Chapter4

METHODS OF SOCIOLOGY
Comparative Method-Historical Method-Statistical Method Case
Study
Method-Scientific Method-Limitations of the Scientific MethodMethod-
tional Func-
in Sociology
Scientific View Point-Sociology as a
Science-Sociological Point ofView.

Sociology as a social
science has been trying to
Son with other social sciences develop its own method of study. In compari-
method. Though sociology has to face greater
problems in evolving a satisfactory
sociology is in its extreme
infancy it tries touch
precise a manner as possible. Man's social life is upon various
social life in as to
aspects of man's
highly challenging task for sociologists to
a complex and multi-faceted. It is
data which are too collect, analyse, synthesise and finally
numerous, complex and illusive. generalise social
ing and interpreting social data. Hence it has becomeThey are seeking out all the avenues of collect-
ods in their study. quite natural for them to employ various meth-
A brief survey of some of these methods is given below.
1. THE
COMPARATIVE METHOD
In order to tackle the
problems of society effectively and to make fruitful
sociology has to employ precise and well-tested methods of discoveries,
is one such method. This method is as old investigation.
as Aristotle for it is
The comparative method
method in his study of political systems. But it became known that he had made use
"the method of this
only in the 19th century. Sociologists and social par excellence of
investigators like Comte, Durkheim, sociology"
Frazer, Weber, Hobhouse, Wheeler, Ginsberg, Gouldner, Tylor, J.G.
G.P.
Murdock, S.F.
only used this method in their Nadel, S.M. Lipset
and R. Bendix, E.R. Leach, and others have not
it sufficiently popular. studies but also made
The comparative method refers to the
within the same society to show whether
method of comparing different societies or orosunc
and wny they are similar or different in certain
Ry such comparisons of differenoes as
well as similarines round
in the ways of life of
resnects
different groups and societies, one can find clues to man's social behaviour peonles of
Thecomparative method is not
specitically sociological
a

in logic, and as such it is applicable to all the sciences. method

In the 18th
but
centurv is a method auite Lnnown
this method in their study of different languages. In the 19th century, this meroists made use
bythe
of
social investigators to fínd out similarities in social institutions so as
Both Montesquieu and Comte used and recommended this method in the 19th o mon origins.
and similarities between societies,
and explain both differences
there was a strong link between the use
Throughout the 19th century of the comparati
and the evolutionist approach.
Durkheim set out clearly
the significano
ut clearly the
signiticanceof
he
this comparative
method method
44 in his "The
Methods of Sociolog) 45
Rules of Sociological Method". According to him, the sociological explanation consists entirely in
the establishment of causal conections. In the case of natural sciences, the causal connections could
be more easily established because of facility of experiment. Since such direct experiments are out
ofquestion in sociology, we are compelled to use the method of indirect experiment, i.e., compara-
tive method-says Durkheim
Durkheim in his work "Division ofLabour in Society" compared the legal systems of different
societies at the same time and at different levels of development. In that he used law as an index of
the moral character of society. By comparison "he tested his hypothesis that an increase in the divi-
sion of labour is accompanied by a change in the nature of social integration or solidarity".
Further, Durkheim in his study of "Suicide" aimed to discover the social causes ofsuicide by
relating the rates of suicide in different social groups to characteristics of the groups. He showed that
"the suicide rates varied inversely with the degree of social cohesion and with the degree of stability
of moral norms".
Tylor used this method in the study of institutions connected with the family among primitive
people and was able to show that the practice of mother-in-law avoidance was corelated with the
system of matrilocal residence.
Recently, S.M. Lipset and R. Bendix have compared "rates of social mobility in different indus-
trial societies to show that these rates are governed largely by the stage or degree of industrialisation."
Thus, by employing this method it may be possible to explain the significance of a custom or
practice, though it varies from one society to another, by studying the motives behind it.
By adopting this method it is quite possible to establish correlations between crime and
urbanisation, between family size and social mobility, between social class and educational attain
ment, between urban living and divorce or delinquency rates, etc. Studies of this kind have resulted
in a number of generalisations also.
It is true that the comparative method has its own limitations. Critics have pointed out that
"what appear superficially to be similar institutions may, in fact, be very different in the societies
being considered". Further, "an institution detached from the context of the whole society in which
it functions may easily be misunderstood". These comments denote practical difficulties involved in
the application of the method. As Bottomore has suggested these difficulties could be minimised by
limiting the range of comparisons to societies which are broadly similar.
In spite of its deficiencies, the comparative method has been widely used today in sociological
studies. E.A. Freeman claimed that "the establishment of the comparative method of study has been
the greatest intellectual achievement of our time." As Durkheim said, in the absepce of experimental
method comparative method is the only method available to the sociological disciplines. Due to the
success attained by employing this method in small-scale studies in particular societies, sociologists
are encouraged to make comparisons between societies. Such higher-level comparisons between
SoCieties and nations are necessary to verify the conclusions of the small-scale studies.

