HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter 6: Communication 1. a communication source or sender

2. a message
3. a channel
Communication is a requirement for survival 4. a receiver
and growth not only of people but also organizations. In 5. feedback
the past, nations rose and fell depending on their ability to 6. the environment
communicate effectively. History is replete with stories of
individuals who became successful because of their
effective management of communication. When ancient
Rome became the target of hostile forces, its
communication system was effective enough to warn its
leaders about the forthcoming danger.

Modern armies consider communication as an important

factor in waging a successful attempt to defeat the enemy.
In the same manner, modern organizations consider
communication as an important factor in motivating their
employees to improve productivity and to meet
competition.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication may be defined as the transfer The Sender

of information including feelings, and ideas, from one
person to another. The goal of communication is to have A communication source or sender is a
the receiver understand the message as it was intended. person who makes the attempt to send a message which
The transfer process, however, is affected by a number of could be spoken, written, in sign language, or nonverbal to
factors that either help or hinder the message. another person or a group of persons. The degree of
attention the message will receive will depend on the
THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION perceived authority and experience of a sender. An
. illustration is provided as follows:
Without communication, organizations cannot The company clerk cracked a joke in a gathering
exist. It is through communication that the individual of employees. To his dismay, nobody reacted. In another
members of the organization will know important concerns occasion, the same joke was used by the president to
such as: impress his subordinates in his opening speech.
Everybody contributed his share in the general laughter
1. what their organization is that followed. The clerk who was also present did not know
2. what objectives their organization wants to achieve what to say.
3. what their roles are in achieving the organization's
objectives The Message
4. how they will achieve those objectives
5. who the individual members of the organization are The message is a purpose or an idea to be
conveyed in a communication event. The message is the
The foregoing list is only a partial enumeration actual physical product as a result of encoding. Thus,
of what needs to be communicated to the various when speaking, the speech is the message; when writing,
personalities involved in operating the organization. It is the written document is the message; when making
also through communication that the organization can gestures, the movements of the arms and the expressions
relate with its external environment which include on faces are the message.
customers, suppliers, competitors and the government.
How the message is received is influenced by
Communication is essential for the coordination the following factors:
of business It must be made effective, if the organization
is to be effective. An effective communication system 1. clarity of the message
provides management with answers to questions related 2. alertness of the receiver
to what motivates its workers to perform effectively, what 3. complexity and length of the message
products or services the customers want, what products or 4. how the information is organized
services the suppliers are providing, and many others.
A message written or spoken in a language
nobody understands will not pass the criteria for clarity. Of
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS course, the message will not be received properly.
Communication is a two-way process in When the receiver is busy doing something else
which a sender reaches a receiver with a message. There like listening to music, he will not be able to understand
is a need for people in organizations to have knowledge of clearly what the person is relating to him in the story.
the communication process, and it is the first step to make
it effective. There are six components of an effective To a 12-year old child who has never gone to
communication. They are the following:
~HCA
school, the stock market will be too complex for him and person has done or said. When a supervisor calls his
he will not appreciate anything said about it. subordinates over the phone and asks "how are you
getting along with our new recruits?" the answer, which is
When the information sent to a receiver is not actually a feedback, could be "I think we made a mistake
organized, it vi be hard for the receiver to fully appreciate in recruiting these people."
it. The following is example of information that is not well
organized: It is difficult to know whether the message was
The company hired 10 people in 2008; 15 received and understood without feedback. A feedback
employees were fired, in 2009; 26 employees were provides a clue to the sender of information whether the
suspended in 2006; and 30 employers were reprimanded message he sent was received as intended.
in 2008.
The Environment
The message has two components:
The refers to the circumstances in which
1. The thought or conceptual component of the messages are transmitted and received. In an
message - this is contained in the words, ideas, symbols, environment of trust and confidence, messages are
and concepts chosen to relay the message; and easily transmitted even if these messages controversial.
2. The feeling or emotional component of the message The advantage of this type of environment is that
- this is contained in the intensity, force, demeanor, and management is provided with the opportunity to address
sometimes the gesture of the communicator or sender. a problem before it develops into a full-blown concern.
This second component enriches and clarifies the
message and its effect is to give the message its full The Noise
meaning.
Noise refers to anything that disrupts
communication, including the attitude and emotions of the
Channel receiver. Noise includes loud music, the feeling about a
sick relative, children playing in the background, and many
The channel is the medium through which the others.
message travels. It consists of various types which are as
follows: BASIC METHODS OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
1. face-to-face
2. telephone and cell phones People in organizations transfer meaning
3. e-mail between and among each other using any or all of the
4. written memos and letters three basic methods which consist of the following:
5. posted notices
6. bulletins 1. verbal
2. written
In general the face-to-face channel is the most 3. nonverbal communication
effective. The least effective are posted notices and
bulletins. Verbal Communication

Communication channels may be classified also Verbal communication is a major means of

as: (1) formal; and (2) informal. The communication of sending messages. It includes one-on-one meetings,
policies, procedures, and other official speeches, grapevine, telephone, departmental or
announcements properly belong to the formal channel interdepartmental meetings, presentation, and the like.
because it is the one recognized as authoritative. Informal
channels do not follow the chain of command. The delivery of verbal communication is quick
Because this is so, people can get in contact with each and it provides the opportunity for a quick feedback. With
other at a faster pace. feedbacks, early correction of errors is made possible.

The grapevine is a type of informal channel A major disadvantage of verbal is the distortion
that transfer information networks of friendships and of the message when it passes to several people. This is
acquaintances. Grapevines have the advantage of being because people have their own peculiar way of interpreting
able to transmit information quickly and efficiently. The messages and this causes distortion of the original
disadvantage is that it can transmit incorrect or untimely message.
information.
Verbal communication is the appropriate
The Receiver method if the sender:

The person receiving a message is the receiver. 1. wants to appear informal;

He must interpret and understand the message. In doing 2. wants to invite suggestions and ideas which are more
so, however, he will be influenced by factors like his age, likely to spark off a discussion;
gender, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influences, and 3. is explaining something complex and people might need
his individual needs. to ask for clarification as he goes along;
4. has important news to impact, such as retrenchment;
The Feedback 5. needs to be very diplomatic and feels he will be more
effective face-to-face than in writing; and
Feedback refers to the process of 6. has something highly confidential to say and putting it in
communicating how one feels about something another writing is risky.
~HCA
 Verbal communication is not appropriate when
the sender:

1. wants to maintain formality or distance from the other

person or a group of people;
2. wants a permanent record of what has been said;
3. needs receiver's comments to be in writing for legal
reasons; and
4. wants to avoid further discussion of the subject by
signaling that the matter is closed.

Written Communication

Written communication include memos, notice-

boards, and letters to staff, emails, faxes, internal
newspaper, and instant messaging.

The advantages of written communication are

the following:

1. it is formal and authoritative;

2. it provides a permanent record of what have been said;
3. it provides a document useful for legal purposes;
4. a number of people will receive exactly the same
information;
5. it is useful in communicating something complicated;
6. it is sometimes quicker (e.g., fax is faster than a phone
call);
7. it avoids a lengthy discussion; and
8. words can be chosen carefully.

