MODERN TRENDS IN NEW TESTAMENT INTERPTETATION

Topic: Contextual Hermeneutics: Dalit Hermeneutics and Womanist/Feminist

Hermeneutics
Course Facilitator: Rev. Krawschhuanmawia
Submitted by: Seiminlun Baite

Introduction: Hermeneutics, the art and science of interpretation, is crucial for analyzing and
reshaping religious and social narratives. Two significant strands, Dalit and feminist/womanist
hermeneutics, challenge historical oppressions and advocate for justice within religious contexts.
Dalit hermeneutics, rooted in the struggle against caste-based discrimination in India,
interprets religious texts and socio-political experiences from the Dalit perspective. It exposes
systemic injustices within religious teachings, empowering Dalits by reclaiming their narratives
and promoting social equality.
Feminist/womanist hermeneutics focus on gender equality and liberation within
Christianity, with womanist theology extending to the experiences of women and marginalized
groups. These approaches critique patriarchal interpretations of scripture and challenge
hierarchical structures in religious communities. They aim to reshape theological discourse,
advocate for gender and racial equality, and foster inclusive spiritual practices.
This paper explores the methodologies, aims and scope of Dalit and feminist/womanist
hermeneutics, examining their contributions to broader movements for social justice and
liberation within religious traditions.

1. Contextual Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics emphasizes understanding the historical,

social, and cultural contexts of texts and ideas. In Dalit and feminist hermeneutics, this approach
interprets texts, speeches, and narratives within the context of caste-based discrimination,
oppression, and exclusion. By considering historical and social backgrounds, it reveals the
nuanced meanings and implications of Dalit struggles for equality and dignity. Hermeneutics
encourages critical reflection and self-awareness in interpretation. Applied to Dalit and feminist
philosophy, it invites critical engagement with dominant narratives and power structures
perpetuating discrimination. It examines biases, assumptions, and prejudices that hinder true
understanding of Dalit struggles. By adopting a self-reflective stance, hermeneutics uncovers
hidden dimensions and challenges the status quo.

2. Emergence of Dalit Theology: Dalit Theology is a contextual theology emerging from

India in 1970s, after Arvind P. Nirmal, entitled “Towards a Shudra theology”.1 Later, James
Massey’s historical reconstructions, V. Devasahayam’s biblical interpretations, M.E. Prabhakar’s
Christological interpretations. Dalit folklore and liturgy are some milestones for its
development.2 It emerged on the basis of the struggles of the Dalits, as a critique of the existing
Indian/Western Theological Systems, which had failed to address the contextual realties of the
Dalit experiences. Dalit theology started as a movement to trace Dalit History and gather Dalit
Solidarity.3 Dalits have been oppressed for centuries, culturally, socially and psychologically,

1
James Massey, “A Review of Dalit Theology” Dalit and Minjung Theologies: A Dialogue, eds.,
Samson Prabhakar and Jinkwan Kwon (Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI, 2006), 21.
2
Sathianathan Clarke, Manchala Deenabandhu & Philip Peacock, Dalit Theology in The 21st Century
(New Delhi/ New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) 6.
3
James Massey, “A Review of Dalit Theology” Dalit and Minjung Theologies, 27.

1
and the term wounded psyche was coined by M. Azariah, to refer to their Dalitness, which is
unique and experienced only by a Dalit, and emphasized the need for conscientization, as a
process leading towards emancipation.4 Dalit Theology therefore was born in the context of the
struggle against caste based social order and in the social aspirations of social justice both in the
church and society. It takes into account the Dalit context to apply the theory and practice of
Dalit social reality. Their pain and pathos becomes the starting points for Dalit interpretations.

3. Methodological Considerations of Dalit Hermeneutics: Dalit Struggle and Reality:

The Dalit social struggle is rooted in the oppressive caste system in India, where Dalits,
historically deemed "untouchable," faced severe discrimination. This practice traces back to the
Varna system, supported by texts like the Manusmriti. It is important to note that 'Dalit' is not a
term they chose for themselves. According to the 2011 census, Dalits made up about 16.6% of
India's population.5 Understanding their struggle requires a historical, social, cultural, and
religious perspective. Dalit people have suffered centuries of oppression based on caste
discrimination, untouchability, purity-pollution, social and economic injustice. 6 Dalits have
endured centuries of caste-based oppression, untouchability, and social and economic injustice.