2. THE HISTORICAL METHOD

The historical method refers to, "a study ofevents, processes, and institutions ofpast civilisations,
for the purpose of finding the origins or antecedents of contemporary social life and thus under-
standing its nature a n d working. " This method is based on the idea that our present forms o f social

life, our customs and traditions, beliefs and values, and our ways of living as such have their roots in
the past and that one can best explain them by tracing them back to their origins.
The utility and wide acceptance of the historical method have resulted in one of the fields of
sociology known as "historical sociology ""Historical sociology studies societies ofthe remote as
well as of recent past to discover origins of, and find explanations
for, our present ways of life.
In a way, all types of sociological researches are historical for the sociologists make use of the
 46
Introducing Sociolog
records relating to the things that have happened or have been observed. But generally, the ter-
historical sociology" is applied to the study of social facts which are more than fifty or so years old
t means all the social facts relating to the 19th and early phase of 20th centuries are referred to a
"historical"
In practice,
"historical sociology a is
particular kind of comparative study of social groups-
their compositions, their
interrelationships and the social conditions which support or
them. The social anthropologist examines these things in contemporary simple societies. undermine-
historical sociologist examines But the
them in the records of societies and cultures prior to his own.
The historical approach has taken
two main forms. () The first one is
biological theory of evolution, and (ii) highly influenced by the
the second one by the economic
) In the first approach interpretation.
concentration is made on the issues such as the origins,
and transfofmation
of societies and social development
human institutions. This is actually concerned with the entire
of history. Comte, Spencer and Hobhouse used this span
whole society. But E. approach to study the development of
Westermarck and F. Oppenheimer followed this method to the
ment of institutions
such as marriage and state in their study the develop-
riage" and "The State" famous studies of "History of Human Mar-
() The second
respectively.
Weber
approachcharacteristic of the works of Max Weber and his
was
strongly criticised Mark's materialist followers.
conception
explanation of historical reality". He advocated the of history and his "formula for the causal
Weber applied this idea of economic
approach in his studies of origins of 'interpretation' history.
of
bureaucracy, and the economic influence of thetheworld Capitalism, the development of modern
changes of social structures are religions. In these studies particular historical
investigated
Raymond Aron also came under the influence of and interpreted.
Very recently C. Wright Mills and
Weber's methodology in their studies.
3. THE STATISTICAL METHOD
From the 17th
statistics concerning
Century onwards statistical methods have become
the application of
people or things. The term "statistics" may be used essential
in
in
analysing vital
statistical methods to two ways: () to refer to
numerical data collected in relation to social or non-social problems, and (i) to refer to the actual
these problems.
The term 'social statistics' or 'statistical method' refers to the
social phenomena mathematically. It may be regarded as "the method that is used to measure
interpreting numerical information about social method of collecting,
statistics is mathematics aggregates". As analysing and
Bogardus has pointed out "Social
applied to human facts".
The statistical method is of great help in some
cases in order
tween different aspects of social disclose the relationship be-
to
phenomena. It also helps to arrive at
nature, occurrence, and meaning. It is an generalisations regarding their
used in issues or problems which involveimportant tool in research in the sense it can be
be very effectively used in studies
measurement or numerals. For effectively
relating to rates of birth
and
example, this method can
and suicide. Useful information can be obtained death, divorce and
by marriage, crime
ing to migration, economic conditions, standard of the application of this method in studies
living, human ecology, pertain-
public opinion, and so on.
The statistical method reveals certain
phenomena. Firstly, collection of numericaldistinctive teatures when applied to the
study of social
always be done by direct observation. It has inromation
be
about social issues or
problems cannot
have their own limitations. Secondly, a socialto one through questionnaires and survevs which
views also. In interviews some staustclanto is concermed with the problems
respondents may ruse provide the in formation of inter-
heen asked If
for. such respondents are selected out Or which they have
significant deficiency in the whole process. sampling, the problem
Thirdly, social statisticians are c of refusal hecame
nes a
analysis of data, which can be ordered but not measured. (Ex: the provisio nterested in the
being classified into-good, fair, indifferent and poor). es
Methods of Sociology 47