Written communication is not appropriate

when:

1. the receiver needs to ask question or seek clarification;

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
2. more discussion is needed before facts are established;
3. a friendly and informal atmosphere is needed;
4. the message is very important;
Communication serves four major functions
5. the message is confidential; and
within a group or organization. These functions consist
6. the information may be upsetting to the receiver.
of the following:
Nonverbal Communication
1. Information function - communication provides
information needed in decision making.
Communication that takes place through facial
expressions, body movements, eye contact, and other
For example, a machine operator's job is to produce a
physical gesture is referred to as nonverbal
certain number of units of a product given a certain
communication. This type of communication reveals what
quantity of supplies materials. Before he proceeds on
the sender really mean or thinking. For example, when
requisitioning the necessary materials and supplies, he
we see a person inside a restaurant taking his meal and
needs to know the quantity of finished products his
we noticed that his eyes are gleaming, we can safely
supervisor wants him to produce. An effective
presume that he is enjoying what he is eating.
communication system will provide him with the required
When linked with spoken language, body
information.
movements (or more popular, body language) give fuller
meaning to a sender's message, For instance, a spoken
2. Motivation function - communication is a means used
"goodbye" without a hand waving will be interpreted
to encourage commitment to organizational objectives.
differently than one with a hand wave.
Commitment will not be possible if the worker concerned
One should observe nonverbal cues when a
does not have full appreciation of the advantages of the
person is delivering a message. It may save the receiver a
organization that achieves its goals. The right
lot of time and effort. Table 2 shows commonly accepted
communication efforts will be very useful in this instance.
interpretations of various forms of body language.
For example, a newly established competitor poses a
direct and serious threat to the company. When this is
relayed to the workers, they may just consider making
some extra efforts to help the company.

3. Control function - communication clarifies duties,

authority, and responsibilities, thereby permitting control.
If, through effective communication, the worker is informed
on what exactly he is expected to do, that information

~HCA
alone is enough for the worker to check if he is performing based on their needs, motivations, experience,
as expected. This will also make it easy for management background, and other personal characteristics. For
to pinpoint deviations from what is expected from the instance, a person who has limited exposure to
worker. recruitment will find it difficult to actively listen to a lecture
4. Emotive function - communication permits the on current hiring practices.
expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social needs.
Workers are human beings and they have a need to People have different perception of reality;
express their feelings one way or another. Communication what they see is what they call reality. What the eyes say
can help them fulfill this need. For example, a female as reality is regarded as reality. This is so even if the eyes
worker cannot concentrate on her work because a male do not see perfectly clear. A color blind person sees
co-worker is exhibiting aggressive and objectionable everything dark as black; he sees dark blue as black; and
behavior. When she informed the erring co-worker that she to him that is reality. A tone-deaf person cannot distinguish
does not like what he is doing and she will not hesitate to the difference between the musical tones "do, re, mi..." To
report him, the harassment stopped. Then she started him all tones sound the same; and to him that is reality. No
feeling good enough to perform well in her job. amount of explanation will convince him that "do" sounds
differently from "re".
BASIC GOALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
. Information Overload

Communication is not just about transferring Information overload refers to the condition in
message from one person to another. In organizations, which information inflow exceeds an individual's
communication must be made effective. Being effective, processing capacity. When this happens, the person is no
however, is not an end but rather a means to an end. longer able to understand clearly whatever information is
Effective communication is really a way to achieve certain sent to him.
goals which consist of the following:
Emotions
1. to gain goodwill
2. to inquire The receiver's feelings affect his ability to
3. to inform understand any message sent to him. He cannot receive
4. to persuade a message as clearly as when he is not angry, excited, or
afraid. For instance, when a person is stricken with grief, it
It can be expected that when communication cannot be expected that he will be able to absorb the
goals are achieved, accomplishing the organizational details of a project presented to him.
objectives will be a matter of course.
Language

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Words do not always mean the same thing to

different people. This poses a barrier to communication.
There are times when the receiver is not able to Although the words "lavatory", "john", "toilet", and
properly receive or understand the message as intended "restroom" mean the same, the word comfort room or CR
by the sender. This is due to a variety of barriers that may is the one more readily understood by many Filipinos.
impede the communication effort. These barriers consist
of the following: The best thing to do when delivering a message
is that the sender must use words that are commonly used
1. filtering by the audience. This will facilitate communication.
2. selective perception
3. information overload Communication Apprehension
4. emotions
5. language Communication apprehension refers to the undue tension
6. communication apprehension and anxiety about oral communication, written
7. absence of feedback communication, or both. There are people who find it
8. physical separation extremely difficult to talk with others face-to-face or even
9. lack of credibility of the sender carry a telephone conversation.

Filtering To compensate, they try to find other means to

communicate which oftentimes are less effective and more
Filtering refers to the manipulation of time consuming.
information so that is will be seen more favorably by the
receiver. Telling what the boss wants to hear is filtering. Absence of Feedback

Subordinates filter information to avoid Feedback is an essential component of

displeasing their superiors, such as when reporting the effective communication. When feedback is received by
increasing number of employee turnover. Sometimes, the sender, he can make some clarification if he thinks the
filtering is used to promote one's interests in the receiver did not clearly understand what the sender
organization. Filtering can be neutralized if the superior means.
uses other channels of communication like the grapevine. The absence of feedback does not provide the
sender the opportunity to correct misimpressions about the
Selective Perception message sent. Also, without feedback, the sender will not
know if the message was at all.
Receivers selectively see and hear messages
~HCA
Physical Separation
The techniques used in upward communication
Physical separation refers to interferences to are:
effective communication occurring in the environment 1. performance reports;
where the communication is undertaken. These are 2. suggestion systems;
actually physical barriers which include the following:. 3. informal gripe sessions;
4. open-door policy; and
1. distances between people; 5. exit interviews.
2. walls;
3. an office that is not conducive to communication; Horizontal Communication
4. an intimidating person posted near the door; or
5. wrong timing. Horizontal communication refers to messages
sent to individuals or groups from another of the same
Telephones, cell phones, and e-mail are useful organizational level or position. Its purposes are:
tools in bridging the physical gap, but face-to-face 1. to coordinate activities between departments;
communication is still more effective. This is so because 2. to persuade others at the same level of organization;
gadgets cannot provide a complete view of the and
circumstances surrounding the sender and the receiver. 3. to pass on information about activities or feelings.

Lack of Credibility of the Sender The techniques appropriate for horizontal

communication are:
Depending on the credibility of the sender, 1. memos;
messages can get through the channel to the receiver. If 2. telephones or cell phones;
the sender has low credibility, the message, even if it gets 3. picnics; and
through, will likely be ignored. This is a type of barrier that 4. dinners and other social affairs.
should be overcome by leaders of organizations.

It is not enough that the leaders should be

credible. His lieutenants must also be credible, and the
leader should make them credible before the eyes of the
members of the organization. If by omission or
commission, he makes a move that sabotages the
credibility of his assistants, it would be tantamount to
sabotaging his own credibility efforts.

KINDS OF COMMUNICATION FLOW

The flow communication in organization takes

different directions. It consists of the following:
1. downward;
2. upward; or
3. horizontal.

Downward Communication

Downward communication refers to message

flows from higher levels to lower levels. Their purposes
are:

1. to give instructions;
2. to provide information about policies and procedures;
3. to give about performances; and
4. to indoctrinate or motivate.