4. DALIT THEOLOGY AND ITS MOVEMENT

For Nirmal, Dalit Hermeneutics (DH) aims to uncover the roots, identity,
consciousness, and sense of belonging among Dalits, recalling their affliction, focusing on
reading Dalit experiences in the Biblical texts, emphasizes reading both context and text. Thus,
DH involves understanding the Dalit social world and its discontent with caste society, exposing
the textual, metaphorical, narrative, ideological, and structural problems of casteism, and
engaging in emancipatory hermeneutics to move away from casteism's cultural burden. 7
4.1. Dalit Experience as the Starting Point: For Monica, the important considerations are
the social, political, cultural and economic context of Dalits, the experience of a denied
humanity, issues of poverty and caste discrimination, which are aimed at reclaiming Dalit
Consciousness, which is a mindset influenced by Dalit experience and suffering, rejection and
overcoming the same. It also aims also to Reclaiming the Dalit Tradition.8
4.2. Reclaiming Dalit Consciousness: The Dalit hermeneutics challenges caste-based roles,
biases, and ideologies, addressing both explicit discrimination and the silences that perpetuate
marginalization. It critiques the caste system through deconstructive inquiry and reconstructs
historical narratives from Dalit perspectives, restoring agency to those oppressed by caste. Dalit
biblical methodology, rooted in postmodern reader-oriented methods, advocates for Dalits and
challenges privileged interpretations. This approach is not neutral. For instance, it equates Jesus's
suffering with Dalit suffering, emphasizing a universal connection. According to K.

4
Masilamani Azariah, “Dalit Problem is not Poverty but Denial of Human Rights”, Dalit Voice, 13/23,
(Oct16-31), 1984, 8.
5
Eguardian India, Dalit Population in India – Dalit caste & community in Indian Politics 20/04/2023
https://www.eguardian.co.in/dalit-population-india/#:~:text=There. Accessed on 28-06-2024.
6
A Maria Arul Raja S.J., “Some Reflections on a Dalit Reading of the Bible” in Frontiers of Dalit
Theology, edited by V. Devasahayam, (New Delhi: ISPCK, 1997) 336.
7
Arvind P. Nirmal, “A Dialogue with Dalit Literature”, in Towards a Dalit Theology, edited by M.E.
Prabhakar, (New Delhi: ISPCK, 1988), 77-78.
8
Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, “Dalit Readers of the Word: The Quest for Hermeneutics and Method”,
in “Frontiers in Dalit Hermeneutics, ed. James Massey and Samson Prabhakar. (Bangalore/Delhi:
BTESSC/SATHRI & CDSS, 2005), 53-62.

2
Jesurathnam, Dalit hermeneutics seeks meaning in front of the text, fostering critical
involvement, and blends reader-centred and author-centred approaches.9
There is growing recognition of the need to study and interpret diverse texts among
Dalits, including folktales, oral traditions, songs, dances, art, and literary works by Dalit authors.
These cultural productions reflect Dalit experiences of revolt, protest, and revival, often
intersecting with biblical texts through imaginative and experiential connections.

4.3. Models of Dalit Interpretation: The Nazareth Manifesto of Jesus (Dalit Christology):
Arvind P. Nirmal interprets the Nazareth manifesto in Luke 4:16-29 to develop a Dalit
Christology. He highlights Jesus quoting Isaiah, declaring, “Today this scripture has been
fulfilled in your hearing,” and emphasizing liberation for the marginalized. He notes Jesus'
examples: the widow at Zarephath and Naaman the Syrian, both receiving aid over Israelites,
suggesting that the Gospel is for the 'Dalits' rather than 'Israel'. He points out that the people's
wrathful reaction to Jesus signifies the manifesto's revolutionary nature. 10 For Nirmal, this text
exemplifies God's preference for those in pain and pathos, paralleling the Dalit experience.