Sociologists like Comte, Prof. Giduings and others have emphasised the importance of this
method in sociological research. It is true that most of the data dealt with in sociology are qualitative
and not quantitative in nature. Still sociologists are struggling to reduce more and more of such data
to quantitative terms so that they can be studied statistically.
4. THE CASE STUDY METHOD
The Case study' is a practice derived from legal studies. In legal studics a "kase' refers to an
event or set of events involving legal acts. In sociology case study method is a holistic treatment of
a subject. This method provides for the qualitative analysis of the issues. This is an in-depth study of
an individual or a situation or an organisation or an institution or a family or a group or a small
ommunity. The idea behind this method is that any case being studicd is representative of many
Com

_imilar cases (if not all) and, hence, will make generalisations possible. This method irtvolves the
minute study of all the information and data collected regarding the object or case under study.
Hence Burgess called this method "'social microscope."
The case study may make use of various techniques such as intrviews, questionnaires, sched-
ules, life histories, relevant documents of all kinds and also 'participant observation' for collecting8
information about the case under study. This method is essential in obtaining an insight into the
problems of the alcoholic, drug addict, the criminal, the juvenile delinquent, the social deviant, or
the immigrant. Thomas and Znaniecki's "Polish Peasant in Europe and America"- (1922) is a
classic work in the field of case study.
This method is often criticised by the social statisticians. According to them, this method can
not provide methodologically precise results of a general nature. Still, it could be used as a valuable
preliminary approach in order to discover the significant variables that speak of human behaviour.
These variables may lead to thé formulation of hypotheses which could be tasted by making refer-
ences to a large number of instances.

5. THE FUNCTIONAL METHOD (FUNCTIONALISM

The functional method or functionalism has been given greater emphasis during recent times
in sociological studies. This method, in sociology and social anthropology, appeared in the begin-
ning almost as a reaction against the method of the evolutionists. In comparison with other methods
such as scientific method, comparative method, etc., functionalism can be more understood as a
method of analysis and interpretation than as a method of investigation.
Functionalism refers "to the study ofsocial phenomena from the point of view of thefunctions
method is
thatparticular institutions or social structures, such as class, serve in a saciety." This
based on the assumption that the total social system of the society is made up of parts which are
interrelated and interdependent. Each part performs a function necessary to the life of the group.
These parts could be u nderstood only in relations to the functions that they perform or the needs
understand añd
they meet with. Since this method, presupposes the interdependence of parts, we can
as with the
study any one part of the social system only in its relationships with other parts as well
whole system. For example, the institution of religion in society has to be understood by means of its
relationship with other institutions such as morality, family, state, law, etc., and in its relationship
with the entire social system. As this method presupposes, religion has its own function to perform
or need to fulfil, (and it may be the expression and reinforcement of social solidarity as Durkheim
spoke of). .
The 19th Century sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer had actually laid
the foundations for this functional approach. But it was Durkheim who first gave a rigorous concept
of social function in his "The Division of Labour in Society" and in "The Rules of Sociological
Method. " Functionalism became quite popular at the hands of Radcliffe Brown and Malinowski.
The extreme form of functionalism was propagated by B. Malinowski whose intluence pervaded
 Methods of
fSociolog