The various techniques used in downward IMPROVING COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

communication are:
1. letters, meetings, and the telephone or cell phone; Ineffective communication can affect people
2. manuals; involved in it negatively. It can cause hurt feelings, and
3. handbooks; and waste of time and valuable resources. To avoid such
4. newsletters. unwanted effects, the following tips could be useful:

Upward Communication 1. The message should be improved so it could be easily

understood; and
Upward communication refers to messages 2. The receiver must improve his skill in understanding the
from persons in lower level positions to persons in higher messages sent to him.
positions. Its purposes are:

1. to provide feedback to higher-ups; SUMMARY

2. to inform higher-ups of progress towards goals; and
3. to relay current problems.
~HCA
 ➢ Communication is an essential element of who love music and bring their musical instruments at a
organizations. Without communication, place outside the university, and play for a few hours every
organizations cannot exist. Saturday evening. They don't get paid for playing; they just
enjoy themselves.
➢ Effective communication consists of six
components: the sender, the message, the
channel, the receiver, feedback, and the
environment. Noise affects the effectivity of
communication.

➢ Interpersonal communication may, be

verbal, written or nonverbal.

➢ Communication serves four major functions:

information, motivation, control, and
emotive.

➢ The basic goals of communication are: (1) to

gain goodwill; (2) to inquire; (3) to inform;
and (4) to persuade.

➢ Communication barriers include filtering,

selective perception, information overload,
emotions, language, and communication
apprehension, absence of feedback,
physical separation, and lack of credibility of Types of Formal Groups
the sender. Formal groups may be further classified as:
➢ According to flow, communication may be 1.Command group. A group composed of individuals who
classified as downward, upward, or report directly to a certain manager. An example is a group
horizontal. consisting of a sales supervisor and his ten salesmen.
➢ To improve communication, the message must 2. Task group. It is that kind of group consisting of persons
be improved and the skills in receiving working together to complete a job task. An example is the
messages must also be improved. group of five faculty members from different departments
coordinating and preparing the semester enrollment
program of the university..
Chapter 7: Work Teams And Groups Types of Informal Groups
Informal groups may be classified as follows:
WORK TEAMS AND GROUPS
1. Interest group. An interest group is one that is formed
Group output and productivity are essential concerns of because of some special topic interest. In general, the
people managing organizations. This is expected because group disbands when the interest declines or a goal has
whatever the groups do, the organization is affected. been achieved. An example of an interest group is that of
employees with young children grouping together to
If the organization is to be made effective in accomplishing present a unified front to management for some benefits
it goals, the groups comprising it must be managed like allowances for child care.
properly. This can be achieved through the use of
knowledge about the behavior of groups including work 2. Friendship groups. A friendship group is one where
teams. memb characteristics such as age, political beliefs, or
ethnic background. Friendship groups often extend their
WHAT ARE GROUPS? interaction and communication to activities outside of their
A group may be defined as two or more persons, jobs.
interacting and interdependent, who have come together
to achieve certain objectives. WHY PEOPLE FORM GROUPS?
People form groups for reasons such as:
Groups may be classified as: 1. need satisfaction
1. Formal group. This one is defined by the 2. proximity
organization structure, with designated work 3. attraction
assignments and established tasks. An example of a 4. goals and
formal group is the economics area of a university 5. economics
consisting of six faculty members and an area
chairman. People join groups because they believe that groups are
venue for satisfying their needs. Social needs, for
2. Informal group. This group type is neither formally instance, may be satisfied through interaction with group
structured nor organizationally determined. It is formed by members.
individuals and developed around common interests and
friendship rather than around a deliberate design. An
example is a group of six faculty members of a university
~HCA
Proximity is another reason why people form groups. Wh When there is a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership
people work near each other, it is not hard for them to form within the storming stage is completed.

People are attracted to each other because of similarities The Norming Stage
perception, attitude, performance, or motivation. This This stage is also known as the initial integration stage,
condition is positive factor in the formation of groups. this is Cooperation and collaboration are its main
characteristics. There is an open exchange of information,
A group is formed when a number of people are required acceptance of differences opinion, and active attempts to
achieve a goal. For instance, a symphony cannot be achieve goals and objectives which are mutually agreed
played without first forming a group of musicians. upon.

Individual person join groups so they can obtain In this stage, members feel a preliminary sense of
economics benefits not otherwise made available if they closeness, and would want to protect the group from
are not members of group. A labor union, for instance, is a disintegration. When the g structure solidifies and the
group of people whose primary aim is to bargain for group has assimilated a common set of expectations of
economic benefits with the employer. what defines correct member behavior, the stage is
complete.
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
standardize Groups are like people; they learn and they The Performing Stage
develop. How they evolve may be seen through a In the performing stage, the group emerges as a mature,
presentation of a sequence in the development of groups. organized, and a well-functioning group, and it is ready to
The sequence consists different stages as follows: focus on accomplishing its key tasks. This stage is also
referred to as the total integration stage.
1. the forming stage
2. the storming stage Under this stage, group energy has moved from getting to
3. the norming stage know and understand each other to performing the task at
4. the performing stage hand. Intrinsic motivation and creativity are likely to
5. the adjourning stage emerge as the group performs.

The Forming Stage The performing stage consists of two different sub-stages
The first stage of group development is the forming stage. as follows:
There are various ways of forming groups. One way is that 1. The sub-stage where the group has attained a level of
person getting appointed to a discipline committee. effectiveness that will remain more or less constant and as
Another is that person who is helping to form a medical such, group performance will be maintained at a level
mission, and another is that person who is gradually sufficient to ensure survival.
becoming part of a choral group over a period of months.
2. The sub-stage where the process of learning and
In the forming stage, the initial entry of members to a group development of the group is ongoing so that group
is a primary concern. However, the specific concerns of effectiveness and efficiency continues, and as a result,
the members consist of the following: group performance will reach higher levels.

1. they are eager to learn what tasks they will be The Adjourning Stage
performing; The adjourning stage involves the termination of activities.
2. how they can benefit from group membership; This stage is applicable to temporary groups such as
3. what constitutes acceptable behavior; and committees, project groups, task forces, and similar
4. what rules must be followed. entities.

The termination of the group's activities may be triggered

The foregoing concerns clearly indicate that this stage is by any of the following:
characterized by uncertainty about the group's purpose, 1. When the group's purpose has been fulfilled; or
structure, and leadership. However, when members begin 2. When the group has failed to revitalize itself during the
to think of themselves as part of a group, the forming stage performing stage.
is complete.
There are instances, however, when the activities of
The Storming Stage permanent are also terminated. The reasons for such
The storming stage is that stage when conflict within the termination include groups organizational downsizing,
group happens. Members may get involved in competition merging, or bankruptcy.
for desired assignments and disagreements over
appropriate behaviors and responsibilities related to task
performance.

The group experiences many changes. Expectations of

the members tend to be clarified and elaborated further.

Under this stage, coalitions or cliques may form. As

individuals compete to impose their preferences on the
group and to achieve their desired status position, conflict
may develop over leadership and authority.

~HCA
 avoid this, it is important for the group to have someone
assume the role of mediator.

7. Gatekeeper. There is always a chance that one or two

overeager members will dominate discussions. As a result,
timid members may not be heard even if their views are
worth listening to. There is also that chance that even good
ideas that were and recognized may be forgotten after
some time. The role of the gatekeeper is to provide the
opportunity for every member to express his or her
opinion. The gatekeeper will also remind about good ideas
that were recognized previously.