4.3.1. Dehumanization by caste system & humanization by the Kingdom of God (Dalit
Experience & Reclaiming Dalit Consciousness): Adrian Bird, refers to M.
Azariah, as one who vehemently opposed the ‘de-humanization’ and termed it as a result of sin.
For Azariah, “we see the Kingdom of God with Jesus as the King standing for humanizing all the
people, who are dehumanized by others (sinned against) and sub-humanized by their own
making (as sinners)”.11 He refers to Luke 1: 45-56, where God fills the hungry with good things,
and in Lk 2:1-16, the assurance of a “(your) savior is born today”. In Lk 16:19-31, in the parable
of the unnamed rich man and poor Lazarus, the poor Lazarus is seated at the right hand of God,
4:16-21, the good news is preached to the poor, and in Matt 25:36-45, God’s compassion is for
the poor and God taking their side is real humanization.12
Similarly, A.P. Nirmal compares the slavery experience of the Israelites with the Dalit
Liberation experience, when the Israelites expressed them in a Creed (Duet 26:5-12), these are
affirmation of one’s roots, collective struggle, experience of suffering for liberation, and a vision
of liberation and restoration.
4.3.2. Jesus as the Messiah of the Dalits (Text and Context): James Massey views some of
the passages in the OT and NT to have a messianic meaning. Mary the mother of Jesus, offers
for her purification after Jesus’ birth “two turtle doves or two young pigeons”, which is an
offering of the poor. Jesus and Mary are identified with the poor Dalits. (cf. Leviticus 14:21-22,
5:7. 12:8 & Luke 2:22-24). In Acts 13:22-23 and Romans 15: 7-13 are prophecies concerning the
coming of the Messiah, where Paul refers to the phrase “root of Jesse”, who will enable people
considered “gentiles” or “pagans” (those who are outside the camp) to become the ruler of his
people, and these people would refer to the Dalits. 13 These facts about Jesus and the Gentiles, can
lead to understand Jesus as the Messiah of the Dalits.
M.R. Arulraja, highlights untouchability as a practice of discrimination that existed in
Israel in the OT, and in the time of Jesus, having its roots within the Bible itself. The Samaritan
9
K. Jesurathnam, Dalit Liberative Hermeneutics: Indian Christian Interpretation of Psalm 22, (Delhi:
ISPCK, 2010) 5
10
Arvind P Nirmal, Heuristic Explorations… 153.
11
Adrian Bird, M.M. Thomas and Dalit Theology, 130-31.
12
Adrian Bird, M.M. Thomas and Dalit Theology, 152-153.
13
James Massey, Towards Dalit Hermeneutics,

3
women asks Jesus “how is that you, a Jew, ask of a drink of me, a woman of Samaria?” which is
actually asking Jesus, ‘where has your caste pride gone, new when you are thirsty?’ (Jn 4:9).
Similarly, when Peter addressed Cornelius house by saying, “it is unlawful for a Jew to associate
with or to visit a Gentile” (Acts 10:28, 11:3), and Jesus dining with the tax collectors and sinners
are questions of social divisions (Lk 7:39), issues of Pollution, Pure and Impure food are reasons
for such practices. 14 But Jesus’ actions redefined these laws. Jesus’ disciples break dietary/purity
pollution laws (Mk. 7: 5-8, 14-23), the Sabbath (Mk 2:27, 23-27, 3:4,), yet affirmed the
untouchables as his companions (Mt. 11:19) risking his reputation and life. 15 Thus Jesus becomes
a Dalit to redeem the Dalits.
4.3.4. Retelling of the Text/s, Hermeneutics of Retrieval and Representation: K.
Jesurathnam interprets Psalm 22, Jeremiah, Job, and Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament,
employing strategies to subvert exploitative power dynamics. Psalm 22 resonates deeply with
Dalits, who appropriate its themes of suffering, poverty, and the death and resurrection of Jesus
Christ to reflect their own experiences.16

5. Critique of Dalit Hermeneutics

Many Dalit exegetes are dismissed as untutored by proponents of Western methods.
5.1. Critical evaluation of Dalit Hermeneutics (DH) acknowledges overlapping issues and
sometimes lacks methodological concreteness, focusing on catalyzing change among its
audience.
5.2. DH aims to foster equality between Dalits and non-Dalits, yet caste discussions in
churches are often shunned as divisive and hateful. DH advocates collaboration between
oppressors and oppressed rather than mere theory.
5.3. The effectiveness of DH is questioned due to the gap between its academic articulation
and practical impact. Despite over four decades of Dalit Theology and DH, caste discrimination
persists and may even be on the rise in the Indian Church.