7. LIMIT
48 Introducing Sociolog
defined a
amongst a good number of social anthropologists. He spoke in terms of the functional integration of is
lowed. TD
Science

every society and its institutions. He dogmatically asserted that "every social activity had afunction that
is follo
"
method A soci
by virtue ofits existence, and every activity was so completely integrated with all the others.
s c i e n c e s .

physical c i e n t i f i c meth
During the recent years the concept of functionalism has been put to a very novel use by earches. Sc.

American sociologists such as R.K. Merton and Talcott Parsons. Because of their greater emphasis subject-matter.
on social structures, or institutions, functionalism at their hands came to be known as "structural. The Limitations

Junctional method.' R.K. Merton has made functionalist approach less dogmatic and less exclusive Dificulty
in the

He has presented it a_ one possible approach to the study of social behaviour. He has made a distinc. (1) The soc
living.

tion between "function and dysfunction", and also between "latent and manifest functions." These everyday Here the
people.
new qualities indicate that any social institution may have several functions any one of which may tives,is,emotions, feelings
that
be of greater importance in a particular society. As Bottomore has pointed out "what is most valuable c a n n o t
be re
in
approach is the greater emphasis and clarity given to the simple idea that in every
the functionalist
phenomena

(2) Interdependen

particular society the different social activities are interconnected". is thecause

which

6. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD mine

we
cannot E
poverty,
The basis of study of any science or discipline is its methods. Sciences in general and natural to
There is plurali
causes.

science in particular follow the scientific method. The scientific method has added much to their (3) Intangibility o-
credbility and objectivity. The scientific method consists of certain steps or procedures which are to be
identified di
be followed that c a n
precisely. A glance of these steps or procedures is given below. units in
a laboratory. C-
() Formulation of the Problem. A 'problem' is a gap in knowledge, something not under preserved in a m
stood. It may be not be
simple or complex. But this
problem is to be defined
properly. Otherwise, we may (4) Complexity op
miss the direction and efforts
may be wasted. A casual observation and an idea regarding the existing activities. Human behæ
amount of knowledge on that
particular issue may help one to define the problem properly. is simply.
(2) Formulation of the observer
Hypothesis.
idea to the new aspects that are
When the problem to be tackled is known we must have some generalisations are dif
likely to be discovered. These primary ideas which may guide us in
our study
may be termed as hypothesis. It is a tentative (5) Unpredictab=
sional supposition which is not explanation of a phenomenon. It is a provi- process. T
yet proved but is anticipated to be córrect. an ongoing
(3) Observation and Collection of Data. The formulated times and circumstanc
requires observation and collection of facts. In social hypothesis will have to be tested. This
investigations we collect data by interview, (6) Problem of
schedules, questionnaires, field observations, etc. The methods of collecting data have his own ideas
nature of the research and the resources at depend upon the
our disposal. difficult to maintain.
(4) Analysis and Synthesis. After the data have been
analysed in order to draw proper inferences. This requires thecollected they must be processed and Hence, sociolog
tion means arranging the data in different groups or classes classification of the data. Classifica- comparative method.
larities. according totheir similarities or dissimi- tionnaire and intervie
(5) Generalisation. After the data have been edge about phenomne
draw broad inferences or conclusions or
collected, processed, and analysed, we have
to
generalisations.
(6) Formulation of Theory and Law. When a
scientist has succeeded in
ing the relation between various facts, he has
formulated
describing and explain-
a theory. When these
Scientific outlc
and accepted by the scientist as facts have been yearns to know. The
invariably true the theory may be
properly regarded
tested
Hypothesis-Theory-and
esis, theory and law. A
Law. At this
point it is necessary to
law.
distinguish between
as a
knowledge.
looks
The sci
hypothesis generally formulated
is at the
tive. To havethings.
before the hypoth.
deals with comparatively narrower range of facts. A theony is a factsobserved properly It
are
tested
hypothesis and deals wi this sc
wide range of facts. Theory is sometimes
regarded as an elaborate hypothesis. When a with follow certain basic
established and found to be correct invariably, it is regarded as a law. theory ie
We should note that we encounter
well
his
(1) The scient-
some difficulties in
of social phenomena. Scientific method has a few limitations inapplying scientitic method to tho. statement of fac
sociology. Still, with so (2) The scient
cations the scientific method is being followed even in social some Study
investigations. modifi- process of observas
as (3)quahi
as they The scien
Methods of Sociology 49
7. LIMITATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN
SOCIOLOGY
Science is defined as a systematic body of knowledge. Here the word 'system' refers to the
method that is followed. This method is the scientific method. It is commonly followed in the
case of
shysical sciences. A sociologist encounters some difficulties in applying this method in social re-
cearches. Scientific method has few limitations in sociology. This is due to the very nature of its
seare