8. Take-charge leader. - There are occasions when a

group has appointed leader, or if there is one, he could not
play his role for one reason or another. The leadership
vacuum cannot exist indefinitely and for the sake of group
effectiveness, a team member should assume move
forward by defining its mission and determining its
objectives. the role of the take-charge leader. With the
ROLES WITHIN GROUPS leader, the group can then move forward by defining its
Group efforts can be made more effective if relevant roles mission and determining its objectives.
are played within the group. There are specific roles that
are deemed important in the group process. These are the ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GROUPS
following: Working in a group offers the following advantages:

1. Knowledge contributor. Any group would largely 1. More inputs from various perspectives can be made
benefit from a member who plays this role. If he is available for effective decision making;
technically proficient enough, he will be providing 2. Synergism is more likely when people work together as
useful and valid information. He can be of great help
a group;
in task accomplishment and the value of sharing
technical expertise with other members of the group. 3. People in the groups are more supportive of decisions
that were formulated with their assistance;
2. Process observer. The person occupying this role 4. It allows the efficient exchange of information for
forces members to look at how the group functions. effective problem solving;
He is the first member affected when the group is 5. The opportunity for fulfilling the safety, affiliation, and
starting to fail in doing its function. However, he is esteem needs of group members is made available; and
also the first to acknowledge excellent group
performance. 6. Group members get mutual support from each other.

Working in a group, however, has disadvantages which

3. People supporter. Some group members are include the following:
Emotionally strong to face the various difficulties heaped
upon them in the performance of their functions. There is 1. Group activity is usually slower and more cumbersome
a need for one member to assume the role of people because every member has the opportunity to make
supporter who provides emotional support to teammates
contributions;
and resolve conflicts. He listens actively to presentations
made by other members. His smiles, humorous 2. Group meetings are held to disseminate strictly routine
comments, and his relaxed appearance make others feel data that could be more efficiently conveyed in writing
relaxed. Even if he disagrees with others, he supports and through interoffice memorandum. When this happens, the
encourages them. effectiveness of the group is undermined;
3. The group's decision may be diluted by every member's
4. Challenger. The group needs someone who confronts input making the decision ineffective;
and challenges bad ideas. This will prevent complacency
and non-critical thinking. The challenger will succeed in his 4. Accountability is often a problem with group activity;
role if he possesses effective interpersonal skills. He must 5. There are occasions when some members shirk
not appear as someone who challenges anything for the responsibility and let other members of the group do the
sake of challenging. His role must be regarded as a part of work;
the problem solving process. 6. When the group is highly cohesive and motivated,
outside criticism tends to be ignored as group members
5. Listener. There is a need for someone to listen to
look inward for reinforcement of each other's opinions.
whatever ideas or proposals presented by any member of
the group. Somebody must assume that role. Even the
best proposals will go to waste if nobody cares to listen. GROUPTHINK
The previously-cited item No. 6, which is a disadvantage
6. Mediator. It is not uncommon for group members to get Of working in a group, is actually referred to as
involved in disputes between each other. When this "groupthink". This term may be briefly defined as a
happens, it will affect not only the performance of the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral
protagonists but also that of the whole group as well. To
~HCA
judgment in the interest of group cohesiveness. Individual 3. build upon, extend, or combine earlier ideas; and
thinking is brought in line with the average quality of the 4. withhold criticism of others' ideas.
group's thinking.
When group members meet to determine the best solution
An illustration of groupthink may be provided as follows: to a problem, some members tend to be hesitant in
suggesting solutions for fear of being ridiculed. An
Ten years ago, Mr. George Publico was assigned to train underlying principle in brainstorming is to minimize or
five bright new employees. He was satisfied with their eliminate the element of hesitation by deferring judgment
performance he facilitated their promotion to supervisory on ideas forwarded.
positions. Later, Mr. like finding effective ways of cost-
cutting. The five new supervisors Publico was directed to The chance of making a good choice depends on the
form a group that will perform special task were assigned number of ideas listed. To improve the chance of selecting
to him as members of the group. They were thankful that a good solution, adherence to the principle of "quantity
they were given the opportunity to work with their breeds quality" is a feature of the brainstorming technique.
benefactor.
Nominal Group Technique
During group meetings, the five members always defer to The nominal group technique is a group decision-making
their leader. Whatever problems are tossed to the group, method in which individual members meet face-to-face to
they determine Mr. Publico's view, and not wanting to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent
displease him, they indicate their approval. Their job as fashion. The decision is the mathematically pooled
group members became routine and easy because it is outcome of individual group votes.
their leader who does all the thinking.
The following discrete steps are undertaken in the nominal
How to Minimize Groupthink group technique:
The existence of groupthink is an indication that the group 1. Individual members quietly list their ideas.
may be functioning effectively. There are some ways of 2. Ideas are written on a chart one at a time until all ideas
minimizing groupthink. These are: are
listed.
1. Monitoring group size, so it will not grow large enough 3. Brief time is allotted so that questions can be asked, but
to intimidate some members to perform well; only for clarification.
2. Encouraging group leaders to play an impartial role by 4. A written vote is taken and the group decision is
actively seeking input from all members and avoid announced.
expressing their own opinions, especially in the early
stages of deliberation; Electronic Meeting
3. Appointing a member to play the role of devil's advocate: Electronic meeting is a decision-making technique
and wherein members interact through computers, allowing
4. Using exercises that stimulate active discussion of anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes. This
diverse alternatives without threatening the group and technique features the distinct advantages of anonymity,
intensifying identity protection. honesty, and speed.

TECHNIQUES IN GROUP DECISION MAKING Any group member can anonymously type any message
he wants and it flashes on the screen for the entire group
There are various techniques used in group décision to see at the push of a member's keyboard. Since
making. Four of these are presented as follows: anonymity is assured, members can honestly express their
views. Because of computers, messages are quickly
1. interacting groups relayed in an electronic meeting.
2. brainstorming
3. nominal group technique WHAT ARE WORK TEAMS?
4. electronic meeting Work teams are important elements of organizations.
They are the groups expected to deliver high performance
Interacting Groups when the organization requires it.
Interacting groups are typical groups in which members
interact with each other face-to-face. The essence of A work team is a formal group comprised of people
interaction is the sending and receiving of information interacting very closely together with a shared commitment
through oral, written, and nonverbal communication. to accomplish agreed-upon objectives.

The main drawback of this technique is its susceptibility to Differences between Workgroups and Teams
"groupthink". Groups and teams are not similar. A workgroup is one that
interacts primarily to share information and to make
Brainstorming decisions to help each member perform within his or her
Brainstorming is a group problem-solving technique which area of responsibility.
promotes creativity by encouraging members to come up
with any ideas, no matter how strange, without fear of Groups emphasize individual leadership, individual
criticism. accountability, and individual work products.

In brainstorming, the participants are required to observe Teams emphasize shared leadership, mutual
the following procedures: accountability, and collective work products.

