CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive review of the
background of translation. an attempt is made to review the
background of translation. The areas to be reviewed includes
the early origin of translation, common problems encountered
in translation, as well as its significance and range of
applications. The chapter will conclude with a detailed
methodology for conducting effective translations.
Translation is the process of conveying the meaning and
purpose of a written or spoken language from one language to
another while retaining the original meaning and intent. It is an
essential tool for communication and is utilized in various fields
such as literature, business, law, and diplomacy. Translation has
become an imperative requirement for global development in
education, social, economic, scientific, technological and
political domains to maintain international harmony and
cooperation .
Every community has its own language, speech community and
cultural and linguistic heritage. Translation serves as a medium
to facilitate cross-cultural communication and comprehension.
It plays a crucial role in bringing diverse socio-cultural groups
closer by promoting mutual understanding and appreciation of
their cultures and information. Translation is a noble service to
humanity that allows access to various texts, but it requires a
knowledgeable translator who understands the subject matter
and intended audience to ensure accuracy and effectiveness.
With the advancement of technology, machine translation
tools and software have become increasingly popular, but they
are not always dependable. Human translators, particularly
those who are proficient in both languages and have a
profound understanding of the cultures involved, are still the
preferred choice for producing exceptional translations.

1
Translation is a significant ability that necessitates proficiency
and dedication. It is a valuable tool for promoting
communication, comprehension and mutual admiration among
various cultures and communities.

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Translation has been a part of human history some ancient

times, when people needed to communicate with others who
spoke different languages. Religious texts were some of the
earliest recorded translations, which allowed wider audience to
access them. During the Middle Ages, translation was essential
for sharing knowledge and ideas across cultures, while the
Renaissance saw it used it to spread literature and promote
reform movements. In the 20th century, translation played a
crucial role in international diplomacy during the World Wars.
Today, translation is more accessible than ever before, with
technology making it easier to communicate and share ideas
across cultures. It is used in various field, such as business, law,
medicine and education. However, human translators are still
essential for producing accurate and culturally sensitive
translations. In Nigeria, translation has been an important
practice for a long time.
Translation, one of the most important cross-linguistic and
cross-cultural practices has been going on in Nigeria for quite
some time (Edebiri, 1982:1). The word translation has been
viewed and explained by Darbelnet (1977:7) as;

‘ Translation consists in transferring from one

language to another all the elements of meaning of a
passage and only those elements which ensure that
2
 they retain in the TL (Target language) their relative
importance as well as well as the tonality and also
taking into account their relative differences
presented by the culture to which the Source and
Target languages correspond respectively.’

In this definition, Darbelnet emphasizes the meaning and

cultural differences of both the source and target language.
Translation can mean different things to different people, but to
most, it involves transferring a message from one language to
another. House (2009:4) views translation as a replacement of
an original text with another text. With this type of
replacement, translation has been regarded as a kind of inferior
substitute for the original work and it has been likened to the
back of a carpet, or a kiss through a handkerchief .
The origin of translation is not clear. But according to some
scholars, translation began with the Babel theory of translation.
The theory explained the linguistic confusion that followed
man’s first attempt to construct an edifice that will reach God’s
abode, heaven. That edifice was called “the tower of Babylon”
(Genesis 11:9). Some other scholars believe that translation
began with the renaissance school of thought. In the
renaissance period, the monks did a lot of work, translating the
document they saved from Greek and Latin into English and
French. The first serious task on translation was assumed to
have been carried out by the Arabs, having conquered the
Greek Scientific and Philosophical works. In the ninth and tenth
century Baghdad, the scientific and philosophical works of
Ancient Greece were translated into Arabic and this learning
spread to Europe through Spain which was virtually a Muslim
country from the early eighth century for four hundred years.
The transmission reached its peak through the school of Toledo
where translations were made from Arabic to Latin and later to
Spanish. This situation helped in the scientific and technological
development for the European Renaissance. Since then till date,
translation has helped to develop the whole world together.
3
 Generally, it is believed that translation is as old as written
literature. In Nigeria, translation started as an offshoot of
missionary activity. During the colonial era, the missionaries
translated the Bible into the various indigenous languages of
Nigeria because they saw that it could enhance their work of
evangelism. Lack of an established orthography in the
indigenous languages posed a challenge. So, the missionaries
proceeded to design orthography for the local languages and to
translate the Bible into these languages. Apart from translating
the Bible to the Nigerian indigenous languages, some
missionaries also translated some aspects of the Nigerian
indigenous literature into English. In Nigeria, translation started
by rendering the Bible from English to the indigenous Nigerian
languages while literary translation took off in the opposite
direction from indigenous to English language (Oraka 1983:28)
Edebiri (1982:20) confirm the work of these missionaries
when he said that by the middle of the last century. they had
already rendered the Bible into Yoruba. Igbo. Hausa , Ijaw , Efik
and Kanuri languages.
The foundation having been laid by these missionaries, some
indigenous translators joined in the race. The missionaries apart
from translating the Bible to Nigerian indigenous languages also
translated some aspect of our indigenous literature. There are
some translation works on Igbo liturgy for the Roman Catholics
and Protestants were also done by these missionaries and
indigenous translators. These were of course the springboard
for future development of Igbo language and precise
translation. Some Igbo scholars embarked on literary
translation from Igbo to English in present years.
Translation serves as a means of cross-cultural bilingual
communication vehicle among people (Constanza, 2000:1).
In the past few decades, the activities of translation have developed because of rising
international trade, increased migration, globalization, the recognition of linguistic minorities,
and the expansion of the mass media and technology. For these reasons, the translator plays an
important role as a bilingual or multi-lingual cross-cultural transmitter of culture and truths by
attempting to interpret concepts and speech in a variety of texts as faithfully, and accurately as
possible (Contanza, 2000:1)
Cartford (1965:20) defines translation as the replacement of the textual material in one

4
language (SL) by the equivalent textual material in another (TL). In a similar view, Newmark
(1981:7) sees translation as an exercise which consists in the attempt to replace a written
message in one language by the same message in another language.
Thriveni (2000:1) says that translation is not simply a matter of seeking other words with
similar meaning but of finding appropriate ways of saying things in another language.
Ezeuko (1997:19) points out that translation could well be considered, not only as an activity
or art but also as the product of the art or activity.
Translation provides access to something, some message, that already exists. With this,
translation is seen as providing access to something, some message, that already exists, and it is
always therefore a secondary communication (House 2009:3). Translation is the process of
replacing an original text, known as the source text, with a substitute one, known as the target
text.
House (2009:4) says that such process is usually an interlingual translation in that the
message in the source language text is rendered as a target text in a different language. She adds
that sometimes the term is also used to refer to an intra- lingual translation, a process whereby a
text in one variety of the language is reworded into another. Example is when a text in, say, old
English is reworked into a text in modern English, or a text in one dialect or style is reworked into
another. We also have inter-semiotic translation. This is when replacement involves not another
language but another non-linguistic means of expression, in other words, a different semiotic
system. Example is when, for instance, a poem is translated into a dance or a picture, a novel into
an opera or a film. She concludes that what all these processes have in common is that they
involve replacement of one expression of a message or unit of meaningful content by another in
a different form.
Delisle as quoted in Constanza (2000:2) illustrates what a subtle form of torture translation
is: “Translation is an arduous job that mortifies you, puts you in a state of despair at times, but
also an enriching and indispensable work that demands honestly and modesty”. He concludes
that there are many thorns that can mortify us during the translation process and whatever the
nature of the text we face, the translators should be aware of them.
A person who concerns himself with translation of literary texts is a literary translator. A
literary translator, according to Newmark (1981:23), generally respects good writing by taking
into account the language, structures, and content, whatever the nature of the text. This work
focuses on literary translation which include prose, their problems and prospects. The literary
text ‘Bright Spot’ and it is a feature of prose.

ABOUT THE TEXT

The literary text “Bright Spot” was written by Yode Ajagbe for Basic 3 & 4. The short story was
about a young man named Ayodeji who was a village boy who looks forward to a bright future.
The story started with a dream, when he left his hometown ‘Agamagudu’ for a greener pasture
where he met an old man who was about to die and the old man handed over his beautiful
daughter Juliette to Ayodeji in order for him to marry her. The old man later died and the people
of that land accused Ayodeji of killing the old man, they sentenced him to prison, when there was
an earthquake in the land, Ayodeji got the chance to escape. On the way he met Juliette and they
both sailed off to an island called Aqua. They became a refugee there, and the governor of the

5
state took over Juliette from Ayodeji. Ayodeji fled to Blue island, there he met his childhood
friend Ndifreke who was a Baron in Blue Island. They both talked about their past experiences
and they sojourned to the gold country Eldorado. After a week on horses, they arrived in
Eldorado. They found favour in the sight of the king of Eldorado, at that point he had forgotten
about Juliette. They told the king they were leaving Eldorado, the king gave them lots of gift
which they lost in the shop on there way to look for Juliette. Ayodeji told Ndifreke to help him
look for his bride to be and he was able to find her and Ayodeji reunited with Juliette. Ayodeji
woke up to discover all this was a dream. He later thought about the dream and he said to
himself that he can make it here without traveling abroad. Ayodeji narrated the dream to his
mother who offered a good suggestion of him working in a fruit garden in another village called
Ijekuma for at least six months, from where he would gather a lot of experiences to enable him
start his own fruit garden in Agamagudu. Ayodeji accepted the advice. He satarted working at
Chief Abezimi fruit garden at Ijekuma. After he completed his training, chief Abezimi gave him his
freedom and it was time for him to go back to Agamagudu. When he got back to his land, the
king of Agamagudu gave him 20 acres of land full of different fruit trees and in return he would
give to the king 40 percent of the profit after harvest for just ten year after which he would pay
no more but become the owner of the full plantation.
Ayodeji did a really good job at transforming Agamagudu to a commercial centre of fruits. The
king gave him a chieftaincy title ‘Agamadu’ of Agamagudu meaning ‘the result of our lost glory’.
At the end, Ayodeji became a wealthy man right in his own village.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

The Author of the literary text ‘Bright Spot’ is Yode Ajagbe. He is a lecturer in the University of
Ibadan. He is a writer and an award winning author of contemporary romance fiction including
the intriguing “What Happened To Helen” and “High School Lovers”. He’s a French lecturer and
author of French books in series.