subject-matter.
The Limitations

(1) Difficulty in the Use of Experimental Method. The laboratory of a sociologist is the world of
everyday living. The sociologist does not have much control over the
subjects of his investigation,
that is, people. Here the people are not only conscious of, but also have their own motives, incen-
tives, emotions, feelings, 1deas values etc., which may affect the investiagtion very much. Social
phenomena cannot be reproduced artificially at our will,
(2) Interdependence of Cause and Effect. In social investigations it is often difficult to
mine which is thecause and which is the effect. Whether poverty is due to beggary, or beggary deter
is due
to poverty, we cannot be sure. Causation is reciprocal here. Further, one effect may have several
causes. There is plurality of causation also.
(3) Intangibility of Social Phenomena. The social phenomena are not external tangible things
that can be identified directly by our senses. We cannot see or touch relations. We cannot isolate our
units in a laboratory. Customs cannot be handled and institutions cannot be measured, religion can-
not be preserved in a museum and values cannot be demonstrated.
(4) Complexity of Social Data. The social research is about man and his social behaviour and
activities, Human behaviouris influenced by many factors: physcial, social, psychological,ete., and
the observer issimply confused with the complexity of data. No two persons are exactly alike. Hence
generalisations are difficult to make.
(5) Unpredictability. Social behaviour is irregular and unpredictable. Society is dynamic. It is
an ongoing process. Therefore, we cannot formulate laws that hold good for all societies and for all
times and circumstances. Predictions are hence difficult to make.
(6) Problem of Objectivity. In social sciences the observer is a part of his data. He may
have his own ideas, opinion, prejudices which are difficut to control. Hence objectivity is
difficult to maintain.
Hence, sociology, in addition to the scientific method makes use of other methods such as the
comparative method, the statistical method, the social survey method, the case study method, ques-
tionnaire and interview methods and the functional method in order to obtain more reliable knowl-
edge about phenomena.
8. THE SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT
Scientific outlook is very essential for a learner of a discipline like sociology. A man of science
yearns to know. The scientist has to make use of all the available sources and means for the search of
knowledge. The scientific outlook or viewpiont refers mainly to the way in which an individual
looks at the things. A scientist, to be called a scientist, must have the scientific outlook or perspec-
tive. To have this scientific outlook or viewpiont or perspective he must have certain qualities and
follow certain basic norms. Some of them may be mentioned:
(1) The scientist likes and loves truth. He is after facts. He is clear in his vision and careful in
his statement of facts.
2) The scientist maintains objectivity. He tries to separate his own wishes and values from the
process of observation. He tries to control is likes and disl1kes that may affect his inquiry.
(3) The scientist follows the amoral approach. He is ethically neutral. He never studies things
as they ought to be. He deals with them as they are. He never makes value-judgments.
50 Introducing Sociology
notions. He is not
swayed by th.
is free from prejudices or preconceived
(4) The scientist
opinions or views of others. He cultivates the habit of dispassionate thinking
and precise expressio
to face the facts. He never rejects the
(5)The scientist is a man of courage. He is cver ready
facts just because they are disliked by others. He never accepts the views which only cater to hia
prejudices. Failures cannot discourage him, for he is an unselfish seeker of truth. He is not afraid of
facing truth under any circumstances.
(6) The scientist generally assumes that knowledge is worthwhile. He does not assume that