6. FEMINIST/WOMANIST THEOLOGY AND ITS MOVEMENT

The feminist/womanist movement, originating in North America, is often mistakenly
seen as an American and middle-class movement. Its roots trace back to Quakerism in the mid-
17th century. Margaret Fell, an influential Quaker leader, wrote "Women’s Speaking Justified,
Approved and Allowed by the Scripture" in 1667, advocating for women's equality in Christ and
their roles in teaching, preaching, and administering in the church. 17 In 1837, Quaker Sarah
Grimke argued for women’s rights based on Genesis 1:27, critiquing patriarchy and advocating

14
M.R. Arulraja, Jesus the Dalit: Liberation Theology by Victims of Untouchability and Indian Version
of Apartheid, (Hyderabad: M.R. Arulraja, 1996), 59-61.
15
M.R. Arulraja, Jesus the Dalit, 79-80, 91-94.
16
Mathew, John. “Exploring Dalit Liberative Hermeneutics in India and the World.” Bangalore
Theological Forum, vol. 47, no. 2, (Dec. 2015), 168–74. EBSCOhost,
https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lsdar&AN=ATLAn3913460&site=ehost-live.
Accessed on 27.06.2024.
17
Quakerism or the Society of Friends is also known for its connectivity in the anti-slavery movement
and especially fighting for women issues. Women actively takes part in this movement, however later they were
not allowed to speak their voice and to the extent that they were banned from became the members. This is the
point where Quakerism emerge to voice out the women.

4
for equality. The movement's strength was evident when Elizabeth C. Stanton and others
published the Women’s Bible (1895-1898).18
In the Asian context, there has been debate on whether a separate Asian feminist
theology is needed, given the distinct experiences of Asian women and the Western feminist
theology's focus on contexts where Christianity is the major religion. Since the 1960s, attempts
at indigenizing theology in Asia have highlighted the inadequacy of Western feminist theology
for Asian women's experiences. The late 1970s saw the rise of Asian Feminist theology, or
Womanist theology, which began systematically in the 1980s with the establishment of the
women’s commission of the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT).
A significant Asian consultation took place in Manila in November 1985, focusing on "Total
Liberation from Asian Women’s Perspective." 19

6.1. Sources and Foundation

6.1.1. Woman Experience as the Norms: Feminist theology starts from women's
experiences of patriarchal oppression, encompassing social, religious, and stereotypical
subjugation. Women, often categorized as an "oppressed group," critique traditional Christian
theology for being shaped by male perspectives from male-dominated backgrounds. Feminists
argue that women's experiences should inform theology, as traditional Christian theology has
often oppressed rather than liberated them. Women question the credibility of Christian
theology, which has historically rendered many women, along with other marginalized groups,
as non-persons due to race, class, or geography. They challenge the adherence to theological
viewpoints that enforce or permit women's second-class status, advocating for a norm that uses
women's experiences as a criterion for evaluating theological adequacy.20
6.1.2. Christian Tradition as the Source and Norms: Some feminist Christian traditions
reject scripture as a source or norm of theology due to its male biases. For example, Elizabeth
Fiorenza does not derive her theological norms from Christian tradition or scripture, as she
believes the Bible has been used to oppress women. Fiorenza argues that the norms of faith must
support women's self-affirmation and self-determination, suggesting that the revelatory canon for
evaluating biblical traditions should be formulated through women's liberation struggles rather
than the Bible itself.
Rosemary Radford Ruether, a Roman Catholic feminist theologian, addresses Christian tradition
and women's experiences through three processes in her methodology of feminist theology:
i. Critique of androcentrism: Feminist theology challenges male-centered perspectives.
ii. Quest for alternative tradition: It seeks to uncover and validate traditions that support women's
experiences.
iii. Search for the transformation of models: It aims to transform existing theological models to
be inclusive of women.
Unlike Fiorenza, Ruether does not abandon Christian tradition but seeks to correct its
androcentrism. Letty M. Russell draws her feminist theology from both Christian and women's
experiences, emphasizing that theology should inspire action as well as thought.
18
R.L. Hnuni, Vision for Women in India (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2009), 1-6
19
Ofelia Ortega, ed., Women’s Vision (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1995), 29-31.
20
R.L. Hnuni, Vision for Women in India: Perspective from the Bible Church and Society (New Delhi:
Lakshi Publishers & Distributors, 2014), 18-20.