6
 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Although translation has been widely studied , literary translation has received less attention.
Literary translation involves translating creative and artistic works, such as novels, poems, plays,
short stories, and other forms of literature,from one language to another . It involves conveying
the original author's artistic expression, style, tone, and intended meaning into the target
language while maintaining the literary merit and cultural nuances of the source text.
Literary translation is a specialized field that requires not only fluency in the source and target
languages but also a deep understanding of the literary traditions, cultural references, historical
contexts, and authorial intent. The translator must capture the essence of the original work,
including its literary style, wordplay, metaphors, and other literary devices, and recreate them in
the target language in a way that resonates with the target audience.
One of the main challenges in literary translation is finding a balance between staying faithful to
the source text and making the translation readable and enjoyable for the target audience.
Translators often face difficult decisions in choosing between literal translations and dynamic or
creative equivalents that convey the intended meaning and literary beauty of the original work in
the target language. They must also navigate cultural differences and adapt the text to the
cultural sensibilities of the target audience while preserving the essence of the source text.
Owing to the nature of literary text, problems abound in its translation. The problem of
translation refers to the challenges and complexities involved in accurately conveying meaning
from one language to another. It encompasses various linguistic, cultural, and contextual factors
that can affect the accuracy and fluency of translated texts. Some common issues associated with
translation include:

1) Linguistic differences: Different languages have unique grammar rules, syntax, and
vocabulary, which may not always have a direct equivalent in the target language. This can result
in difficulties in finding appropriate translations for certain words, phrases, or idioms, leading to
loss of meaning or misinterpretation.

2) Style and Tone: Translating the style and tone of the source text can be difficult, as
different languages have their own unique styles and tones. Maintaining the intended style and
tone of the original text in translation can be challenging, especially for literary works or creative
content.

3) Cultural nuances: Languages are closely tied to their respective cultures, and translating
cultural references, customs, and traditions can be complex. Certain cultural concepts may not
have direct translations in the target language, which can lead to misunderstandings or
misinterpretations if not handled carefully.

4) Ambiguity: Some languages have inherent ambiguity, where a single word or phrase can
have multiple meanings. Translators need to carefully decipher the intended meaning and choose
the appropriate translation, which may require additional context or clarification.

5) Subjectivity and context: The meaning of a word or phrase can be subjective and
context-dependent. Translators must accurately interpret the intended meaning of the source
text and convey it in the target language, taking into consideration the context, tone, and
intended audience, which can be challenging.

6) Time constraints: Translators often work under tight deadlines, which can affect the
quality and accuracy of translations. Limited time may not allow for thorough research or editing,
leading to potential errors or inaccuracies.

7) Figures of speech and idiomatic expression constitute their own problems since they are
not easily interpreted and even when you interpret them , you may not find equivalent proverbs

7
or words to express them and bring out the sense as was intended by the writer of the original.

8) Dialects and variations: Igbo is a diverse language with various dialects and regional
variations. Choosing the appropriate dialect or variation that is most relevant to the context of
the literary text can be challenging, as it may affect the accuracy and authenticity of the
translation.

The magnitude of these problems depends on who is translating. Overcoming these challenges
requires a deep understanding of both English and Igbo languages, as well as the cultural and
literary nuances of both languages. Translators need to be skilled in literary analysis, creative
writing, and have a strong command of both languages to ensure an accurate and faithful
translation while preserving the literary beauty and artistic expression of the original work in the
target language. Translation of Prose which is a type of literary translation is one of such
neglected areas. This prompts the desire for this research work. This research therefore attempts
to overcome the aforementioned problems in the course of translating a prose titled Bright Spot
(by Yode Ajagbe) from English to Igbo.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study includes;
1) Communication: The primary aim of translation is to facilitate effective communication
between English-speaking individuals and Igbo-speaking individuals. By translating a text from
English to Igbo, the goal is to accurately convey the intended meaning, message, or information
to the target audience in Igbo, making it accessible to those who are more comfortable reading
and understanding Igbo.
2) Education: translating educational materials such as the literary text ‘Bright spot’ which
is used in primary schools from English to Igbo can help facilitate learning and knowledge
acquisition among Igbo-speaking students.
3) Access to information: Translating texts from English to Igbo can help make information
and knowledge more accessible to Igbo speakers who may have limited proficiency in English.
4) Literature and arts: Translating literary works, poetry, and other forms of artistic
expression from English to Igbo can contribute to the enrichment of Igbo literature and arts. It
can help promote Igbo language and culture in the field of literature and arts, and foster
creativity and expression among Igbo speakers.

This study is aimed at examining problems and principles of literary translation. This will be
achieved through the following objectives:
(i) Translating the prose titled ‘Bright Spot’ by Yode Ajagbe (2021) from English to Igbo.
(ii) Examining the problems involved in such translation.
(iii) Making recommendations that will aid potential translators in
carrying out the job of literary translation effectively.

8
 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This study will be of great help to potential translators, while exposing them to existing
problems in literary translation. The source text being a primary 3&4 recommended text, its
translation from English to Igbo, will enhance its understanding by students of south east geo-
political zone of Nigeria, since it is written in their native language. Translating the text ‘Bright
Spot’ from English to Igbo is significant in preserving Igbo language and culture. The loan words
will be added to list of words whose equivalence will found in Igbo and this will help to build up
Igbo vocabulary. Information contained in the source text will also be disseminated to the target
audience, since it will be transferred in the target text in their native language.

SCOPE OF STUDY
This study is limited to the translation of a prose text by Yode Ajagbe titled ‘Bright Spot’ from
English to Igbo, examining problems encountered in translating the English drama to Igbo and
subsequently highlighting constraints experienced in translation. The methods used in the
translation exercise are direct and indirect techniques of translation as suggested by Vinay and
Darbelnet (1976:4).

9
TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS
A translator is a professional who translates written text from one language to another, while an
interpreter is a professional who interprets spoken or signed language from one language to
another. Both translators and interpreters work to bridge language barriers and facilitate
communication between individuals or groups who speak different languages.
Translators typically work with written materials such as books, articles, legal documents,
business contracts, and technical manuals. They need to have excellent language skills in both the
source language and the target language, as well as a deep understanding of the cultures and
idioms of both languages. Translators may specialize in a particular subject area, such as legal,
medical, technical, or literary translation.
Interpreters, on the other hand, work with spoken language and may interpret in a variety of
settings such as conferences, business meetings, courtrooms, medical appointments, and
diplomatic events. Interpreters need to be able to listen and speak in both languages
simultaneously, while accurately conveying the meaning and tone of the speaker. Interpreters
may also specialize in a particular subject area, such as legal, medical, or diplomatic
interpretation.
Both translators and interpreters may work as freelancers or for organizations such as
government agencies, non-profits, corporations, or language service providers. They play a
critical role in facilitating communication and promoting understanding between individuals and
groups from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

METHODOLOGY
The text Bright Spot was actually translated into Igbo adopting almost all the seven translation
techniques. The source text was read over and over to enhance understanding of the text. During
the translation exercise, English and Igbo dictionary were consulted. Also, I consulted my Parents
because they were born and bred in the Eastern region of Nigeria, Anambra state to be precise.
The work was translated from the source language to the target language. The problems
encountered were highlighted and they include:
Cultural, Characterization, Style, Ecological, Equivalence and Linguistic problems. The analysis was
carried out based on the above mentioned problems. The examples where presented in a tabular
form. Note also that source text and source language were used and they were referred to as St
and Sl respectively while target text and target language were referred to as Tt and TI respectively
in the analysis

10
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

THEORETICAL STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, an attempt is made to review various theories of translation. The areas to be
reviewed include the principles of translation, techniques of translation, approaches to
translation, with emphasis on interlingual translation. Types of literary translation, importance of
literary translation, problems of literary translation and methods of solving problems of literary
translation. This chapter will end with the summary of the views of the theorists.
One does not stumble into translating any text. There are principles guiding this art. Thus:
“theory of translation”.
Juan (2005:1) states that translation theory’s main concern is to determine appropriate
translation methods for the widest possible range of texts or text categories. Translation theories
are frameworks or conceptual models that seek to explain the complex process of translating one
language to another. They provide guidelines and insights for translators to make informed
decisions during the translation process. It also provides a framework of principles, restricted
rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations. It is a background for problem
solving in translation. What Juan’s statement implies is that translation theory is not concerned
with the theoretical problems and solutions of semantics, linguistics, logic and philosophy, but
only with their applications as far as they can help the translator to solve his problems. She
further states that there are two competing theories of translation. In one, the predominant
purpose is to express as exactly as possible the full force and meaning of every word and turn of
phrase in the original, and in the other the predominant purpose is to produce a result that does
not read like a translation at all, but rather moves in its new dress with the same ease as in its
native rendering. Neither of these two approaches can entirely be ignored by a good translator. It
is suggested that in order to perform the job successfully, translators should meet three
important requirements. They should be familiar with the:
• Source language
• Target language
• Subject matter.
Based on this premise, the translator discovers the meaning behind the forms in the source
language and does his best to produce the same meaning in the target language using the forms
and structures of the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and
the code and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and message.
One of the earliest attempts to establish a set of major rules or principles to be referred to in
literary translation was made by the French translator and humanist Etienne Dolet who in 1540
formulated five fundamental principles of translation (Juan 2005:2). These principles function as
working document to the translator for an effective translation.

THEORY OF TRANSLATION

Translation theory refers to the study of the principles, methods, and techniques involved in
translating written or spoken language from one language to another. Translation theory is an
interdisciplinary field that draws on a range of disciplines, including linguistics, philosophy,

11
psychology, literary studies, and cultural studies, among others.
There are several different theories of translation, each of which offers a unique perspective on
the translation process. Some of the most important translation theories include:
1. Equivalence theory: This theory posits that the goal of translation is to achieve the closest
possible equivalence between the source text and the target text, in terms of both meaning and
form.
2. Skopos theory: This theory emphasizes the importance of considering the purpose or function
of the translation, rather than simply aiming for equivalence. The translator must take into
account the intended audience, the context in which the translation will be used, and the
communicative goals of the translation.
3. Descriptive translation studies: This approach focuses on the analysis of actual translations,
rather than prescriptive rules for translation. It seeks to identify patterns and strategies in the
translations produced by professional translators.
4. Polysystem theory: This theory views translation as a product of the larger cultural and literary
systems within which it takes place. It emphasizes the importance of the translator's position
within these systems and the role that translations play in shaping cultural and literary discourse.
There are many other theories of translation as well, each with its own strengths and limitations.
Ultimately, the choice of theory will depend on the particular translation task at hand and the
goals of the translation project.