1. generate as many ideas as possible; TYPES OF TEAMS

2. be creative, freewheeling, and imaginative; There are various types of teams. The most common are:
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 also take time, especially when the people involved are
1. problem-solving teams from different backgrounds.
2. self-managed work teams
3. cross functional teams Virtual Teams
4. virtual teams Virtual teams are those that use computer technology to
tie together physically dispersed members in order to
Problem-Solving Teams achieve a common goal. Members do the same things as
Problem-solving teams are groups of 5 to 12 employees members of face-to-face teams. They also share
from the same department who meet for a few hours each information, make decisions, and complete tasks. The
week to discuss of improving quality, efficiency, and work difference is they do it with the aid of computers.
environment. ways of improving quality, efficiency, and
work environment. Virtual teams can meet without concern for space, time, or
physical presence. They can work even if they are
Members of problem-solving teams share ideas or offer thousands of miles apart.
suggestions on how processes and methods can be
improved. A major disadvantage of virtual teams is the high cost of
the required supporting technology and training.
Self-Managed Work Teams
A self-managed work team is one that is empowered to DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE TEAMS
make decisions about work schedules, task allocations, Teams can be made effective if the following are observed:
job skills training, performance evaluation, selection of 1. Team size must be kept as small as possible. The larger
new team members, and controlling quality of work.5 the team, the more difficult it would be to manage it.
Team members are collectively held accountable for the 2. The team members must have a sufficient range of
team's overall performance results. skills, information, and/or experience to do the task.
Each member is expected to be able to perform many 3. Team members must have a sense of common purpose
different jobs. Because of this, team members are like the feeling that what they are doing is critical to the
provided with training in performing more than one job on success of the organization.
the team. 4. The team must be free to develop its work procedures
5. The team must have a sense of accountability.
The traditional duties performed by managers or first line
supervisors such as planning and work scheduling, TURNING INDIVIDUALS INTO TEAM PLAYERS
performance evaluation, and quality control are taken over Team players are indispensable human assets of many
by the team members. organizations, and these organizations would want to
make sure that they are available when their services are
The advantages of self-managed work teams are: needed. Team players, however, do not just come out of
1. improved flexibility of staff; the blue. Organizations must provide the right environment
2. the reduced number of job classifications result to more so they can become possible. An important concern,
efficient operations; however, is to turn individuals into team players. The
3. absenteeism and turnover rates are lower; and available options consist of the following:
4. organizational commitment and job satisfaction are at
higher levels. 1. selection
2. training
The disadvantages of self-managed work teams are: 3. rewards
1. Implementing the concept takes time (as long as several
years); Selection
2. the cost of training the team members is high; In searching for team players, it must be remembered that
3. there are inefficiencies created during the training period not all people are alike. Some were born natural team
and players, while others could become team players if they
4. some employees are not able to adapt to a team are properly trained. There is a third category of persons
structure who cannot become team players, even training. They
should not be considered for selection.
Cross Functional Teams
A cross functional team is one composed of employees Training
from about the same hierarchical levels, but from different Training is a way of turning individuals into team players.
work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. An communication, negotiation, conflict management, and
example is a team of supervisors coming from the design, coaching.
manufacturing, and purchasing units of the company, plus
a representative from a major supplier. Fully trained members of the team must be well-versed in
the company's philosophy regarding teams, the team
The advantage of a cross functional team is that it mission, and new roles and responsibilities individuals will
allows people from different units to perform the following: have as a consequence of being part of the team.
1. exchange information
2. develop new ideas Rewards
3. solve problems Rewards are powerful motivators. This is also true if it is
4. coordinate complex projects directed towards effective teamwork. With adequate
rewards, team members would be motivated to be
The main disadvantage is that it consumes much time as effective team players. For instance, a collaborative team
the members learn to work with diversity and complexity. member may be rewarded with a promotion, a pay raise,
On the psychological aspect, building trust and teamwork or any other form of recognition.

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Behaviors that should be rewarded include training supporter, challenger, listener, mediator, gatekeeper,
members, sharing information with teammates, helping to and take-charge leader.
resolve team conflicts, and learning new skills that the ➢ Groups bring advantages and disadvantages to the
team needs. organization.
➢ Groupthink is a disadvantage of organizations, it
POTENTIAL TEAM PROBLEMS refers to the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality
Even teams encounter problems which can affect their testing, and moral judgment in the interest of group
effectiveness. Two notable team problems involve the cohesiveness. However, there are ways of
following: minimizing groupthink.
1. changing membership ➢ The techniques used in group decision-making are:
2. social loafing interacting groups, brainstorming, nominal group
technique, and electronic meeting.
Changing Membership ➢ A work team is a formal group comprised of people
Newly formed teams need time to turn into mature groups. interacting very closely together with a shared
However, this could be disrupted by frequent changes in commitment to accomplish agreed-upon objectives.
its composition. Members may drop out temporarily or ➢ Teams may be classified as problem-solving teams,
permanently for reasons like: self-managed work teams, cross functional teams, or
virtual teams.
1. transferring to a higher priority project; ➢ Individuals may be developed into team players by
2. the occurrence of a personal problem requiring effective selection, training, and rewards.
extended leaves of absence; or ➢ The potential problems of teams consist of changing
3. accepting a job in another company. membership and social loafing.

The higher the membership turnover is, the bigger is the

team's problem. To address such concern, the team must CHAPTER 8: Leadership
learn to manage its internal turnover through the following:
Leadership is a very important, if not the most important
1. recognition of the potential problems brought by high factor in the success of organizations. This has been
turnover; pointed out time and again throughout history by leaders
2. development of a plan for managing turnover; and like Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte,
3. thinking through how best to integrate new members. Oliver Cromwell, and many others. In business, the
exemplary leadership abilities of Walt Disney, Bill Gates,
Social Loafing Akito Morita, John D. Rockefeller, and many others are
Social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to proofs that with the right kind of leadership, organizations
expend less effort when working collectively than when can succeed.
working individually.
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP
The reasons for social loafing are: Leadership may be defined as the process of guiding and
1. the members think their contribution is less noticeable; directing the behavior of people in the organization in order
and to achieve certain objectives.
2. the members prefer to see others carry the workload.
In a competitive situation, it is often leadership that spells
To minimize or eliminate social loafing, some means of the difference between success and failure. Even when
identifying individual efforts must be provided. If this is not the organization is short of material resources, the right
possible, it may be proper to consider first whether the leadership can sometimes get people so inspired that they
team approach appropriate for the task at hand. It may be are able to perform credibly.
wise to consider an analysis of the following:
1. the nature of the task; Leadership is that element that convinces members of an
2. the qualifications and desires of the participants; and organization to behave in such a manner that will facilitate
3. the time and cost constraints. the accomplishment of the goals of the organization.

SUMMARY The Difference between Leadership and Management

➢ Work teams and groups are important concerns of Leading is one of the functions of management. The other
organizations. functions consist of planning, organizing, directing, and
➢ A group consists of two or more persons, interacting controlling. Without sufficient leadership, these other
interdependent, who have come together to achieve functions can be rendered useless because people will not
certain objectives. be motivated to put them in operation.
➢ Groups may be classified as either formal or informal.
group. Managers and leaders are different in the following ways:
➢ The types of formal groups are: command group, and 1. Managers are rational problem solvers, while leaders
task g Informal groups consist of interest groups and are intuitive, more visionary;
friendship groups. People form groups due to need 2. Managers perform other administrative function such as
satisfaction, proximity, attraction, goals, and planning, organizing, decision-making, and
economics. communicating;
➢ Groups develop in a standardized sequence 3. Leaders are primarily concerned with results; managers
consisting of: the forming stage, storming stage, are concerned with the efficiency of results; and
norming stage, performing stage, and adjourning 4.Leaders obtain their power from below; managers obtain
stage. theirs from above.
➢ Roles are played within groups consisting of:
knowledge contributor, process observer, people KINDS OF LEADERSHIP
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Leadership are of two kinds: Reward Power. This power emanates from one's ability
1. Formal; and to grant rewards to those who comply with a command or
2. Informal. request. The leader's capacity to provide promotions,
money, praise, and other rewards influences the behaviour
Formal Leadership
Formal leadership refers to the process of influencing of subordinates.
others to pursue official objectives. Formal leaders are
vested with formal authority and as such, they generally Coercive Power. This power arises from the expectation
have a measure of legitimate power. They rely on of subordinates that they will be punished if they do not
expedient combination of reward, coercive, referent, and conform to the wishes of the leader. The punishment can
expert power. take the form of dismissal suspension, and transfer to a
less desirable task, and the like. This power uses fear as
Informal Leadership a motivator, which can be a powerful force in inducing
Informal leadership refers to the process of influencing short-term action. The use of this power, however, has
others to pursue unofficial objectives. Informal leaders lack overall negative impact on the individual affected.
formal authority. Like formal leaders, they rely on
expedient combination of reward, coercive, referent, and Coercive power is reduced by the presence of unions and
expert power. organizational policies on employee treatment.