5
6.2. Feminist/Womanist Construction of Theology: This theology, developed from
women's experiences, aims to discern God's intention through revelation, returning to the roots
and applying God's word to socio-political and cultural contexts. It concerns both sexes to avoid
bias. Key aspects of Feminist/Womanist theology include:
i. Holistic Construction: It rejects traditional dualistic theology that stereotypes women as
inferior, instead advocating for a theology that embraces all aspects of human experience
equally.
ii. Egalitarian Relationships: It critiques hierarchical structures, advocating for ethics of
partnership, equality, mutuality, and reciprocity.
iii. Inclusive Imagery of God: It denies exclusively male descriptions of God, presenting God
as a creator embodying both maternal and paternal qualities.
iv. Contextual and Liberation Focus: It addresses oppressive structures, aiming to liberate both
oppressors and the oppressed, emphasizing women's unique experiences.
v. New Anthropology: It seeks new dimensions of human experience, challenging traditional
roles assigned to women and finding new models for both women and men based on women's
experiences. 21

6.3. Biblical Resources: The Prophetic Principle: Patriarchy shapes both the Old and New
Testaments, but they also offer resources to critique it. Feminist theology uses Biblical principles
to oppose social domination and argues for setting aside patriarchal aspects. By incorporating the
prophetic liberating tradition, which includes women among those God seeks to liberate,
feminist theology challenges traditional patriarchal authority in Biblical interpretation.
Four essential themes to this prophetic tradition are:
i. God’s defense and vindication of the oppressed.
ii. Critique of dominant systems of power and their holders.
iii. Vision of a new age where the current unjust system is overturned.
iv. Critique of religious ideologies that justify the unjust social order.
Prophetic faith denounces religious ideologies that sanctify an unjust social order,
advocating for liberation and equality.22

6.4. Modern Post Christian Resources for Feminist Theology: From the late 18th to the
20th century, Western consciousness developed three critical cultural streams: liberalism,
romanticism, and Marxism, opposing inherited religion and institutions of Christendom.
Liberalism: Ideology of bourgeois democracy, focused on civic freedom, social justice through
equal opportunity, and progress through gradual worldwide development. It defends private
property and is hostile to economic egalitarianism.
6.4.1. Romanticism: Reacts against the rationalistic, scientific, and technological aspects of
modernity, viewing technological rationality and industrialization as alienating humanity from

21
R.L. Hnuni, Vision for Women in India …, 12-14.
22
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk (USA: SCM Press LTD, 1983), 45.

6
nature. It celebrates the intuitive and organic over machine culture, valuing underclasses,
women, peasants, native peoples, and paganism over urbanized intellectuals.
6.4.2. Marxism: Continues and radicalizes Enlightenment critiques of religion, viewing it as
an ideology of ruling classes that legitimizes their power and pacifies the lower classes. Marxism
secularizes the Biblical prophetic critique of religion, denouncing idolatrous religion and
heralding a redeemed future.
These critical systems, developed by males, often ignore women or embed them in
male-centered ideas. Feminist re-evaluation of these theories has produced a feminist
understanding of each stream. Feminists have appropriated elements from liberalism,
romanticism, and Marxism for critical critique while recognizing the limitations and defects of
each viewpoint in isolation.23