TYPES OF TRANSLATION

In linguistics, the three types of translation are:

1. Interlingual translation: This type of translation involves translating a text from one language to
another. Interlingual translation involves a deep understanding of both the source and target
languages, as well as the cultural and linguistic nuances of both languages.

2. Intralingual translation: This type of translation involves translating a text within the same
language. Intralingual translation is often used to clarify or simplify complex texts for different
audiences or to adapt texts for different genres or media.

3.Intersemiotic translation: This type of translation involves translating a text from one semiotic
system to another. Semiotic systems include visual images, music, dance, and other non-linguistic
forms of communication. Intersemiotic translation requires a deep understanding of the semiotic
systems involved and the cultural and social contexts in which they are used.

12
 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION
The fundamental principles of translation are;
1) Meaning: The translation should accurately convey the meaning of the original text. It is
necessary to fully express the information of the original text, but also to accurately reflect the
original intention of the author. Translators should be mindful of cultural nuances and avoid
adding or omitting any information that could alter the original meaning, though occasionally,
part of the meaning can be transposed.
2) Faithfulness: The translation should be faithful to the source text while considering the
cultural context of the target audience. That is it is required to be faithful to the thought and
connotation of the original text while translating. When translating, we must not unilaterally
change the meaning of the text or misinterpret the original meaning of the author according to
our own likes and dislikes. It should maintain the integrity and authenticity of the original
content, including preserving idioms, proverbs, and other cultural references, as appropriate.
3) Clarity : Translation should be clear and coherent, ensuring that the target text is easily
understandable to the target audience without ambiguity or confusion.The goal is to ensure that
the translation is as clear and natural as possible in the target language.
4) Consistency: The translation should be consistent in terminology, style, and tone
throughout the entire text. Translators should strive to maintain consistency in how they
translate specific terms, phrases, and concepts, especially in technical or specialized texts. This
helps to ensure coherence and professionalism in the translated text.
5) Localization: The translation should take into consideration the cultural, social, and
linguistic nuances of the target audience. Localization also involves considering cultural
sensitivities, customs, and norms to ensure that the translated text is appropriate and relatable
to the target audience.

Juan (2005:2) listed the five fundamental principles of translation according Etienne Dolet as
follows:
• The translator must understand perfectly the content and intention of the author he is
translating.
• The translator should have a perfect knowledge of the language from which he is translating
and equally excellent knowledge of the language into which he is translating.
• The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word for word for to do so, is to destroy
the meaning of the original and to ruin the beauty of the expression.
• The translator should employ the form of speech in common usage.
• Through his choice and order of words, the translator should produce a total overall effect with
appropriate tone.
Translation theory attempts to give some insight into the relation between thought, meaning and
language; the universal, cultural and individual aspects of language and behavior, the
understanding of cultures and the interpretation of texts.
According to House (2009:21), translators are licensed to manipulate the original for
purposes of experimenting with norms of usage and commenting on the original, rather than
translating it in the usual sense of the word.
Newmark (1981:144) suggests that for a translator to be able to select an appropriate
translation method, he must first of all understand the intention of the text to be translated, so as
to analyze or make some generalizations about his text before he selects an appropriate

13
translation method. He must understand his own intention for the translation; know the reader
and setting of the text as well as the quality of the writing and the authority of the text.
The most renowned translation theorists (Delishle, Newmark, Nida, Nord, Kussmual) are in
agreement with the following principles which already are contained in Etienne Dolet’s summary:
• Comprehension and interpretation of texts
• Re-wording (re-coding) by choosing appropriate techniques
• Assessment of the result, i.e. evidencing the capacity to confront
the translated text with the original text.
Based on the above principles, the following qualities of a good translation are listed:
• Must be transparent
• Must be faithful to the original text
• Must be devoid of word for word translation
• Must not have ambiguous sentences
• Must reflect the correct and adequate selection of words that will
capture the style and atmosphere of the original
• Must reflect terms that are in common usage
In spite of all these principles and guidelines in the translation process, no two persons translate
in the same way.

APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION
There are several different approaches to translation, each with its own strengths and
weaknesses. According to House (2009:15-26) translation can, and indeed must be approached
from different perspectives- linguistics, cultural, socio-political, literary, purpose-oriented. She
discussed these perspectives under the following headings;
1) Focus on the Original Text: In this approach, particular attention is paid to the original
text as an example of how a particular language works, with a view to noting how it contrasts
with the language into which it is to be translated.
2) Focus on the Process of Interpretation: When there is a focus on the process of
interpreting a text, attention shifts from the text itself to a process involving a human being, a
reader and his or her cognitive and emotive activity. This results to shift from the semantics of
the text to the pragmatics of text interpretation. In this process, readers bring in their subjective
understanding, their personal background, and their contextual knowledge in interpreting the
text. Adherents of this approach deny that texts have such independent core meaning as
proposed by those focusing on original text. They propose that the text does not have a life of its
own, but can only be brought to life by the process of interpretation.
3) Focus on Variable Interpretation: Cultural, Ideological, Literary.
The individual translator is not a free individual being but a social being acculturated into a
particular community. The translator is licensed to manipulate the original for purposes of
experiment with norms of usage and commenting on the original, rather than translating it in the
usual sense of the word. From this point of view, it becomes possible to think of an original text
as being dependent on its translation rather than the other way round and as having existence
only through its translated version.

14
4) Focus on the Purpose of a Translation: Here, the focus is on making the translation
‘relevant’ to the recipients. Norms of the target culture are important because it is in the target
cultural environment that the translation will achieve its purpose. As a result of this focus, the
role of the original and its linguistic make-up are diminished. In this approach, the original is
reduced to the status of an ‘offer of information’, its linguistic forms and meanings lose
importance as well, while the translator who is often referred to as a ‘Co-author’, is given more
status and esteem, as he or she is seen as holding the key to fulfilling the all- important purpose
of functional relevance.

A skilled translator selects the most appropriate approach or combination of approaches to

produce a high-quality translation that meets the needs of the intended audience while
maintaining the integrity and meaning of the source text.

TYPES OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation is a specialized field within translation that focuses on translating literary
works such as novels, poetry, plays, and other creative texts. There are several different types or
genres of literary translation, each with its own unique characteristics and challenges. Here are
some common types of literary translation;

1) Prose translation: This type of literary translation involves translating novels, short
stories, and other forms of prose fiction. It is normally made up of story, plot, characterization,
setting and dialogue of the original text while maintaining the style, tone, and mood of the
original work. Prose fiction translation often requires careful attention to cultural references,
idioms, and wordplay, as well as preserving the author's unique writing style. (Iwuchukwu
2009:21). In translating the prose, the translator has to consider the setting, the characters and
the language (the expression, proverbs, irony, pun i.e. the figures of speech).

2) Drama translation: This type of literary translation involves translating plays, scripts, and
other theatrical works. Drama is a penetration of life through artificial means. It is an imitation of
an action. It is a type of story that exists mainly in action and performed on the stage by different
characters (Iwuchukwu, 2009:25). The origins of drama are likely to be found in early religious
ceremonies and festivals. This aspect of literature entertains, teaches moral lessons and helps to
bring into focus life-in-action outside our immediate environment. In drama translation, proper
names are retained. Drama being part of the literary family of texts, share some elements in
common with prose and poetry texts. It is to be noted that the same drama text can contain
elements of poetry as well as elements of prose. A character's speech can appear in the form of
verse when he speaks with emotion, passion, sentimentality or sensation. His speech can equally
take the form of a narrative when he narrates a story or explains a point. It requires not only
translating the dialogue and stage directions but also conveying the dramatic structure, tone, and
style of the original work. Drama translation often requires careful consideration of cultural
nuances, as well as understanding the dynamics of performance and audience engagement in the
target culture.

3) Poetry translation: Translating poetry is a complex and challenging form of literary

translation as it involves capturing not only the meaning but also the rhythm, meter, rhyme, and

15
other poetic elements of the original text. Poetry is a piece of writing in verse, containing images,
rhymes and sometimes has an emotional tone. Wordsworth in Iwuchukwu (2009:8) defines
Poetry as an overflow of spontaneous emotions recaptured in tranquility.
Poetry is the most difficult to translate when compared to other genres of literature. This is
because, it is difficult to achieve style and meaning as depicted by the poet. Poetic translation
requires sensitivity and imagination on the part of the translator. Since poetry aims at
communicating sentiments and not a catalogue of events, the translator may compose a new
poem
which will elicit the same sentiment of the source language text. The translator needs to balance
between literal accuracy and creative adaptation to convey the intended emotional and aesthetic
impact of the poem in the target language. Poetry translation often requires a deep
understanding of the cultural and literary context of both the source and target languages.

In conclusion, literary translation is a rich and diverse field that requires not only linguistic
skills but also creativity, cultural understanding, and a deep appreciation for the nuances of
literature. Translators specializing in literary translation often develop their own unique approach
and style to bring the beauty and richness of literature from one language to another.

PECULIAR PROBLEMS OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

The problem of translation refers to the challenges and complexities involved in accurately
conveying meaning from one language to another. It encompasses various linguistic, cultural, and
contextual factors that can affect the accuracy and fluency of translated texts.
Literary translation may be said to have the greatest number of peculiar problems. Problems
in literary translation largely depend on who is translating and what he knows (Kolawole and
Salawu, 2008:1). They list the problems of literary translation to include: cultural, linguistic,
psychosocial, deceptive cognates, equivalence, and style.

