler, 1990). This step is important in assuring that the process is valid,
that is, that it identifies the gifted and talented students who need services.

(ii)Nomination
A large group of pupils needs to be created during the nomination phase, even those who show
only vague hints of giftedness. All pupils who exhibit any or some of the characteristics that
indicate special gifts and talents should have an equal opportunity to be nominated. The
placement of pupils in special education programs or with certain teachers who may or may not
believe in gifted education should not preclude their inclusion in the nomination group. Every
effort should be made to involve pupils from special populations, such as those with disabilities,
from minority or lower income backgrounds, with limited English proficiency, and from rurally
isolated areas. Nomination instruments may include teacher and parent checklists, group
intelligence and achievement tests, portfolios of work, peer and self-nominations, teacher
reports of pupils’ learning, and student background information.
If teachers are a part of the nomination process, there is need for them to receive professional
development training in the characteristics of gifted and talented pupils. With training, teachers
identify more children than those who have not received any training (Gear, 1978). In addition,
teachers at the high school level are better at identifying gifted pupils than at the Basic school
level (Cornish, 1968; Jacobs, 1971; Pegnato & Birch, 1959). In fact, parents are actually better at
identifying very young children than teachers when using an intelligence test as the criterion.
Once trained, teachers should observe their pupils when they are involved in activities that are
more open-ended and require more complex thinking and other behaviors. If the tasks are not
challenging and require mostly single answers or low-level responses, gifted pupils do not have
sufficient opportunities to demonstrate their higher level abilities.

In all cases, the nomination instruments used in the nomination process should be fair to the

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culture. It should take into consideration the culture of the learner. The following should be the
aspects that a nomination instrument should do:
(a) Ensure that the pupil understands the purpose and the nature of the testing process,
(b) Minimize language barriers,
(c) Include practice items,
(d) Minimize time constraints, and
(e) Present novel problems instead of narrow school-related information (Jensen, 1969).

Finally, multiple sources—parents, teachers, pupil, and peers—need to be used in the

nomination phase to ensure equal access. Unless required by the program (e.g., writing, visual
and performing arts), the formats of the assessments might also vary so that all pupilss may
perform using their strengths. For example, some activities might require verbal responses;
others, manipulative responses; and still others, written responses.

(iii) Screening
Once all of the nomination information is collected, the identification committee may
determine which pupils will proceed to the second phase: screening. No one instrument should
be used as a single criterion. For example, movement to the screening phase should not be
based on a cut-off score from a single measure, such as the 85th percentile on an achievement
test or a single teacher nomination; rather, it should be based on successful performance on
several assessments used during the nomination phase. These assessments might include
parent, teacher, self, or peer checklists or observations; schoolwork that is a part of a portfolio;
and achievement or aptitude tests. In this phase, the committee will want to include all pupils
who appear to exhibit or have the potential to exhibit the desired qualities. A good rule of
thumb might be that when in doubt, screen the pupils further.

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During the screening phase, additional information is collected on the nominated pupils. Since
the number of learners in the screening phase will be smaller than in the nomination phase, a
district might consider using individually administered measures or methods that allow for
more clinical observations such as interviews, participation in a classroom for gifted pupils, or
observations of the ways in which the student learns new information (dynamic assessment).
Dynamic assessment focuses on the interaction between the gifted learners and the task. The
tasks should be problem-based and require complex strategies that discriminate among
intelligent individuals (Geary & Brown, 1991; Kurtz & Weinert, 1989; Scruggs & Mastropieri,
1985). These novel tasks might provide opportunities for varying rates of learning, efficiency in
retrieving information for solving problems, transfer to new tasks, and knowledge about a
learner’s strategies (Johnsen, 1997). Again, all pupils should have opportunities to demonstrate
their best performance levels. By the end of the nomination and screening phases, a school
should have data from multiple sources and quantitative and qualitative assessments.

(iv) Selection
During the selection phase, the identification committee examines all of the data that have
been collected on each child nominated and screened. The committee should be comprised of
specialist teachers and those who have received training in the nature and needs of gifted
students). All data from both the nomination and screening phases should be considered. To
ensure objectivity, the committee may initially want to identify learners by number only and
add clinical or qualitative information later.
The identification committee determines which students are selected for which gifted program.
Given the synthesis of the qualitative and quantitative information, the committee might also
want to create a differentiation plan that includes specific programming based on the gifted
pupil’s strengths and weaknesses, long- and short-term goals, classroom activities within the
gifted and the general education program, and evaluation. These plans will set the stage for the
next phase, which includes an annual evaluation of the identification procedure).