only facts about people are more important and that facts about animals are not. As scientist, he
knows the importance of giving mankind more knowledge than it previously possessed.
(7) The scientist is broadminded in spirit. He never contines himself to the narrow religious, or
racial or national and other kind of cell at the cost of facts and naked truths. He is uncompromising
as far as truth is concerned.
(8) The scientist is always analytical. He delves deep into the problems and tries to find
answers for questions like-what ? why ? how ? He is rationalistic too.
9. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
There is a controversy about the nature of sociology as a science. 'Is sociology a science ?"- is
an issue which is highly debated and discussed. A correct answer to this question cannot be divided,
into two categories, 'Yes' or 'No'. But the correct answer should be in terms of degree, the degree to
which sociology is a science. Some critics argue that sociology cannot claim to be a science. Some
others assert that sociology is very much a science like other social sciences such as Political Sci
ence, Economics and Psychology.
W.F. Ogburn, an American sociologist, is of the opinion that
sociology is a science. According
to him, a science is to be judged by three
criteria
(i) the reliability of its body of knowledge.
(i) its organisation, and
(ii) its method.
The question whether sociology is a science or not, can be better answered if this question is
thought over in the light of these criteria.
() The Reliability of Knowledge: Science depends upon reliable knowledge. In this
regard
sociology has made a promising beginning. Sociological studies of population, family, group the
behaviour, the evolution of institutions, the process of social change and such other topics are re-
garded as considerably reliable.
Science assumes that all phenomena show uniformities and
regularities. It seeks to establish
generalisations that are universal. But sociological generalisations are restricted to time and space
unlike the generations of Physics or Chemistry. Social data
change too much and too fast. Sociology
mainiy deals with the human material and this human material is irregular and illusive. Social rela-
tions are not fixed but flexible. It is difficult to control the variable, and there
are many variables in
social data.
in
spite of the diffeulties, sociologists have tried to establish generalisations, which have
had
great success. For instance, it is a sociological generalisation that societies
in such a way as to prevent incest. Much of the sociological
always regulate marriages
knowledge is becoming reliable:
A very good test of the reliability of knowledge is the test
tions difficult to be made in
of prediction and control. Prediç-
are sociology, it not impOsSible, so also the control For
are many causes for juvenile delinquency like, instance, there
unhappy parents, broken home and crowded cities.
To test the effect of only one factor, i.e.;
broken home on juvenile task
the other variables like crowded cities. This is almost an impossibledelinquency,
we should control
Methods of Sociology 51