1) Cultural Problems: Literary works often contain cultural references, idioms, and wordplay
that are specific to the source language and culture. Language and culture are closely related and
one is indispensable to the other. Infact, language acquires its meaning from the country’s
culture. A single language may cross several culture borders. For instance, English and French are
Indo-European languages but belong to different cultures. Culture is a complex collection of
experiences which condition daily life. These include history, social structure, religion, tradition
and customs, and everyday usage. Such things as culture, environment, status and so on
influence one’s writing. The process of transmitting cultural elements through literary translation
is a complicated and hazardous task. Unless there is a cultural overlap between the source
language and the target language, the translator will find it difficult to carry out such translation.
He must also make the reader understand the sense as it is understood by the reader of the
original.
For a translator to do justice to his work, he must have a deep understanding of both the
source and target cultures to capture the essence of the original work.

16
2) Linguistic Problems: Different languages have unique grammar rules, syntax, and
vocabulary, which may not always have a direct equivalent in the target language. This can result
in difficulties in finding appropriate translations for certain words, phrases, or idioms, leading to
loss of meaning or misinterpretation. These linguistic problems are syntactic, semantic and
phonological in nature.

• Syntactic Problems
Every language has its own syntax arrangement. The source language (SL) structure does not
always follow that of the target language (TL). For instance, Igbo and English languages have
different structures. There is no article in the Igbo language such as "the", "an"; what is observed
in the Igbo language is the use of demonstratives and numerous conjunctions. The structure of
English demands articles for clarity. Such articles include "the", "a" etc. Every language chooses
its own predicate structure from the universal grammar. Choices which differ between languages,
explain why languages structurally are not same.

• Semantic Problems
Every language has its own "genius for expression i.e. every language has a peculiar way of
expression. So, anyone engaged in the process of translation will immediately be impressed by
the striking differences in which different languages express the same concept or corresponding
concept.
Apart from this problem, a translator is also faced with the problem of translating exotic idioms
or figurative expressions. We know that idioms are highly sacrosanct. We do not have to tamper
with their structures lest we distort their meaning. Some idioms do not have the same meaning
in both languages. Example: (1). It rained cats and dogs yesterday. "Cats and dogs" might not be
an
idiomatic expression in the target language.

• Phonological Problems
The way languages realize their sounds is not the same. Ideas, sounds and color not fully
conveyed in the target language lead to the omission of tone, mood and the beauty of the main
text.

3) Psychological Problems and Deceptive Cognates: A translator often finds it difficult to

understand the author's intention. This is often seen with deceptive cognates. Deceptive
cognates are similar words with different meanings; For example:
I) “Bank" - He is going to the bank.
In translating the sentence: “He is going to the bank,” A translator needs additional information
to decode the "bank" as "bank of the river" or "bank for keeping money". In Igbo, Ada Eze could
mean Eze's first daughter or the daughter of Eze or a princess.

4) Equivalence Problem: Equivalence in translation cannot be taken to mean "identity'

because there can never be a one to one relationship between a source text and one particular
translation text. Rather, a particular source language text will have many different translation
texts that can be called 'equivalent' to the source text in different ways, depending on how
similarity of message or function is interpreted. One of the arguments about translations revolves
around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translator should reflect the syntax, or
form of the original language. All translators agree on the faithful representation of the message
of the original, but all did not agree on the strict adherence to the form of the original (Gordon,
1985:1). These diverse opinions present the two types of equivalence, thus: formal and dynamic
equivalence.
i) Formal Equivalence: This is the faithful representation of the message of the original
both in form and meaning. This would almost present a word for word translation which
according to Etienne Dolet in Juan (2005:3) will destroy the meaning of the original and ruin the

17
beauty of the expression. He therefore advices that a translator should avoid the tendency to
translate word for word. Despite this argument, formal equivalence is still acceptable as situation
warrants...
For example;

Igbo English

Anya ga-amunye obodo ọkụ Eyes that will set cities ablaze

ii) Dynamic Equivalence: This is also known as functional equivalence or idiomatic

translation, prioritizes capturing the meaning and function of the source text in the target
language, even if it means departing from the literal wording. It aims to produce a translation
that is functionally equivalent to the source text in the target culture, taking into account the
cultural and linguistic differences between the source and target languages.
This is the faithful representation of the message of the original with complete disregard for
the form of the original. Gordon (1985:3) states that most contemporary linguists favour the
dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various
attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to reproduce the thought of the orginial
without minding its form is that all languages have their own syntax. Thus, if we attempt to
adhere to the formal syntax of the source language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal and
distracting. This dynamic equivalence has its own problems. One of them is that the translator
who is "freer" from the grammatical forms of the original language is more likely to exceed the
bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language. The
dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are
formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong.
The main problem in literary translation is the problem of exact equivalence. Crystal (1987:20)
says:
Exact equivalence is of course impossible, no translation could provide a translation that
was perfect parallel to the source text in such respect as rhythm, sound, symbolism, puns,
and cultural allusion, such when paraphrasing within a single loss of information.

For example;

Igbo English

Ura ga-eju onye nwuru anwu afọ A dead person shall have all the necessary
sleep

Gịdị gịdị bụ ụgwụ eze Unity is strength

Chọọ ewu ojịị ka chi dị Make hay while the sun shine

18
 Proverbs are adapted to suite a particular culture. The process of adapting one proverb into
another culture is seen as traditional equivalence.
For example;

Igbo English

Ọ bù ọbọgwụ She is a duck

5) Problem of Style: Style refers to the way in which the original source text is rendered or
expressed in the target text while maintaining its intended meaning and purpose. It involves
making choices in terms of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, tone, register and all other linguistic and
cultural elements to ensure that the target text conveys the same style or tone as the source text.
Every writer has a unique style and tone, which adds to the literary richness of their work.
Translating these elements while preserving the author's voice can be difficult. The translator
must strike a balance between staying faithful to the original style and making the translation
sound natural and engaging in the target language.
Xiaoshu and Dongming (2003:2 state that the translation of the original style is a hard task
to accomplish. According to them, this difficulty does not affect interlingual communication.
Semantic similarities between languages due to the common core of human experience and
fundamental similarities in the syntactic structures of language at the core level form the basis of
the relative feasibility of interlingual communication. They also suggest that one who wants to
reproduce the original style satisfactority should first have a macroscopic point of view; a view of
the whole and secondly have a microscopic point of view, the linguistic point of view. In the
process of translating, all paragraphs, sentences and words should be attentively studied so that
the best expressions may be chosen to satisfy the needs of reproducing the thought, feelings, and
style of the original. From this point of view, style is formed by the coordination of paragraphs,
sentences and words. Therefore, even if some individual sentences or words were not
satisfactorily rendered, they would not affect the style of the work as a whole.
Style can never go without language. Paragraphs, sentences and words are absolutely
essential to style. Sentences are made up of words, paragraphs of sentences, and an entire work
of paragraphs. The excellence of a work is due to its flawless paragraphs, of a paragraph to its
faultless sentences, and of a sentence to appropriate choice of words. In literary translation, the
poem is the most difficult to translate because it is difficult to achieve style and meaning. These
difficulties are traceable to translating the form, the rhythm, the metre, the tonality and the
meaning in the target language as in the source language. In poetry translation, the translator can
take artistic liberties in order to arrive at the target text. Bassnett (1980:14) cautions that the
translator has the right to be independent, provided that independence is pursued for the sake of
the original in order to reproduce it as a living work.

19
 In conclusion, literary translation is a complex and multi-faceted process that goes beyond
mere word-for-word translation. It requires a deep understanding of language, culture, history,
and literature to faithfully convey the essence of the original work in a different language, while
also making it engaging and meaningful to the target audience. Translators face numerous
challenges in capturing the essence of the original work while making it engaging and meaningful
in the target language, while also respecting the author's style, tone, and intentions.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation plays a crucial role in fostering cross-cultural understanding and promoting
global literary diversity.
House (2009:1) says that translating is not only a linguistic act; it is also a cultural one, an act of
communication across cultures. This implies that translation cuts across linguistic and cultural
barriers. It is through literary translation that cross-cultural communication is made possible. This
is because, information concerning a particular culture which is written in a literary text in a
particular language is translated into another language thereby creating awareness of that
culture in that language.
Newmark (1981:7) says: “translation is an exercise which consists in the attempt to replace a
written message in one language, by the same message in another language”. With this exercise,
informations are disseminated from one language to the other. It is through literary translation
these informations can be made available in another language.
Through literary translation, cross-fertilization of language will lead to the enrichment of
vocabulary through loaning, adaptation.
Here are some reasons why literary translation is important:
1. Cultural Exchange: Literary translation allows for the exchange of ideas, stories, and
perspectives between different cultures and languages. It enables readers to access works of
literature from around the world, providing insights into different cultures, histories, and ways of
life. It promotes intercultural understanding and empathy, bridging gaps between people from
diverse backgrounds.

2. Preserving Cultural Heritage: Literary works often carry the cultural heritage of a
particular language and society. Translating literature helps in preserving and promoting the rich
cultural heritage of a language by making it accessible to a wider audience. It ensures that
valuable literary works are not lost or forgotten, and contributes to the preservation and
dissemination of cultural knowledge and traditions.

3. Broadening Literary Horizons: Literary translation introduces readers to a diverse range

of literary styles, genres, and voices from different parts of the world. It expands readers' literary
horizons beyond their native language and exposes them to new literary traditions, perspectives,
and aesthetics. It enriches the literary landscape by bringing in new voices and fresh
perspectives.

4. Encouraging Dialogue and Understanding: Literature is a powerful tool for fostering

dialogue and understanding among different cultures, religions, and communities. Through

20
literary translation, readers can engage with different narratives, explore diverse viewpoints, and
gain insights into other4. cultures, fostering mutual understanding, empathy, and tolerance.

5. Promoting Literature and Authors: Literary translation provides opportunities for authors to
reach wider audiences beyond their native language markets. It helps in promoting literature and
authors by making their works accessible to readers in different countries and languages,
potentially expanding their readership and recognition internationally. It also encourages literary
exchange and collaboration among writers and translators from different cultures.
6. Enhancing Language Learning: Literary translation can be a valuable resource for language
learners, as it provides authentic and engaging content for improving language skills. It exposes
learners to different linguistic structures, styles, and vocabularies helping 6. them develop
language proficiency and cultural competence.