Informal leaders who are satisfied with their jobs are

valuable assets of the organization. When they are not
satisfied, they become liabilities. Their power to motivate
people can be used to convince employees to cause harm
to the organization.

POWER AND THE LEADER

The main concern of a leader is to influence people to
behave as he wants them to. The leader, however, can
influence only if he possess power, and this emanates only
from either the group or the leader.

The bases of power that the leader may use to convince

subordinates may be classified as either:

1. Position Power
2. Personal power

POSITION POWER
Position power is that power derived as a consequence of
the leader's position. It consists of the following types:

1. Legitimate power
2. Reward power
3. Coercive power
Personal Power
Legitimate Power. Also referred to as authority, this The leader's personal power results from his personal
power emanates from a person's position in the characteristics. It may be any or both of the following:
organization. A manager, for instance, is given the right by 1. Expert power
the organization to influence or command certain 2. Referent power
individuals. Orders from him are followed by the
subordinates because he has the legitimate power to Expert power. An expert who possess and can dispense
command certain subordinates in lower positions. When valued information generally exercise expert power over
an order is not followed, the offending subordinate is those in need of such information. Doctors, lawyers, and
subjected to disciplinary action. computer specialists are examples of persons who may
have expert power.
The legitimate power vested in a person is characterized
by the following: The expert power of the leader depends on his education,
1. It is invested in a person's position. Even if the person training, and experience.
occupying the position is replaced, the power remains and
the new occupant can exercise it. Referent Power. This power refers to the ability of leaders
2. It is accepted by subordinates. The persons working to develop followers from the strength of their own
under the supervision of a manager believes that the personalities. Leaders who possess this power have a
personal magnetism, an air of confidence, and a
manager has Ser the right to tell them what to do and what passionate belief in objectives that attract and hold
to expect from them. followers.
3. Authority is used vertically. The flow of authority is from
the top level down to the lower levels. People follow because their emotions push them to do so.
Some religious and political leaders like Nelson Mandela
of Africa, the late Mother Teresa, and the late Michael

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Jackson are example of those who have or had referent Later, researchers, guided by their findings, drafted a more
power. general view of what good leaders have in common. These
consist of the following:
THEORIES ABOUT LEADERSHIP
There are various theories about leadership and they may 1. Extraversion - individuals who like being around people
be regarded as attempts to explain the various factors that and are able to assert themselves.
may be identified with successful leadership. 2. Conscientiousness - individuals who are disciplined
and keep commitments that they make.
Through the years, eminent researchers have forwarded
their own theories about leadership. Their outputs may be 3. Openness - individuals who are creative and flexible.
classified as follows: 4. Emotional intelligence individuals who are able to
1. Trait theories understand and manage their personal feelings and
2. Behavioral theories emotions, as well as their emotions towards other
3. Contingency theories individuals, events, and objects.

A single statement that describes what trait theories

assume is that "leaders are born than made."

Behavioral Theories
After some years, trait theories were found to be
inadequate in explaining the basis for effective leadership.
As a result, researchers shifted their interest to behaviors
exhibited by specific leaders.

What the researchers developed came to be known as

behavioral theories of leadership. These theories propose
that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from non-
leaders.

Four theories related to leadership behavior will be

presented in this section. These are as follows:
1. The Ohio State University studies
2. The University of Michigan studies
3. The Yukl studies
4. The Managerial Grid

Ohio State University Studies. An important leadership

research program was started at Ohio State University
during the late 1940s. The researchers sought to identify
independent dimensions of leader behavior.

A questionnaire was administered in both industrial and

military settings to measure subordinates' perception of
their superiors' leadership behavior. Beginning with over a
thousand dimensions, they eventually narrowed the list to
two categories that substantially accounted for most of the
leadership behavior described by employees.

The two dimensions were referred to as:

Trait Theories Unive the Ohio S leadership making att appeared The
Trait theories of leadership consider leaders to possess 1. Initiating structure; and
common traits. Early researchers on leadership placed 2. Consideration.
emphasis on traits and had resulted in the determinetion
of a wide span of personal attributes such as physical Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader
appearance, intelligence, and self-confidence. is likely to define his or her role and those of employees in
the search for goal attainment. The leader with a high
It was found out that the average person who occupies a initiating structure tendency focuses on goals and results,
position of leadership exceeds the average number of his so he or she might be seen as similar to a production-
group to some degree on the following factors: oriented supervisor.
1. Sociability
2. Persistence Structure is initiated by activities such as assigning specific
3. Initiative tasks, specifying procedures to be followed, scheduling
4. Knowing how to get things done work, and clarifying expectations.
5. Self-confidence
6. Alertness to and insight into situations Consideration describes the degree to which the leader
7. Cooperativeness creates an environment of emotional support, warmth,
8. Popularity friendliness, and trust. The leader's behaviour would be
9. Adaptability one that is friendly and approachable, looking out for the
10. Verbal facility personal welfare of the group, keeping the group informed

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about new developments, and doing small favors for group 4. Decision-Participation. The extent to which a leader
members. consults with subordinates and otherwise allows them to
influence his or her decisions.
The findings of the Ohio studies indicate that successful
leaders are those that are engaged not in one of the two 5. Training-Coaching. The extent to which a leader
behaviors but in both, i.e., initiating and consideration. determines training needs for subordinates and provides
any necessary training and coaching.
University of Michigan studies Studies. At about the
same time that the Ohio State University leadership was 6. Problem Solving. The extent to which a leader takes
engaged in a research program on leadership, the the initiative in proposing solutions to serious work-related
researchers at the University of Michigan were also problems and acts decisively to deal with such problems
making attempts to locate behavioral characteristics of when a prompt solution is needed.
leaders that appeared to be related to measures of
performance effectiveness. 7. Work Facilitation. The extent to which a leader obtains
for subordinates any necessary supplies, equipment,
The effectiveness criteria used are as follows: support services, or other resources, eliminates problems
1. Productivity for work hour or other similar measures of in the work environment, and removes other obstacles that
the organization's success in achieving its production interfere with the work.
goals;
2. Job satisfaction of members of the organization; 8. Inspiration
3. Turnover, absenteeism, and grievance rates; 9. Structuring reward contingencies
; 10. Autonomy-Delegation
11. Role Clarification
4. Costs
5. Scrap loss; and 12. Goal Setting
6. Employee and managerial motivation. 13. Information Dissemination
14. Planning
In the course of their studies, the researchers identified 15. Coordinating
two distinct styles of leadership: 16. Representation
17. Interaction Facilitation
1. Job-centered; and
18. Conflict Management
2. Employee-centered.
19. Criticism-Discipline
Job-centered managers set tight work standards,
organized tasks carefully, prescribed the work methods to The Managerial Grid. The managerial grid is a graphic
be followed, and supervised closely. portrayal concern and Jane Mouton. It is an approach to
understanding a manager's of a two dimensional view of
Employee-centered managers encouraged group leadership developed by Robert Blake for production and
members to participate in goal setting and other work concern for people. As such, the grid was structured to
decisions, and helped to ensure high performance by contain two underlying dimensions labelled Concern for
engendering trust and mutual respect. Production and Concern for People. These attitudinal
dimensions coupled through an interaction process.
The researchers found out that the most productive work Figure 28 shows each of these concerns as one of the two
groups tended to have leaders who were employee- axes of the grid, so that concerns for both people and
centered rather than job- centered. productivity are combined in various management
Are styles.
Yukl Studies. Other researchers like Gary M. Yuk! made
one step further than the Michigan and Ohio State studies.
He and his colleagues tried to seek answers to specific
behavior of leaders for varying situations. They were able
to isolate nineteen behaviors consisting of the following:

1. Performance emphasis. The extent, to which a leader

emphasizes the importance of subordinate performance,
tries to improve productivity and efficiency, tries to keep
subordinates working up to their capacity, and checks their
performance.

2. Consideration. The extent to which a leader is friendly,

supportive, and considerate in his or her behaviour toward
subordinates and tries to be fair and objective.

3. Praise-Recognition. The extent to which a leader

provides praise and recognition to subordinates with
effective performance, shows appreciation for their special
efforts and contributions, and makes sure they get credit
for their helpful ideas and suggestions.
The Managerial grid proposes that there is a best way to
manage people, i.e., the way used by the 9,9 manager,

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who has 9 units of concern for production and 9 units of they want to allow subordinates in the decision making
concern for people. process.

The grid has 9 possible positions along each axis, creating Shown in Figure 29 are the alternative behaviors of the
81 different positions in which the leader's style may fall. leader which are situated between the two extremes of
Managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 style authoritarian and participative approaches.
rather than the other style like 9,1 (the authority type) or
1,1 (the laissez-faire type).

A brief description of selected styles in the grid is provided

follows:

❖ 1,1 Impoverished manager, also referred to as the

laissez- faire leaders. Leaders in this position have
little concern for people or productivity, avoid taking
sides, and stay out of conflicts. They do just enough
to get by. This leadership style is a form of abdication
of responsibility.
❖ 1,9 Country club manager. Leaders in this position
have great concern for people and little concern for
production, They try to avoid conflicts and
concentrate on being well-liked. To them, no task is
more important than good interpersonal relations.
Their goal is to keep people happy.
❖ 9,1 Authority-obedience manager. Leaders in this
position have great concern for production and little
concern for people. They desire tight control in order The leader's choices depend on three factors:
to get tasks done efficiently. They consider creativity 1. Forces in the manager;
and human relations unnecessary. 2. Forces in subordinates; and
❖ 5,5 Organization man manager, also called middle- 3. Forces in the situation.
of- the-road manager. Leaders in this position have
medium concern for people and production. They Under this approach, the effective leaders are flexible, able
attempt to balance their concern for both people and to select leadership behaviours needed in a given time and
production, but are not committed to either. place.
❖ 9,9 Team manager. The leadership style of this
manager is considered to be ideal. He has great Forces in the manager consist of: the manager's
concern for both people and production. He works to background, knowledge, values, and experience. How the
motivate people to reach their highest levels of manager will lead will primarily be influenced by these
accomplishment. forces. For example, if the manager worked for ten years
as a subordinate of a well-performing leader who adapted
Contingency Theories the participative style, he will tend to be a participative
The trait and behavioral theories failed to point out that leader himself.
leadership situations are not similar, and it is easy to
presume that there is no single leadership style that will fit In choosing an appropriate leadership style, the manager
all situations. This line of thinking led researchers to must also consider the forces in subordinates.
engage in research activities that were later called
contingency. The individual researchers share a The leadership style of greater participation and freedom
fundamental assumption: successful leadership occurs can be exercised by the manager if the subordinates:
when the leader's style matches the situation. 1. Are craving for independence and freedom of action;
2. Want to have decision making responsibility;
The various theories related to the situational approach to 3. Identify with the organization's goals;
leadership consist of the following: 4. Are knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal
1. Continuum of Leadership Behavior - by Tannenbaum with the problem efficiently;
and Schmidt 5. Have experience with previous managers that lead them
2. The Contingency Leadership Model - by Fiedler to expect participative management.
3. The Path-Goal - by House and Mitchell
When the above conditions are absent, managers will
4. The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership have to lean toward the authoritarian style.
Theories
5.The Leader-Member Exchange Approach - by Graen Lastly, the manager's choice of leadership style must
6. The Normative Decision Model - by Vroom and Jago reckon with situational forces such as: the organization's
7. The Muczyk-Reimann Model preferred style, the specific work group, the nature of the
group's tasks, the pressures of time, and environmental
factors.
Continuum of Leadership Behavior. The first
contingency model of leadership was developed by Robert
There are instances when the organization's top
Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt and is referred to as
management favors certain leadership style, and most
the continuum of leadership behavior. This model consists
managers will have to move towards it.
of seven alternative ways for managers to approach
decision making, depending on how much participation

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There are groups that are more likely to perform well in an task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations
environment of participation rather than its opposite, the that are either highly favorable or highly unfavorable. On
authoritarian form. An example is that group of the other hand, relationship-oriented leaders perform best
accountants working in an accounting firm serving clients. when the situation is moderately favorable or moderately
unfavorable. Thus, if a leader is moderately liked and
The nature of the problem and time pressures are possesses some power, and the job tasks for subordinates
examples of situational factors that may influence the are somewhat vague, the leadership style needed to
choice of leadership achieve the best results is relationship- oriented.
large hospital has no option but to adapt an authoritarian
leadership style. The Path-Goal Model. This is a leadership model
developed by Robert House and Terrence Mitchell that
The Contingency Leadership Model. This is a states that the leader's job is to create a work environment
leadership model developed by Fred Fiedler which through structure, support, and rewards that helps
proposes that effective group performance depends on the employees reach the organization's goals.
proper match between the leader's style and the degree to
which the situation favors the leader. The two major roles involved are:
1. The creation of a good orientation; and
Fiedler measures leadership style through the use of the 2. The improvement of the path toward the goals so that
Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale which is actually an they will be attained.
instrument that assesses the degree of positive or
negative feelings held by a person toward someone with The path-goal process is illustrated in Figure 30. The first
whom he or she least prefers to work. Low scores on the step for the leader to identify employee needs, then to
LPC is a reflection of the leader who is task-oriented, or provide appropriate goals, and then to connect goal
controlling, and with a structuring leadership style. High accomplishment to rewards that may be expected.
scores reflect a leadership style that is relationship-
oriented, or one that is passive and considerate.

To determine how favorable the leadership environment

is, Fiedler maintains that it will depend on three factors:
1. Leader-member relations
1.
2. Task structure
3. Position power

Leader-member relations refer to the degree of

confidence, trust, and respect the followers have in their
leader.