6.5. Methods and Models of Interpretation of the Scripture: Formulating a feminist

historical hermeneutics involves tracing the cultural shift from androcentric to feminist
paradigms and discussing theoretical models of biblical hermeneutics and their implications for
feminist perspectives. The Bible, as Holy Scripture, holds both historical and contemporary
significance, creating theoretical tension between its theological and historical claims. Feminist
historical reconstruction must navigate this tension while addressing contemporary women's
struggles for liberation.24
Feminist theologians read the Bible from two angles: Reformatory and Rejectionist.
Reformatory feminists, like Christina Manohar quoting Mollenkot, believe the Bible advocates
equality without role distinctions, emphasizing individual wholeness and harmonious
community. Rejectionists, on the other hand, reject the Bible's authority, with some turning to
nature mysticism based on women's consciousness.25
6.5.1. Hermeneutic of Suspicion: Criticism of feminist theology starts with "hermeneutic
suspicion," challenging biases that exclude women's perspectives. It demythologizes oppressive
texts, exposes exclusive divine symbolism, rejects body-spirit dualisms, and destabilizes
hierarchical power. This process goes beyond surface interpretations, retrieving women's
experiences from gaps in texts and alternative sources.26
6.5.2. Hermeneutic of Resistance: Judith Fetterly's "hermeneutic of resistance" encourages
female readers to reject the assumptions and values of male authors, exposing androcentric
rhetoric's injustices toward women. This approach centers women in the inquiry. For example, in
Judges 11, feminists criticize Jepthah for his foolish vow, highlighting the contrast between his
faithful daughter and his rashness, emphasizing how women's voices are often silenced.27
6.5.3. Hermeneutic of Recuperation: This hermeneutic aims to correct patriarchal
mistranslations and misinterpretations in the Biblical text, reclaiming it as positive for women. It
seeks to redeem tradition by highlighting strong foremothers and role models, providing
contemporary women within religious communities with empowering figures. This approach
presupposes the feminist truth and authority of the Bible.28
23
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk (USA: SCM Press LTD, 1983), 35.
24
Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her (New York: Crossroad, 1938), 3-6.
25
Christina Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction (Delhi: ISPCK, 2005), 44.
26
Hrangthan Chhungi and Raj Bharath Patta, eds., Building Theologies of Solidarity (Bangalore:
BTESSC, 2012), 7.
27
Ningmangyang Chang, “Current trends in the Feminist Interpretation of the Old Testament,” Sathri
Journal, vol. 6, no. 2(Sept. 2012): 93-95.
28
Ningmangyang Chang, “Current trends in the Feminist Interpretation of the Old Testament..., 95.

7
6.5.4. Hermeneutic of Trust: Jacqueline E. Lapsley proposes this hermeneutic. It aims to
listens for God’s word in the whispered voices that occupy the text. It also attends to women
words, values and worldview of the narrator. In this encounter, the texts allow the readers to see
the full humanity of women, enabling the readers to trust that God is telling something
significant, even revelatory, about the readers, God, and the life together. Close reading of
Genesis 2-3, 31; Judges 19-21; Exodus 1-4 and the book of Ruth are some of the readings of
feminist through this hermeneutic.29
6.6. Feminist Hermeneutical Approach: Feminists think that God is the lover and giver of
life as well as the liberator of the oppressed people. The Bible speaks about God’s redemption.
That is why feminist theologians while interpreting the Bible, they used different approaches,
because they recognise that the Bible is a major implement for maintaining the oppression of the
patriarchal structure. These approaches the Revisionist, the Sublimationist Liberationist
approaches the Rejectionist and the Loyalist approach.30
6.6.1. The Sublimationist approach: It is a theological approach. It searches for the eternal
feminine in Biblical and extra Biblical symbolism and imagery.
6.6.2. The Revisionist approach: It is a historical approach. This is an attempt to separate the
content of the scripture from the patriarchal mould either by recovery or reconstruction.
6.6.3. Liberationalist approach: it sees the central message of the Bible as the message of
liberation.
6.6.4. The Rejectionist approach: they see the Bible as oppressive. According to some
feminists, e.g. Carol P. Christ and Mary Daly, the Bible is hopelessly patriarchal. It doesn’t relate
to women’s experience. The entire Judaeo-Christian tradition is male oriented, thus it is sinful,
corrupt and it should be rejected.31
6.6.5. The Loyalist approach: This perspective, unlike rejectionism, does not dismiss the
entire Bible's testimony and does not see its message as radically oppressive towards women. It
accepts traditional arguments supporting hierarchical order, viewing woman's role within God's
created order as one of submission and dependence in church and family. It argues that male
leadership ordained by divine pattern, when exercised with love, does not diminish women's true
freedom and dignity. 32
6.7. Major Emphasis/Themes
6.7.1. The Doctrine of Trinity: The ancient creeds, such as "I believe in God, the Father, the
Son, and Holy Spirit," have upheld Christian liturgy for centuries, yet they are anthropocentric,
portraying God as male. Feminist theologians reject this view, arguing that God, as a spirit,
transcends gender and cannot be confined to masculine terms. 33 They view God as upholding
authentic differences and relationships beyond human gender models. God is seen not just as
impersonal power, but as personal love, the heart of all things in community. Metaphorically,
God can be understood in diverse terms—parent, bird, lamb, wind, fire, water—reflecting