7. Inspiring Creativity and Innovation: Literary translation can inspire creativity and
innovation among translators, encouraging them to find creative solutions to linguistic and
cultural challenges. It can also inspire new works of literature by serving as a source of inspiration
for writers to create adaptations, re-imaginings, or responses to translated works, sparking
literary innovation and creativity.

In conclusion, literary translation is of paramount importance in promoting cross-cultural

understanding, preserving cultural heritage, fostering dialogue and empathy, broadening literary
horizons, promoting literature and authors, enhancing language learning, and inspiring creativity.
It serves as a vital bridge between different cultures and languages, enriching the global literary
landscape and contributing to a more interconnected and diverse literary world.

METHODS OF SOLVING PROBLEMS OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation can present various challenges, but there are several methods that
translators can use to address and solve these problems. Here are some common approaches:
1. Close Reading: Translators often engage in close reading of the source text to fully
understand its nuances, themes, and literary techniques. This involves analyzing the text at
different levels, including its grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and cultural references. Close reading
helps translators to capture the intended meaning and tone of the source text, which is crucial
for an accurate translation.

2. Research: Translators may need to conduct research to better understand the cultural,
historical, and social context of the source text. This can involve studying the author's
background, researching cultural references, and familiarizing oneself with the historical and
social context of the work. Research can help translators to accurately convey cultural nuances
and references in the target language, ensuring that the translation retains the original context
and meaning.

3. Collaboration: Translators often collaborate with other translators, editors, or experts to

overcome translation challenges. Collaborative efforts can provide valuable insights, feedback,
and suggestions, leading to more refined translations. Collaborating with authors or experts in
the field can also help to clarify ambiguities, resolve language-specific issues, and ensure
accuracy in the translation.

21
4. Adaptation: In some cases, translators may need to adapt the source text to make it
more suitable for the target language and culture. This can involve finding equivalent cultural
references, idioms, or metaphors in the target language, or making changes to the structure or
style of the text to make it more accessible to the target audience. However, care must be taken
to ensure that the adaptation does not distort the original meaning or intent of the source text.

5. Creative Solutions: Translators often need to find creative solutions to linguistic and
cultural challenges in the source text. This can involve using footnotes, glossaries, or annotations
to provide explanations or clarifications for cultural references or concepts that may be
unfamiliar to the target audience. Translators can also use creative techniques such as
transcreation, where the translator recreates the text in the target language while retaining the
original spirit and intent of the source text.

6. Continuous Learning: Translation is a constantly evolving field, and translators need to

engage in continuous learning and professional development to enhance their skills and
knowledge. Staying updated with the latest linguistic, cultural, and literary trends, attending
workshops, conferences, or training programs, and engaging with other translators can help in
overcoming translation challenges and improving translation quality.

In conclusion, solving problems in literary translation requires a combination of close reading,

research, collaboration, adaptation, creative solutions, revisions, and continuous learning.
Translators need to approach each translation project with careful consideration of the source
text and the target audience, and apply appropriate methods to ensure accurate, nuanced, and
culturally-sensitive translations.

TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Vinay and Darbelnet (1976:4) suggest seven translation techniques. These they grouped into
two––direct and indirect (oblique).
1. Direct translation includes loan, calque and literal translation.
2. Indirect or oblique translation includes transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation.
Though we have different techniques in translation, the ones or one to be used depend/s on the
text.

(1) Direct Translation

• Loaning: This is refers to the process of borrowing words or phrases from one language and
incorporating the into another language. This usually occurs when one language lacks a specific
term or concept and adopts a word or phrase from another language to fill that gap. Loan words
is also known as ‘borrowed words’. For instance, the English word ‘sushi’ and ‘Karaoke’ are Liam
words borrowed from Japanese. In Igbo language, a lot of words have been borrowed from other
languages
For examples;

Igbo English

Fulawa Flower

paịnapụlụ Pineapple

Eprel April

22
 Fọnọlọgi Phonology

Chịịfụ Chief

One outstanding rule with Igbo is that the orthography and sound of the language must be
used in writing the word borrowed. Therefore, in writing Igbonized words, loans should follow
the Igbo (C) VC structure (SPILC 1949:8).

• Calque: It refers to the type of borrowing in which a word or phrase from one language is
translated literally, often word-for-word, into another language. It is also a translation technique
involving the formation of compounds or phrases by directly translating from one language into
another.
For example, the English term "skyscraper" is a calque of the German word "Wolkenkratzer,"
which literally translates to "cloud-scraper." In this case, the English term has been directly
translated from the German, retaining the same structure but using English words. Similarly, the
English expression "toothpaste" is a calque of the French word "dentifrice," with "dent" meaning
"tooth" and "fice" derived from "frotter" meaning "to rub."
Okeke (1995:231) as quoted in Ezeuko (1997:34) sees it as a form of loaning. For example;

Igbo English

Eprel fuulù April fool

Ezi Ista Happy Easter

Calques can sometimes lead to awkward or ungrammatical constructions in the target

language, as they may not follow the natural rules of word order, grammar, or syntax. However,
they can also enrich a language by introducing new words or expressions that may not have
existed otherwise. Calques are common in language contact situations where there is frequent
interaction between different linguistic communities, such as in areas of language borrowing,
translation, or second language acquisition.

• Literal translation: It is also known as "word-for-word" or "formal equivalence" translation, this

technique focuses on translating each word and phrase in the source text to its closest equivalent
in the target language. It aims to maintain the original structure, syntax, and literal meaning of
the source text as closely as possible, often prioritizing fidelity to the original over naturalness in
the target language.

23
For example;

Igbo English

M na-ejè isi nri I am going to cook

Ugbọla ahụ That car

(2) Indirect or Oblique Translation

• Transposition: This technique involves changing the grammatical category or structure of

a word or phrase from the source text to the target language. For example, translating a noun in
the source text to an adjective in the target language, or converting a passive sentence to an
active sentence, and vice versa. Transposition can be used to maintain the meaning and style of
the source text while adapting it to the target language's linguistic conventions.

For example;

Igbo. English

Ha. bù. ndì. ara They are. crazy. people

Pronoun. Verb Det. Noun Pronoun Verb. Adjective Noun

• Modulation: It refers to a type of translation technique where the meaning or expression

of a text is altered or adjusted in the process of translation to adapt it to the target language or
culture, while still conveying the intended meaning of the original text. Modulation involves
changing the form, style, tone, or structure of the text to make it more suitable or natural in the
target language, while maintaining the essence or intent of the source text.
Modulation can occur at different levels in the translation process. It can involve changes in
word choice, syntax, grammar, or cultural references, as well as adjustments in style, register, or
tone. For example, a metaphor or cultural reference in the source text that may not be familiar to
the target audience can be modulated to a more culturally relevant or understandable expression
in the target language. Similarly, a formal text in the source language may need to be modulated
to a more informal or colloquial style in the target language to reflect the appropriate register or
tone.
Modulation is often used to overcome linguistic and cultural differences between the source
and target languages, and to ensure that the translation is fluent, accurate, and culturally
appropriate for the intended audience. It requires the translator to have a deep understanding of
both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural nuances and context of both
languages.
Modulation is a dynamic process that requires the translator to make decisions based on the
meaning, purpose, and target audience of the translation, while also taking into consideration
the constraints and conventions of the target language and culture. It allows for creative
adaptation of the source text while preserving the core meaning and intent, making it an

24
important tool for producing high-quality translations that are effective and natural in the target
language.
Vinay and Darbelent (1976:7) defined it as variation in point of view. This change can be
obligatory or optional. Where a text cannot literally be translated and cannot be transposed,
modulation comes in as the translation technique.
For example;

Igbo English

Mmadu nile na-ele m anya All eyes are on me

Ndu gi agáahị abà urù Your life will not worth a bettle

Ọ gbụru nwọke ahù She killed the man

• Equivalence: It refers to the concept of capturing the essence, meaning, style, and artistic
elements of a source text in a target language while maintaining the integrity and artistic value of
the original work. It involves producing a translation that is equivalent in terms of its overall
effect, impact, and aesthetic appeal to the original, while accounting for the differences between
the source and target languages, cultures, and literary traditions. Ezeuko (1997:36) defines it as
depicting a relationship of equal value. It implies to idiomatic expressions and proverbs. Here you
do not have the same style, but you have something that can give or is similar in arriving at the
same meaning.
Equivalence can be approached at different levels in literary translation. It can involve
Dynamic Equivalence and formal equivalence. Dynamic equivalence allows for creative
adaptation and interpretation of the source text in the translation process, taking into
consideration the cultural, linguistic, and contextual differences between the source and target
languages.
Unlike formal equivalence, which aims for a word-for-word or literal translation, dynamic
equivalence emphasizes the target language audience and their understanding of the text. The
goal of dynamic equivalence is to produce a translation that is natural, fluent, and
communicatively effective in the target language, while still conveying the intended meaning,
tone, and style of the source text. This approach recognizes that languages are not always directly
equivalent, and that translation involves more than just transferring words from one language to
another, but also adapting the text to the cultural and linguistic conventions of the target
language.
Dynamic equivalence allows for flexibility and creativity in the translation process. It may
involve rephrasing, paraphrasing, or rearranging the text to make it more understandable or
culturally relevant in the target language, while still preserving the core meaning and intent of
the source text. It also allows for the use of cultural equivalents or substitutions, where
appropriate, to convey the same cultural references or concepts in the target language.
Dynamic equivalence is often used in translating literary, poetic, and expressive texts, where
capturing the artistic elements, tone, and style of the source text is as important as conveying the
meaning. It is also commonly used in translating texts for a broader audience, such as marketing
materials, advertisements, or multimedia content, where cultural adaptation and communicative
effectiveness are crucial.
For example; Formal Equivalence

Igbo English

25
 Anyị ga-amunye obodo okụ We will set cities ablaze

Dynamic Equivalence

Igbo English

E mee ngwa ngwa è meghara A stitch in time saves nine

odàchị

Eze mbe sị na ọlụ ọha dp mma, The tortoise said that many
mana ọrịrị ọha na-aka ahu hands at work is enjoyable, but
many mouths to feed can be
embarrassing

Ọ na-abu a si nwata wuba ahu, Tell a child to wash his body, he

o saba afo ya washes his stomach

• Adaptation: This technique involves making cultural or contextual adjustments to the source
text in order to make it more understandable or relatable to the target audience. It may involve
substituting culturally-specific references, idioms, or metaphors with equivalent ones in the
target culture, or making changes to reflect the social, historical, or political context of the target
audience.
For example;