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4.9.Evaluation and Modification

The following questions might be used to guide the school in building a defensible procedure
for identifying gifted and talented pupils:
(i) Is the procedure based on best research and recommendations?
(ii) Does it match the school’s definition and program options?
(iii) Do all pupils have an equal opportunity to be nominated?
(iv) Are all pupils able to demonstrate their strengths?
(v) Are assessments fair to pupil’s cultures?
(vi) Are all pupils able to demonstrate their abilities in classroom activities?
(vii) Are multiple sources of information used?
(viii) Are all data considered during the selection phase?
(ix) Are the pupils’ data evaluated objectively?
(x) Are all pupils who need a differentiated education being identified?
(xi) Do identified pupils perform well in the program that matches their gifts or talents?

Data from the identification process may be correlated with future performance in the
classroom, future performance on other assessments, future performance on assessments used
for program evaluation purposes, and future performance in out-of-school settings.
4.9.1.Education approaches
The overall goal of educational programmes for gifted and talented pupils is the fullest possible
development of every child’s actual and potential abilities. Gallagher (1981) has classified the
educational objectives of programmes for the gifted into two broad areas.
(i) Mastering the knowledge structure of disciplines which involves both basic
principles and system of knowledge
(ii) Heuristic skills – involves problem solving, creativity, and scientific inquiry
In other words gifted and talented children require both knowledge and the abilities to develop
and use that knowledge.

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Educators use various teaching methods to meet the needs of gifted and talented children.
Because students thrive in different learning environments, it may be necessary for parents and
teachers to explore every available option. These are the primary approaches to educating this
unique group of learners.

(i) Acceleration
This is the provision of opportunities to a learner to move through the required curriculum
at a faster pace. There are many acceleration options.
 Grade skipping
 Early admission to school. For example in Zambia the legal age at which a child may be
enrolled in school is 7. But a child may be enrolled at the age of five.
 Content acceleration in one or two subjects while remaining with age peers
 Concurrent enrollment in both high school and college
 Early admission in college
 Advance placement test
In choosing this option however, parents and teachers should consider whether the
child is emotionally and socially ready to interact with older children.

(ii) Enrichment
This is a system of studying a subject at a greater depth than would occur in the regular
classroom. The content should be more innovative, novel and sophistication.

(iii) Cluster grouping

Gifted learners within a grade level are identified and are grouped together in the same
classroom with a gifted-endorsed teacher. A different curriculum is used for the select
group. The other children in the classroom are usually of mixed abilities. The benefit of this

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approach is that gifted learners have the chance to work with intellectually similar peers
within their own age group.

(iv) Pull-out programs

This is another opportunity for gifted children to receive individualized instruction. With this
method, a specialist takes a group of high-ability children outside of their classroom
periodically for instruction.

(v) Magnet classes

These are special classes for advanced learners. Children are tested throughout the district
and are offered placement. Magnet classes benefit children since they are able to
continually interact with same-age peers. This option can be challenging as children are
usually given curriculum two grade levels ahead.

(vi) Differentiation,
Many educators have become well-versed in modifying the regular classroom
curriculum to meet the needs of pupils with disabilities. Educators are not as
experienced, however, in meeting the instructional needs of high-ability pupils. In a
growing number of states, revisions in regulations pertaining to gifted and talented
students are requiring that high-ability pupils, previously served in part-time pull-out
programs, must also receive appropriate instruction within the context of their regular
classrooms.

Many regular education teachers report that meeting the needs of high-ability pupils equals
and often exceeds the challenges of integrating disabled students in their classrooms. High-
ability pupils can be delightful, but they can also be demanding, impatient, perfectionistic,
sarcastic, and disruptive. In addition, few regular education teachers have received sufficient
training in issues related to gifted and talented education. Before teachers can develop

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appropriate instructional strategies to meet the needs of high-ability students, they must
recognize the value of such efforts. For many educators, services to gifted and talented pupils
may seem to be elitist. However, public education is founded on the belief that all pupils
(including those with high abilities) have the right to instruction appropriate to their needs.
Gifted and talented pupils, like all learners, should learn something new every day.

4.9.2. Curriculum Modification Strategies

The objectives for modifying standard curricula for gifted and talented pupils include:
 Meeting the learning capacity of the students,
 Meeting the students’ rapid rates of learning in all or some areas of study, and
 Providing time and resources so that pupils can pursue areas of special interest.
In order to modify standard curricula for gifted and talented pupils, Lois Roets (1993) proposed
three options:
 Lesson modifications,
 Assignment modifications, and
 Scheduling modifications.
Lessons can be modified through acceleration or enrichment of content. Assignments can be
modified through reducing regular classroom work or providing alternate assignments.
Scheduling options include providing opportunities for gifted and talented pupils to work
individually through independent study, shared learning in homogeneous groupings with peers
of similar ability and interests, and participation in heterogeneous groupings of mixed-ability
pupils.