29
Ningmangyang Chang, “Current trends in the Feminist Interpretation of the Old Testament..., 95.
30
Fiorenza, In Memory of Her, 32.
31
Christina Manohar, Feminist Critique and Reconstruction…, 31-36.
32
H.M. Conn, “Feminist Theology,” in The New Dictionary of Theology, edited by Sinclair B. Ferguson
and David F. Wright (Illinois: InterVasity Press, 1988), 255.
33
Janet Martin Soskice, "Trinity and Feminism," The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology,
Edited by Susan Frank Parsons (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 135-139.

8
various cultural expressions and aspects of loving relationships. Rosemary Radford Ruether
suggests that Jesus' use of "Abba" for God expresses God's parental nature, a term evoking
affection and trust akin to a baby's loving address to a male parent.34
6.7.2. Jesus Christ: Many feminist and womanist theologians have grappled with the
maleness of Jesus, which has historically been used to justify oppression. In the 1970s, they
argued for their voices to be included in the theorizing of Christology, emphasizing Jesus'
mission of liberation (Luke 4:18-19). They prioritize the historical Christ over dogmatic
interpretations, focusing on his proclamation of freedom from Isaiah 61 and his inclusive
spiritual teachings (Mark 5:21-34). 35
Changing the symbolism of the central figure in Christianity, deeply embedded in
doctrine and rituals, poses a challenge. Rosemary Radford Ruether, a Catholic theologian,
advocates reinterpreting the Christ symbol by altering language, redefining Jesus' identity, and
emphasizing his broader human aspects beyond maleness. This reinterpretation aims to empower
women by making the Christ figure more inclusive and accessible. By reshaping Christology in
this way, both women and the theological tradition can move towards liberation from patriarchal
constraints. 36

Conclusion: Both Dalit and feminist theology challenge dominant structures of oppression
within their respective contexts. Dalit theology seeks to integrate the liberative elements of the
Bible with Dalit realities, emphasizing community-driven interpretations to combat caste
discrimination. Similarly, feminist theology aims to empower women by critiquing patriarchal
biases in traditional scripture and advocating for justice and equality. Both movements highlight
the need for inclusive interpretations and community engagement to foster equality and
liberation in their societies and within global religious discourse.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Maria Arul Raja S.J., “Some Reflections on a Dalit Reading of the Bible” in Frontiers of Dalit
Theology, edited by V. Devasahayam, New Delhi: ISPCK, 1997.
Arvind P. Nirmal, “A Dialogue with Dalit Literature”, in Towards a Dalit Theology. Edited by
M.E. Prabhakar. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1988.
Chhungi, Hrangthan and Raj Bharath Patta. Eds. Building Theologies of Solidarity. Bangalore:
BTESSC, 2012.
Conn, H.M. “Feminist Theology.” The New Dictionary of Theology. Edited by Sinclair B.
Ferguson and David F. Wright. Illinois: InterVasity Press, 1988.
Eguardian India, Dalit population in India – Dalit caste & community in Indian Politics
20/04/2023 https://www.eguardian.co.in/dalit-population-india/#:~:text=There.
Accessed on 28-06- 2024.
34
Rosemary Radford Reuther, "Feminist Critique and Re-visioning of God-Language," Theological
Trends, Accessed 21-11-15, www.theway.org.uk/back/27Ruether.pdf.
35
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