Igbo English

Aluminiom Aluminium

kemikalụ Chemical

26
 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Kirkup (1955) as cited in Kolawole and Salawu (2008:6) translated Camara Laye's work
L'Enfant Noir from French to English as African Child using the dynamic equivalence technique. In
his first work written in 1954, he translated the title as The Black Child. The technique used here
is literal technique i.e. word for word. There is literal transposition of the French title. The Black
Child apart from being a literal translation is also pejorative in meaning. The adjective 'black' has
a negative connotation and it is not on the same connotational level as 'noir' in French. It also
fails to express the dignity of the African child and the child's traditional values which Camara
Laye portrays in the original text. The adjective of colour (dark) used falsifies the intention of the
author. Camara Lave's interest is not on colour of the skin but in the cultural values of the African
people.
In 1959, Kirkup changed the title to African Child, showing his understanding of the author's
intention and the realities it evokes. With this choice, he represents Camara Laye's work well,.
In order to satisfy his English language readers, he arranged his words according to English
syntax. His use of thought-for-thought equivalence (that is, dynamic equivalence) enables him to
interpret accurately and render the message in English. He carefully avoided linguistic calques by
replacing French idiomatic expression with their specific English equivalents. For example :
"Allaient et venaient" has to do with movement from one place to the other, while "rising
and falling" does not indicate any change of position, that is, there is no movement from one
place to the other. Kirkup translated the sense in the expression and not word for word. "Word
for word" will present it as "The sickle continued going and coming and this will misstate the
message.
Translators, in an attempt to solve the problem of omission, adopt explication techniques,
which James Kirkup also used in his translations. By explication, we mean the process of
introducing information into the target language which presents itself only implicitly in the source
language and which can be derived from the context or the situation (Vinay and
Darbelnet,1958:8)
James Kirkup actually adopts techniques such a transposition, modulation among others,
which assist him in finding suitable contextual equivalents.
Krisha (1943:5) translated Dominique la Pierre's long work on the Bhopal tragedy. He said that
he never encountered any problem in translation because he was acquainted with three Indian
languages before his graduation and can understand most Indian languages being spoken.
Shi (2004:2) also quoted an incident where a statement was literally translated from Chinese
to English. A foreigner praised the Mandarin's wife by saying. "You have a beautiful wife". The
Mandarin replied "nali nali", which is the usual Chinese expression when being praised. The

27
incompetent interpreter, gave literal translation of the phrase "where”? where?. This is the type
of
harm a literally translated text could cause.

SUMMARY
One of the earliest attempts to establish a set of major rules or principles to be referred to in
literary translation was made by Etienne Dolet. In 1540 most renowned translation theorists like
Newmark, Nida, Taber, Juan, Dabelnet, Cartford etc agree with these principles. These principles
were not only propounded early but have also been tested and found applicable to translation
exercise. These include understanding perfectly the content and intention of the author, having
perfect knowledge of the source language and target language, avoiding the tendency to
translate word for word, employing the form of speech in common usage and at the end, with
the translators, choice of words, he should produce a total overall effect with appropriate tone.
Vinay and Darbelnet (1976:4) equally suggest seven translation techniques which they grouped
into direct and indirect techniques. These techniques include loaning, calquing, literal (direct) and
transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation (indirect).
Some translators in their various work, applied these principles and techniques. They include
Kirkup, Kolawole and Salawu, Shi.
These problems of literary translation mentioned by these theorists were also encountered by
the following translators: Kirkup, Kolawole and Salawu, Shi.
Krishna said he did not encounter problems in his translation of Dominique La Pierre’s long
work on the Bhopal tragedy in India because of his good knowledge of three India languages
being spoken. This shows the need for good knowledge of source language and target language.

28
 CHAPTER THREE
PRESENTATION OF TARGET TEXT
The Target Text: ( Ebe na-enwu gbaa) Translation

NKIRI NKE MBỤ

NRỌ
Ọ bụ mgbede igwe ojii nke yiri na mmiri nwere ike izo, n’ezie ọ
nwere ike izo. Ọ bụ mmalite nke ọnwa ọhụrụ nje Eprel.
Ayodeji kwụsịtụrụ ma chọpụtana ọ bụ ụbọchị nzuzu nke Eprel.
N’ezie, ọ ga-adị ogologo oge tupu o lakpuo ura ebe ọ bụ na
mmadụ enweghị ike ipụ n’oge maka egwu nke ememe ọdịnala
sitere na obodo ndị agbata obi bụ ndi ghọrọ ụjọ nye obodo
Agamagudu.
Ayodeji batara n’ime obere ulọ ya otu n’ime ulo urọ nna ya
dị n’ime nnukwu ogige ma hie ura maka njem gaa obodo a na-
amaghị ama, obodo nke nchekwube n’ọchịchọiba ọgaranya.
Ayodeji batara n’ala dị ịtụnanya ebe ọ zutere nwoke bu Pa
Okechukwu onye riaworo ọria nọ n’isi ọnwụ. Pa Okechukwu
nwere nwa nwanyị mara mma nke nọ n’afọ ilụ di a na-akpọ
Julịette, nwanyị nwere ọgụgụ isi. Mgbe Pa Okechukwu nọ n’isi
ọnwụ, o nyefere nwa ya nwanyị mara nma nye Ayodeji maka
nlekọta kwesịri ekwesị yana dika nwunye. Pa Okechukwu enwe
nwuọ. Ayodeji chere ọnọdụ abụọ dị iche iche ihu, iba ọgaranya
na inwe nkasi obi na Juliette.
E bọrọ Ayodeji ebubo igbu Pa Okechukwu mana mbọ niile iji
gosipụta na aka ya dị ọcha abaghi uru. A tụrụ ya mkpọrọ. A

29
kpọpụrụ Juliette gaa ebe a na-amaghi ama. Mgbe ọtụtụ ụbọchị
gasịrị, ọ jekụrụ ndị na-elekọta ụlọ mkpọrọ maka ndụmọdụ, a
gwara ya ebe a kpọgara ya mana enweghi olileanya ihụ ya ọzọ.
Mgbe ahụ ala ọma jijiji ahụ bibiri ala ahụ dum, ulọ mkpọrọ, ụlọ
nkwari akọ, ulọ na ihe ndi ọzọ.
N’ihi nka Ayodeji nwetara ohere ịgbapụ. O mere nka, mana
n’ụzọ ọ hụrụ Juliette, onye ike gwụrụ. Ọ kpọrọ ya, ha abuọ wee
gaa ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri wee banye n’agwaetịtị dị anya a na-akpọ
Aqua. Na Aqua ha ghọrọ ndị gbara ọsọ ndụ ma a kpọgara ha
nye ndị isi ọchịchị obodo ahụ bụkwa onye agha. Onye ọchịchị
ahụ chere ịweghara Juliette n’aka Ayodeji.
E tịrị Ayodeji nnukwu ihe, ma maa ya ikpe ọnwu. Mgbe ọ na
eche ụbọchị ogbugbu ahu, a tọhapụrụ ya ma duọ ya ọdụ ka ọ
gbalaga n’echeghị banyere Juliette, a tụbara Ayodeji n’ugbọ
mmiri na-aga agwaetitì na-acha anụnụ anụnụ.

30
 NKIRI NKE ABỤỌ
NDỊ ELDORADO

N’agwaetịtị na-acha anụnụ anụnụ, Ayodeji furu Ndifreke onye

bu enyị nwata ya si Agamagudu onye bụ n’oge ahu bu ndi isi
n’agwaetịtị na-acha anụnụ. Ha abuọ tulere ahụmịhe ha gara aga
banyere ndụ, otu ha abụọ si puọ Agamagudu n’uzo dị iche iche
n’ịcho aku na nnotu. Ịhụ enyi obodo ya sị na Agamagudu, nke a
bụ ihe kachasi mma mere Ayodeji n’agwaetiti na-acha anụnụ
anụnụ. Ọbi rurụ ya ana ọ we soro Ndifreke biri ihe fọrọ otu
ọnwa tupu ha abụọ a banye njem ị gaa Eldorado.
Mgbe ọ nọ n’agwaetiti na-acha anụnụ anụnụ ihe fọrọ afọ
abụọ, Ndifreke muru maka mba Ola edo Eldorado. Mba a nwe
ndị ama ama, onye isi na eze ukwu mana mba a abughị nke ndị
ogbenye na-enweghi aha.
Otu ụtụtụ, Ayodeji na Ndifreke yi uwe di ka ndi isi, yi be ịnyịnya
ha uwe dị mma di ka umu nwoke bara ọgaranya wee pụọ
ozugbo maka mba ọla edo. Mgbe otu izu gachara ịnyinya, ha
rutere Eldorado, mba kachasi mma n’uwa. Na Eldorado, ha hụrụ
ụmụaka ahụ ka ha ji ọla edo na-egwu egwu. Ha riri nri n’ụlọ oriri
na ọnụnụ ebe ọ nweghi onye na-akwu ụgwo maka ọrụ ejidere
n’aka inogide na-eri nri n’akwughị ụgwọ.
‘N’ezie, nke a bụ mba kachasị mma n’uwa,’ Ayodeji kwuru.
Ha zutere otu agadi nwoke na-abụghị ebe ụlọ oriri na ọnụnụ
mgbe ha risiri nri nke abụọ na Eldorado, onye gwara ha na ha
bụ ndị mbụ mmadu rutere Eldorado mgbe ọpụpụ Bekee na ikpọ