(i) Lesson Modifications

One way teachers can extend or enrich the content they present is by asking open-
ended questions. Such questions stimulate higher order thinking skills and give students
opportunities to consider and express personal opinions. Open-ended questions require
thinking skills such as comparison, synthesis, insight, judgment, hypothesis, conjecture,

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and assimilation. Such questions can also increase student awareness of current events.
Open-ended questions should be included in both class discussions and assignments.
They can also be used as stimulation for the opening or conclusion of a lesson.

Another strategy for lesson modification developed by Susan Winebrenner (1992) is to

use Bloom’s taxonomy of six levels of thinking to develop lesson content. Bloom’s model
implies that the “lower” levels (knowledge, comprehension, and application) require
more literal and less complex thinking than the “higher” levels (analysis, evaluation, and
synthesis). Teachers are encouraged to develop thematic units with activities for
students at all ability levels. This strategy involves four steps. Teachers first choose a
theme that can incorporate learning objectives from several different subject areas.
Secondly, teachers identify 6 to 10 key concepts or instructional objectives. Third, they
determine which learner outcomes or grade-level competencies will be targeted for the
unit. Finally, they design instructional activities to cover each of the six levels of thinking.

(ii) Assignment Modifications

High-ability students are often expected to complete assignments that they find boring
or irrelevant because they represent no new learning for them. Allowing them to reduce
or skip standard assignments in order to acquire time to pursue alternate assignments
or independent projects is called curriculum compacting. The curriculum for a gifted
student should be compacted in those areas that represent his or her strengths. When
students “buy time” for enrichment or alternate activities, they should use that time to
capitalize on their strengths, rather than to improve skills in weaker subjects. For
example, a student advanced in math should have a compacted curriculum in that area
with opportunities given for enriched study in mathematics.

The first step in compacting the curriculum is determining the need to do so. A pupil is a
candidate for compacting if he or she regularly finishes assignments quickly and

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correctly, consistently scores high on tests related to the modified area, or

demonstrates high ability through individualized assessment, but not daily class work
( he or she is gifted, but unmotivated for the standard curriculum).

The second step in compacting the curriculum is to create a written plan outlining
which, if any, regular assignments will be completed and what alternate activities will be
accomplished. A time frame for the plan should also be determined. Modification plans
can be limited to a few days (length of lesson or chapter) or extend over the course of
an entire school year.

Alternate assignments for gifted and talented pupils can either be projects related to
the modified area of study that extend the curriculum, or they can be independent
projects that are chosen based on pupils’ individual interests. Winebrenner (1992)
described a strategy in which pupils use written independent study contracts to
research topics of interest to become “resident experts.” The pupils and teacher decide
upon a description and the criteria for evaluating each project. A deadline is
determined, and by that date, each pupil must share his or her project with the entire
class. Before choosing their projects, pupils are also given time to browse various areas
of interest. After completing compacted work, learnerss are allowed to look through
research materials to explore various topics. A deadline for choosing a topic for
independent projects is also given to the students to limit their browsing time.

Cooperative learning through traditional heterogeneous groups is often

counterproductive for gifted and talented pupils. When the learning task involves a
great deal of drill and practice, these pupils often end up doing more teaching than
learning. When placed in homogeneous cooperative learning groups, however, gifted
students can derive significant learning benefits. This does not mean that gifted and
talented pupils should never participate in heterogeneous cooperative learning groups.

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Rather, groupings should be chosen based on the task that is being assigned. When the
task includes drill and practice, such as math computation or answering comprehension
questions about a novel, gifted pupils should be grouped together and given a more
complex task. When the task includes critical thinking, gifted pupils should be part of
heterogeneous groups to stimulate discussions. Open-ended activities are excellent
choices for heterogeneous groupings.

Cluster grouping of gifted and talented pupils in the same classroom is another option
for meeting the needs of gifted pupils in the regular classroom. The traditional method
of assigning students to classes has often been to divide the gifted and talented pupils
equally among the available classes so each teacher would have his or her “fair share.”
Under this system, however, each teacher must develop strategies for modifying the
curriculum to meet the needs of the advanced pupils. With cluster grouping, four to six
high-ability students are placed in the same classroom. This system allows the pupils to
learn with and from each other and reduces the need for multiple teachers to develop
appropriate instructional modifications.

Unit Summary
Giftedness has been defined differently by different scholars and organisations. The US
department of education has defines gifted and talented children as those exhibiting high
performance capabilities in intellectual, creativity, and /or artistic areas; possessing an unusual
leadership capacity; excelling in specific academic field.

Ronzulii’s definition of giftedness is based on traits of above average general abilities, high level
of task commitment, and creativity. Piirto defines the gifted as having superior memory,
observational powers, curiosity, creativity and ability to learn.

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