Not in all areas of sociological study, knowledge can be obtained easily. On some areas, mea
surement cannotbe made. Areas such as religion, art, morality etc. are not very much amenable to
scientific method.
Further, many publications are made under the title of sociology and some of them consist of
only ideas, not knowledge. These are essays, cthical discussions, wise pronouncements, interpreta-
tions, theories, programmes, valuations etc. Their practical importance may be even greater than thar
of science.
() The Organisation of Knowledge: Disjointed collection of facts cannot be a science. The
science should be organised. The organisation of a science rests upon the relationship, which the
parts of knowledge bear to each other. The value of organisation lies not in a symmetry, but in its
value for the discovery of more know ledge.
As regards the organisation of knowledge, sociology is not disappointing. In sociology there
are many inter-relationships.which are enough to encourage more discoveries though inadequate to
provide a proper synthesis for the whole field. A largercollection of knowledge, it is expected, will
P
eventually provide such a synthesis.
(i) Method: Abranch of knowledge can be called science ifit follows the scientific method in
its studies and investigations. Scientific method starts with a hypothesis. This hypothesis is verified
through experimentation. But an experimentation of laboratory situation is difficult in sociology.
The laboratory experiment, which has been a great aid to many natural scientists, is not very
common in sociology, because there are some limitations in the experimental method as related to
human conduct. One l1mitation is that people who become aware of the fact that they are being
studied, may render the experimental situation impossible. Further, the experimenter himself may
have his own bias or prejudices against his subjects of experimentation.
Experimental method requires a fixed static situation. But it is difficult in sociology. Social life
is actually dynamic and not static. StrictBy speaking, laboratory experiment is not possible in sociol-
ogy. However, in sociology we can measure the relationships of two variables by employing statis-
tical method. For example, if we want to know whether families with low income have more infant
deaths, we can collect the statistics. We must have two groups of families with the same type of
feeding, same customs etc. By studying and varying the factor of income and by keeping other
factors constant, we can establish a relation between the rate of infant mortality and income.
Sociology has quite a number of other methods besides the experimental method. The histori-
cal method, case study method, social survey method, functional method, the statistical method, etc,
can be cited here as examples. These methods are often found to be fruitful in sociological studies.
Sociology has shown itself a growing science. Of course, sociology as a science is not as accurate as
Physics or Chemistry. It is true that social phenomena ure hard to measure. Still there is a relative
orderliness and approximate predictability in certain classes of social phenomena. With those who
charge that experimentation is impossible in sociology and experimentation is the only criterion of
science, we may argue that many of the facts and generalisations even in physical sciences are not
based on experiments at al. But their facts are mostly gathered through observations and not through
experiments.
To conclude, we may say that 'science', after all, is a method to discover the truth. Experimen-
tal method is not the only method of realising the truth. There are many methods and techniques in
sociology and if these are properly applied, sociology will havedefinitely the characteristics of a
genuine science. Right application ofdifferent methods in the spirit of objectivity will certainly yield
fruitful results.
AEDK
AW UR
26743
AwYwITA
52 Introducing Sociology
10. THE SOCIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW
The generally accepted meaning of sociology is that it is the science of society. But sociology
is not the only science that deals with the human society and social phenomena. Different social
sciences such as Economics, History, Political Science, Psychology, etc., also select one or the other
aspect of society for their study. For example, Economics may study man's attempts to make his
living; political science, his power relations; history, his "significant past life", psychology, his
behaviour as such, and sociology, his 'society' and 'social behaviour'. What accounts for their
differences? It is not the difference in concrete subject-matter, for these "social disciplines are all
studying the same external phenomena-the facts ofsocial life". As K. Davis points out, "Tt is rather
a difference in the point of view or focus of attention", that accounts for their real ditferences.
Then what is the sociological point of view ? The student of sociology must learm the socio.
logical perspective or point of view for "sociology is first and foremost a way of looking at the
SOCial world". The sociologist must see into and through man's daily round of activities"
- David Popenoe

An untrained eye sees simply the routine that underlies daily social interactions. "Every one
has become so accustomed to the fact that he kisses his children, greets warmly friends and relatives,
waves hands to his neighbours, shakes hands when he meets a stranger, etc., and these actions are
Virtually invisible". The primary task of a sociologist is to teach himself to notice these social rela-
tionship with fresh eyes, with as much wonder as if they were exotic rites performed by some far-off
jungle tribe. "The sociologist specialises in seeing those things to which familiarity has made most
of us blind" - David Popenoe