31
aha obodo dịka Eldorado site n’aka eze. Mgbe agadi nwoke ahụ
na-ekwu okwu, Ayodeji na-atunyere Eldorado na agwaetiti na-
acha anụnụ anụnụ, Aqua na Agamagudu, ya mere o kwubiri,
‘Nke a bu ebe kachasi ma mma, ebe kachasi mma inyere aka,
ebe kachasi iba ọgaranya na mba kachasi ma mma n’uwa.
N’oge a, o chefuola ihe niile gbasara Juliette. Agadi nwokw
ahu gwara ha na odịnala ha bu na ndi bịara abịa kwesiri ibu ụzọ
gaa leta eze, Al Fasasi. Ọ bụrụ na eze nọ n’udp n’oge ahụ o ga-
anabats ha ka ha noro, o bụrụ na a gaghị egbu ha. Mgbe Ayodeji
na Ndifreke nuru nke a nnukwu egwu jidere ha, mana ha ka na-
eme ka olileanya ha di ndụ. N’obị eze, umu agbọghọ iri na abụọ
natara ha n’obi ime ebe Al Fasasi ga-anabata ha. Ndifreke juru
agadi nwoke ahu
‘Kedụ ka anyị si ekele eze?’
Ka ọ di ugbu a, ọ nọ n’oge na-eche ekele na Agamagudu.
Agadi nwoke ahụ kwuru,

‘Ndi isi di ka unu bu ndi na-ahu eze ma anabata unu,

nke ahu bu usoro ekele.’
Otu onye hụrụ ha, mmụọ eze na ha nọ n’udo, ha na eze nọrọ
ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ọnwa abụọ. Na-ụtụtụ igwe ojii, ha
gbara eze na ha na-ahapu obodo ahụ mana eze duru ha odụ ka
ha
soro ya biri, mana ha kpebisiri ike. Eze mere ndokwa ka ụgbo
mmiri buru ha jé ebe ọ bula ha chọrọ.
Mgbe a nọ n’ugbo ahu n’ebupu ha na Eldorado, Ndifreke
leghachiri anya na ebe steemụ ụgbọ mmiri ebe ha na-edebe
inyịnya ibu iri na abụọ na-ebu ọla edo, inyịnya iri na abụọ na-
ebu okwute dị oke ọnụ na inyịnya ibu iri na abụọ ọzọ nwere
nkume oke ọnụ . Ọ gwara enyi ya,
‘Lee nnukwu obi uto ilaghachi n’ụlọ na nnukwu akụ! Anyị
ga-abu ndị kasi baa ọgaranya, ndị kachasi mkpa na ndị a
na-akwanyere ùgwù n’ulo.
Ayodeji gwara enyi ya na ahụtụbeghị nwoke na-emesapu aka
di ka eze Eldorado.

32
 Al Fasasi, onye tụrụ anyị n’anya n’ụzọ anyi rịọrọ maka onyinye
ndị ahu ma nye ha ngwa ngwa. Ahụtụbeghi m ụdị nwoke a,
n’eziokwu na udi nwoke a esighi n’akụkụ ụwa anyị, Ndifreke
kwuru.
Na mgbakwunye na ihe enyere Ayodeji na Ndifreke,
enyekwara ha akpa ọla edo iri ise. Ha mere njem n’ụbọchi iri na
ise n’oke osimiri nke Ayodeji chetara Juliette. O gwara Ndifreke,
‘Anyị nwere ego buru ibu, ọla edo, nkume oke ọnu, na
onyinye ndị mara mma nke udị dị iche iche. Ọ ga-adịrị m mfe
iweghachi ihụnanaya m n’aka onye ochichi Aqua.

33
 NKIRI NKE ATỌ
OKÉ IFUFE

N’ubochi nke iri nke njem ahu na ebili mmiri malitere. Oké
ifufe ahụ gburu ndu ise na usoro ahụ wee were ụbọchị abụọ
mgbe akụ na ụba Ayodeji na Ndifreke fọrọ nke nta ka ọ laa.
Ubochi nke iri na atọ hụrụ oke nke akụ na ụba ha site n’oke ifufe
wé fue, na-ahapu ha ịnyịnys ibu abụọ nke onyinye ọla edo
marsmma. Ha abụọ nọrọ ụbọchị iri ozo n’uso oke osimiri ebe
oke mmiri ahụ duuru ha. Ayodeji gwara onwe ya,
‘Ọ doro anya ugbu a na akụ na uba ahụ apụ ola mana enwere
m obi ike ichota Juliette.
Ndifreke mesiri ya obi ike na ya na ịnyịnya ibu abụọ nke
onyinye ọla edo mara mma, ha bara ọgaranya karịa opekata
mpe onye ochichi nke agwaetiti ahụ na-acha anụnụ anụnụ. Ha
hụrụ ụzọ ha n’ọdụ n’ugbo mmiri, ebe ha nwere olịleanya
ilaghachi Aqua.
Ayodeji na Ndifreke kọọro onye ọkwọ ugbo mmiri ahụ nke
mere omiiko ha ma rio ha ka ha họrọ otu onye n’etiti ha ga-eso
ya gaa Aqua. Ndifreke bụ nhọrọ kachasi mma n’ihi na onye
ochichi Aqua ga-egbu Ayodeji ma ọ bụrụ na ọ hụrụ ya. Ndifreke
hapụrụ onye ọkwọ ugbo mmiri gaa Aqua ichọ Juliette. Ya na ya
nọ n’ugbo bụ akpa onyinye ọla edo. Ndifreke nwere nsogbu na
onye ọkwọ ụgbọ mmiri, onye boro ya ebubo na o chọrọ ịkwụ
ugwo mana edoziri okwu ahụ tupu e ruo Aqua.
N’ihi ya, onye ọkwo ugbọ mmiei ahụ chịkọtara onyinye ọla edo
ruru puku iri ato ka ọ nara Ndifreke na ibu ya. Ọ bụ ihe nwute
nye Ndifreke, onye ọkwo ugbo mmiri ahu zuru ịnyịnya ibu abụọ

34
nke onyinye ọla edo, ndi ọzọ bụ akụ na ụba ikpeazụ nke ndị enyi
abụọ ahụ.
Mgbe Ndifreke na-ajụ ajụjụ banyere onye zuru ihe ya. Onye
ọkwọ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ na-akwa ya emo. Ndifreke gara je ịhụ ndị
uwe ojii na Aqua iji tinye akwụkwọ mkpesa tupu a nata puku
onyinye ọla edo n’ihi Ndifreke n’aka ụgbọ mmiri ahụ.
Ndị uwe ojii rịọkwara ka ọ nye ha ihe mgbapụta nke puku
onyinye ọla edo iri dị ka ịkwụ ugwọ maka mgbake nke ihe ndi
furu efu. A hapụrụ Ndifreke na enweghi ịhe ọ bụla ma a bụghị
ụfọdụ okwute ọla ọcha ole na ole nke edobere ya na jakeeti
uwe ya laghachi Eldorado. O mechara chọta otu enyi ya abụọ
na-ekerịta otu ihe ahụ, ha wee soro ọnụ na-achọ Juliette.
Otu ụtụtụ dị mma na Aqua, ebe Ndifreke na enyi ya ọhụụ na-
aga n’akụkụ osimiri. Ọ kọrọ akụkọ ọjọọ ya. Onye nkuzia emeghi
ya ebere kama na-ebo ya ebubo na egburu ya ka o kwe ka ihe
niile mee. O mechara tụọ uzọ ọ ga-esi pụọ site na iga ebe dị
anya site na nso ugbo mmiri ndi ahụ, na ikekwe ọ nwere ike
nwee ihu ọma iji hụ ụfọdu ihe o zuru. Omume a mere nke ọma.
Ọ hụrụ otu n’ime ịnyịnya ibu ya ka a chụpụrụ n’ụlọ nkwakoba
ihe n’akụkụ oke osimiri, na-eji ola edo kwụ n’olu ya. Ndifreke
kwuru,
‘Achotagọ m gị, oh’ M ga-ahụ Juliette n’ezịe.

35
 NKIRI NKE ANỌ
ỌCHỊCHỌ

Ndifreke sitere n’enyemaka nke ndị ọzọ nọ n’oké osimiri,

nwetara otu n’ime ịnyịnya ibu ya wee gakwuru onye ochịchị
onye o nyere ịnyịnya ibu juputara na onyinye mara mma maka
ịhapụ Juliette. Onye ochịchị ahụ nakwara onyinye ahụ ma gwa
ya ka ọ gaa Kpokou, obodo gbara agbata obi, ebe o no na-
achodi ike ịlaghachi kuru Ayodeji. Ndifreke enweghị nhọrọ ọ
bụla ịga n’ihu je Kpokou ọ kpọtụrụ enyi ya na nkwarị akụ ebe ọ
na-anọ, onye ye yeere ya aka ịchọts ụgbọ mmiri ahu gaa
Kpokou. Ha abụọ hapụrụ Kpokou ma mgbe ọ nọ na Kpokou, ọ
gwara onwe ya;
‘Nke a bụ ebe m ga-ahu nwanyi mara mma a na-akpo
Juliette!’
Ayodeji kwụrụ ufọdu ndi orụ ụgwọ ichọ ụlọ nkwarị akụ niile na
kafe niile, na ụgbọ mmiri niile na ụgbọ mmiri n’abata kwa
ubọchị maka Ndifreke na Juliette. Ihe di ka ọnwa atọ Ndifreke
choro Juliette. Mgbe ụfọdụ o chere na ọ ga-anwu ma nke a
akwụsịghị ya icho ya.
Na Kpokou Ndifreke chọputara na akpọgara Juliette dị ka
odibo n’obi eze Talou . Ọ gwara onwe ya;
‘Aga m aga Talou mgbe nri abalị m gachara!’
Ndifreke hapụrụ Talou, gaa n’obi eze ịrịo maka ihapụ Juliette,
Ndifreke chọpụtara obi eze ma kparita ụka maka ịhapụ Juliette
onye enyere ya. Ọ kelere eze ma degara Ayodeji akwụkwọ ozi
ahụ site na ụgbọ mmiri na laghachị n’agwaetiti na-acha anụnụ
anụnụ. Ayodeji onye zigara ufọdụ ndị oru ichọ Ndifreke na
36
Juliette , nwetara akwụkwọ ozi ahu wee banye ụgbọ mmiri gaa
Talou ,ozugbo ọ hụrụ ihunanya ya Juliette, onye jọrọ njọ site na
nrụgịde na ahụhụ. Ka ọ dị ugbu a, Ayodeji na Ndifreke aghọgọ
ogbenye. Ha tụfụrụ inye niile ha nwetara na Eldorado n’ebe ha
na-achọ Juliette. Agbanyeghi nka, Ayodeji luru Juliette dịka
achọrọ. Alụmdi na nwunye ahụ mere na Talou n’ogige nke eze,
dị ka agbamakwụkwọ nke ndị ogbenye, ha abụọ nọrọ ubọchị
abụọ nke ezumike n’ubi ahụ ịjị nweta ego ha ga e jị biri ebe ahụ.
Di na nwunye a rụrụ eze ọru ihe dị ka afọ abụọ, mgbe ọ mere ya
na malịtere idobe ubi nke onwe ha maa ree ngwa-ahịa ndi hụ iji
nweta ndu ha.
Ayodeji kasiri nwunye ya obi na enweghị inye mere na-
enweghi nkwenye nke nduzi. Ha abụọ mere nchịkọta nke
mkpuru osisina akwụkwọ nri nke udi di iche iche ma ree ihe dị
ka afọ anọ. Ha biri ndụ dị ka ezinulọ nkezi adịghị ọgaranya na ọ
bụghị ogbenye.
Otu abali, Ayodeji chere na ya na nwunye ya laghachịrị
Agamagudu.
Ayodeji nwere ezigbo ohụụ banyere ọrụ onwe ya maka
ezinulo ya na idobe ma chikọta mkpuru osisi n’ubi a ga-ehiwe
n’ụlọ. O wee sị onwe ya, ‘ọ di mkpa iji guzobe ubi nke m n’ụlọ
m maka ịkwadọ ndụ’.
Ayodeji laghachịrị n’ụlọ iji soro nwunye ya biri ebe ha ga-ebi
ndụ ọhụrụ. Ha nọrọ ụbọchị abụọ n’ime obodo, mgbe ha kuru
aka n’ọnụ ụzọ ma Ayodeji tetara ịchọputa na nne ya kpọrọ ya
kaa ọ gaa chọọ osisi ọkụ maka isi nri. Mgbe ahụ, ọ chọpụtara na
ihe a niile bu nrọ.
Mgbe nri ụtụtụ gasịrị, Ayodeji chere banyere nrọ ya wee si
onwe ya; Enwere m ike ịme ya ebe a na agaghị mba ọzọ.
Enwere m ike imalite ịhazi ndụ m na otu esi ebi ndụ na-adigide,
ndụ mmezi, ndụ nke olileanya ugbu a site na oru onwe m na
Eldorado, ebe m ga -abu eze iji nabata ndị ọbịa.