Task structure refers to the extent to which the tasks the

followers are engaged in are structured. Tasks structure is
high when the task is clearly specified and known as to:
1. What followers are supposed to do;
2. How they will do it;
3.When and in what sequence it is to be done; and
4. What decision options they have.

Task structure is low when the task in unclear, ambiguous,

or unspecifiable.

Position power refers to the power inherent in the

leadership The leader with a strong position power will find House and Mitchell identified four leadership behaviors:
it easier to perform position. Generally, greater authority 1. The directive leader. This is the type of leader who lets
means greater position power. his job. Some positions, followers know what is expected of them, schedules work
such as the presidency of a big manufacturing à civic firm, to be done, and gives specific guidance as to how to
carry a great deal of power and authority. The president of accomplish tasks.
a organization, on the other hand, has less power over
members. Thus, leaders with high position power can 2. The supportive leader. This is the type of leader who
easily influence subordinates, while those with less is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers.
position power finds it difficult to perform their tasks.
3.The participative leader. This is the leader who
Together, the three factors determine how favorable the consults with followers and uses their suggestions before
situation is for the leader. The most favorable situation making a decision.
exists when there is good leader-member relations, high
task structure, and strong position power. The least 4. The achievement-oriented leader. This is the leader
favorable situation happens when there is poor relations, who sets challenging goals and expects followers to
low degree of structure, and weak position power. perform at their highest level.

After identifying the leadership style of the manager or According to House, leaders are flexible and any display
leader, and after defining the situation, the next move is to any or all of these behaviours depending on the
match the situation to the leader. Fiedler believed that circumstances.
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 The effect of leader-member relations come into view
The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership when the leader, knowingly or unknowingly, creates in-
Theory. Developed by Paul Hershey and Kenneth groups and out-groups within the organization.
Blanchard, the Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) Subordinates with in-group status will have higher
suggests that a leader's style should be determined by performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job
matching it with the maturity level (or readiness) of satisfaction.
each subordinate.
In-group members have attitudes and values similar to
The leader must know follower's readiness and then use a those of the leader and interact frequently with the leader.
leadership style that fits the level. Readiness refers to the They are given additional rewards, responsibility, and trust
ability and willingness of subordinates to take in exchange for loyalty and performance. They become
responsibility for directing their own behavior. part of a smoothly functioning team headed by the formal
leader.
Readiness consists of two concerns:
1. Job readiness (or task competence); and Out-group members are treated in accordance with a more
2. Psychological readiness (or commitment). formal understanding of supervisor-subordinate relations.
They have less in common with the leader and operate in
A person who has high task competence has the a way that is somewhat detached from the leader. They
knowledge and abilities to perform the job without a are less likely to experience good teamwork.
manager structuring or directing the work. A person who
has high commitment has the self-motivation and desire to The quality of the relationship between the leader and
do high quality work. each group member has important job consequences.
Good relationships can lead to important effects such as
Based on the foregoing, subordinates may be classified as higher productivity and satisfaction, improved motivation,
follows: and smoother delegation.
1. Those with low competence and low commitment (D-1);
2. Those with low competence but with high commitment Normative Decision Model. Also known as "the leader-
(D- 2); participation model" and "decision making model of
3. Those with high competence but with low commitment leadership", the normative decision model was developed
(D- 3); and by Victor and Philip Yetton. Some years later, the model
4.Those with high competence and high commitment (D- was revised by Vroom and Arthur Jago to make it more
4). accurate.

To match the various states of readiness by subordinates, The model views leadership as a decision making process
Hershey and Blanchard devised four leadership styles in which the leader examines certain factors within the
available to leaders: situation to determine which decision making style will be
most effective.
1. A "directing" style that is best for low follower
readiness. The direction provided by this style Five decision making styles are presented by the
defines roles for people who are unable and normative model, each reflecting a different degree of
unwilling to take responsibility themselves; it participation by group
eliminates any insecurity about the task that members:
must be done. 1. Autocratic I - the leader individually solves the problem
2. A "coaching" style that is best for low to using the information already available.
moderate follower readiness. This style offers
both task direction and support for people who 2. Autocratic II - the leader obtains data from
are unable but willing to take task responsibility; subordinates and then decides.
it involves combining directive approach with
explanation and reinforcement in order to 3. Consultative - the leader explains the problem to
maintain enthusiasm. individual subordinates and obtains ideas from each
3. A "supporting" style that is best for moderate to before deciding.
high follower readiness. Able but unwilling
followers require supportive behavior in order to 4.Consultative II - the leader meets with group of
increase their motivation; by allowing followers subordinates to share the problem and obtain inputs, and
to share in decision making, this style help then decides. 5. Group II - the leader shares problem with
enhance the desire to perform a task. group and facilitates a discussion of alternatives aiming to
4. A "delegating" style that is best for high reach a group agreement on a solution.
readiness. This style provides little in terms of
direction and support for the task at hand; it The normative decision model is based on the following
allows able and willing followers to take assumptions:
responsibility for what needs to be done.
1. The leader can accurately classify problems according
The Leader-Member Exchange Approach. This refers to to the criteria offered
the leadership theory developed by George Graen and his 2. The leader is able and willing to adapt his or her
associates which recognize that leaders develop unique leadership style to fit the contingency condition he or she
working relationships with each group member. Leaders faces.
and their followers exchange information, resources, and 3. The leader is willing to use a rather complex model.
role expectations that determine the quality of their 4. The employees will accept the legitimacy of different
interpersonal relationships. styles being used for different problems, a as well as the

~HCA
validity of the leader's classification of the situation at
hand.

The normative model will be useful if all these

assumptions are valid.

The Muczyk-Reimann Model. This model was developed

by Jan P. Muczyk and Bernard C. Reimann, and it
suggests that "participation" behavior is concerned with
the degree to which subordinates are allowed to be
involved in decision making. It is separated from "direction"
which is viewed as the degree of supervision exercised in
the execution of the tasks associated with carrying out the
decision.

Muczyk and Reimann propose that leaders should be

allowed to adapt to different situations. This paves the way
covers decision making and execution. for delegation
which covers decision making and execution.

To make delegation effective, four leadership styles are

considered:
1. The directive autocrat. The leader makes decisions
unilaterally and closely supervises the activities of
subordinates.

2. The permissive autocrat. This leader makes decision

unilaterally but allows subordinates a great deal of latitude
in execution.
3. The directive democrat. This leader wants full
participation but closely supervises subordinate activity.
4. The permissive democrat. This leader allows high
participation in decision making and in execution.

Muczyk and Reimann maintains that there are situations

that would be right for each of the leadership styles they
presented. For instance, the directive autocrat would be
the appropriate leader for subordinates who are less
skilled, less mature psychologically, and given limited time
to perform.

SUMMARY
➢ Leadership is regarded as a very important
ingredient of success in organizational pursuits.
➢ Leading and managing are two different matters.
➢ Leadership may be formal or informal.
➢ Without power, the leader is helpless.
➢ Power may be derived from the leader's position or
from his personal characteristics. Position power
consists of legitimate power, reward power, and
coercive power. Personal power may be classified as
expert power and referent power.
➢ There are various theories concerning leadership.
They may be classified as belonging to either trait
theories, behavioral theories, or contingency
theories.
➢ Trait theories consider leaders to possess common
traits.
➢ Behavioral theories proposes that specific
behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
➢ Contingency theories assume that successful
leadership occurs when the leader's style matches
with the situation.

~HCA