A sociologist learns that a mumber of social transactions like these make up the fabric of
human social life. Now he must ask himself questions-why do people do all these? say, for
example, why a male child is still preferred to a female child in the Indian family? Why wife
prostrates before the husband and not vice versa? Why the kissing act of adults in public is sill
looked with disapproval amongst the Indians and not so amongst their Western
counterpart? Why
people go to the temples in bigger number on the occasion of festival, etc.
No sociological training is, of course, required to answer these
questions. Ordinarily people
may give an answer-it is the 'right' thing to do. But a sociologist goes beyond these and tries to find
an answer through traditions or
morality. He asks questions why some practices become traditional?
How people know that certain practices are right? Who or what conferred this
them? He may point out that an action which is, one
"rightfulness" upon
society's sacred custom, may be another's
immoral vice.
In other words, sociologist will look beyond
the generally accepted explanations for social
behaviour and seek more scientific This is what Peter Berger calls the
answers.
tion of sociology. When sociologists "debunk" or remove traditional
"debunking" func-
explanations many of their
explanations or answers become public controversy because people may be upset with their expla
nations.
Example: Why do people go to temples or churches ? The ordinary explanation is people go to
temples due to their utmost religiosity. But a sociologist might say, in addition to the
above-men-
tioned 'manifest' function, the church-going behaviour
may serve some "latent functions such
as--to enhance one's social standing, to0 exhibit one's new clothes, to parade one's
demonstrate one's religiosity, and so on. Sociologists must be ready to face the
jewellery. to
charge that is made
against them as "unrespectable".
The sociological perspéctive is quite different from the ordinary way of looking at things ad
events as stated above. The following example of the class-room will further clarifv thies
it is
Example ofclass-room: During their very first class the college students will be havino th point.
assumptions relating to prôfessors looks, dress, knowledge, language, expression sh eir
own
Methods of Sociology
mance, class command etc. Students 53
narticular professor. But a sociologistevaluation of the class is based on personal reactions to a
hehaviour. He observes power relations, focuses
rules of
on social
relationships rather than on individual
A sociologist observes conduct,
unequal distribution of and class characteristics.
power to talk, discipline, power in the class-room, the teacher
punish
tutional support his command in
at
and to
determine grades. He observes that the teacher hashaving the
tc. Still, teacher is not
etc. disciplining the students, denying library and
having absolute
the insti-
and may refuse to keep quiet, power. Students may also use laboratory facility,
boycott classes, their power as a sharp reaction
there are certain unspoken rules and stage strikes, etc. Further, the
that combing in class-room is expectations that every one more or
sociologist observes that
inappropriate. less follows. It is known
The sociologist observes that the
oroperties of any individual in the class. class as a unit has its
own characteristics
which are not the
age of students, has a speific number ofThemenclass meets in a room, has a size, has a specific average
Each of these features belongs to the and women in it, has lower-upper-class
class as a whole, and
individual in that class. people,
etc.
These observations of a class of
and regularities that will occur
students are sociological observations.
regardless of the individuals They concern patterns
a photographer, or an
artist, or an educationalist, or a who occupy that class-room. A doctoror
parent, etc., looks at the classroom from social reformer, or an administrator, or a
various
trains us to pay attention to those details that other points of view. "The sociological perspective
a particular situation or to
are
regular and patterned, details that are not unique to
particular people in those situations'"-Donald
pointed out that "our interest lies in societiesLight
As Kingsley Davis has Jr and Suzanne Keller.
concerns) and in social relationship as
systems (that is, as going
regardless their type". This does not mean that sociology is
of
purely encyclopaedic in its approach summing up
but rather"a special discipline devoted to the way ineverything that the other social sciences include,
which societies achieve their
ity and the way in which they change". This sort of unity and continu-
analysis is usually called sociology.