37
 NKIRI NKE ISE
MMALITE ỌHỤRỤ
Na mmezu nke eziokwu ahụ bụ na ihe niile bụ nrọ, Ayodeji
tinyere onwe ya iche ihu ihe imaka dị n’ihu ya na ndu. Ọ
echegbu yị onwe ya maka ihe iga nke ọma n’imalite ubi nke
mkpụrụ osisi mana ọ na-echegbu onwe maka enweghị ọrụ.
Ayodeji kọọrọ nne ya nrọ ahụ ọnye yere ya ezigbo ndụmọdụ
maka ịrụ ọrụ n’ubi mkpụrụ osisi n’ime obodo ozo a na-akpọ
Ijekuma opekata mpe ọnwa isii, site na ebe ọ ga-achịkọta otutu
ahụmịhe iji nyere ya aka ịmalite ubi mkpuru osisi ya na
Agamagudu. Ayodeji enweghị nhọrọ ọ bula ma ọ bughị ị nabata
ndụmọdụ ahụ wee kwubie n’uche ya na o bụrụ na onye ọ bụla
ọzọ nwere ike ị nọ ọnwa isii n’ịmụta idebe mkpụrụ na ịchịkọta
n’ubi, ọ bụ onye guru akwukwo nwere ezigbo nsonaazu na
W.A.S.C agaghị anọ ọnwa isii ahụ kama ọ bụ ọnwa atọ ruo ọnwa
anọ tupu ọ ga-enwe ike ịmalite azụmahia nke ya. Kofoworola,
nne Ayodeji juru ajuju banyere nwa ya nwoke, maka ogige dị na
Ijekuma.
Afo juru ya banyere ozi a chịkọtara Ayodeji jiri ụkwụ gaa
obodo nta ndị agbata obi. Ijekuma nke dị ihe di ka kilomita iri
abụọ na Agamagudu. Ayodeji malitere ọrụ ahụ n’enweghị oge ọ
bụla ma na-ajụ ajụjụ mgbe niile nke mere ka onye isi ya nwee
mmasi na ya karịa. Ya na ụmụ nwoke ndị ọzọ bu ndị ikwu nke
chiifu Abezimi Onye nwe ubi ahu. Ayodeji biri n’ụlọ ubi n’oge
agụmakwụkwọ ya niile, ebe umu nwoke ndị ozo na-alaghachị
n’ulo ha di iche iche na njedebe nke ọrụ ụbọchị ọ bụla. Ayodeji
echefughi iwebata mkpịsị akwukwo na akwukwo ahu ebe e o
tinyere ahụmịhe ya na ọkwa mmepe dị iche iche nke uto na

38
mkpụrụ osisi dịka oroma, mango, unere na paịniapulu. Ayodeji
malitere ichegbu onwe ya ma ọ bụ n’abalị ka oroma na-
agbanwe site na griin na-acha odo odo ma ọ bụ unere,
paịniapulu, na mango chara acha nke a ga-ere.
O kpebiri na ozugbo chiifu biara n’ụtụtụ echi ya, o ga-aju
ajụjụ ahụ. Chiifu abịaghị n’ubi ahụ n’ụtụtụ echi ya. Ayodeji
nwere nkụda mmuọ mana ọ nwere obi ike ịjụ umu nwoke ndị
ọzọ na-akwa ya emo ma n’ekwu okwu banyere ajụjụ ọ jụrụ. Ha
azaghị azịza ajụjụ ya. Omume umu nwoke ndị a mere ka ọ
ghaghị inwe mmasi na ajụjụ a mgbe Chiifu biara n’echi ya. Ọ
ghaghị ebi ndụ iji na-akwa ụmụ nwoke ahụ emo, nke abụọ.
N’oge na-adịghị anya, Ayodeji nọrọ ọnwa anọ n’ubi ahụ. Ọ
malitere iche na ọ gaghị anọ ọnwa isii kama ọ rụọ onwa nke ise,
ọ ga-ario chiifu ka ọ hapụ ya ka o nyere ya aka ilaghachi
Agamagudu iji guzobe ubi nke ya.

39
 NKIRI NKE ISII
ṄNWERE ONWE

Ka ọ na-eru ngwusị onwa nke ise, Ayodeji rịọrọ maka ṅnwere

onwe ya mna chiifu achọghị ịhapụ ya n’ihi na ọ ka nwere otụtu
ihe ọ ga-amụta. Ayodeji nọgidere na-arịọ Chiifu ka onye ya
ṅnwere onwe ilaghachị n’ulọ iji malite ịkọ ahịhịa nke ya. Otu
ụtụtu sọnde ubochị ọ n’enweghị ọrụ ọ ga-arụ n’ubi ahụ, Chiifu
na-akpọ Ayodeji ma gwa ya na ọ chọrọ ṅlebara anya nne ya.
Ayodi nwere obi uto na ịnụ nke a, ma ọ gbagara Agamagudu
ozugbo ịkpọ nne ya. Ha abụọ laghachiri na Ijekuma tupu ọdịda
anyanwụ. Chiifu Abezimi kowaara n’ịkatọ obi ike o nwere na
Ayodeji n’ịmalite ubi nke ya na Agamagudu mana emesịa gaa
gwa nne Ayodeji ka ọ manye ya ichere ruo na njedebe nke oge
owuwe ihe ubi ọktoba mgbe ọ ga-achịkọta ọtụtụ ahụmịhe
banyere owuwe ihe ubi na orire. Kofoworola kelere Chiifu
Abezimi maka ndụmọdụ dị ka nna ọ nyere ya na Ayodeji, ọ
kpere ekpere ka chineke gozie ya na ezinụlọ ya. N’ihi nke a, a
manyere Ayodeji ichere ruo na njedebe nke owuwe ihe ubi na
ọktọba. Na njedebe nke owuwe ihe ubi, ọ ga-enwere onwe ya ị
malite ubi nke ya na Agamagudu. Mana ọktọba , ọ ga-abu ọnwa
nke asatọ ya na ijekuma n’ogige nke Chiifu Abezimi.
Ọnwa nke Ogostu bu ọnwa nke isii nke Ayodeji na Ijekuma
ma ọ bu akara mmalite nke owuwe ihe ubi. Owuwe ihe ubi nke
afọ ahụ bụ ihe na-agwu ike. Ayodeji nwere obi ụtọ n’oge a ma
bụrụ onye mbu na-arụ orụ n’ụtụtụ, na-achịkọta paịnapụlụ,
ghota mango na oroma, na igbuji unere ka ha ga-eburu ya nime
ebe a na-eri nri maka njem ga n’ahịa maka ire ya. Nke a bụ ruo
na njedebe nke ọktọba. Ayodeji nwere obi uto ịhụ na oge
owuwe ihe ubi na ire mkpụrụ osisi ahu n’ahia nke bụ akuku nke
ihe iga nke ọma ya n’imuta banyere onodu ahịa n’oge owuwe
40
ihe ubi. Ayodeji kelere Chiifu Abezimi onye gwara nne ya ka ọ
manye ya ka ọ nọrọ rue na njedebe nke owuwe ihe ubi mgbe ọ
gaara wetakwa ihe ọmụma banyere owuwe ihe ubi, ire mkpụrụ
osisi.
Chiifu gwara ya na oge e ruo la ka ọ hapụ ubi ahụ dị ka
ekwere ya nkwa, mana na o kwesiri ilaghachi Agamagudu iji
mee ka nne ya na mmekọrịta ya bia hu ememe ṅnwere onwe
ya.
Ememe ahụ mere n’otu ehihie Satọdee n’ihu nna Ayodeji,
nne na ndi ikwu sitere na Agamagudu. Umu nwoke ndi ọzọ na-
aru ọru n’ubi ahụ na ufodụ ụmụ nwanyị ahịa nwere mmasi
n’uzo omume Ayodeji si e resị ha mkpuru osisi n’oge owuwe ihe
ubi nọ kwa n’ebe ahu.

41
 NKIRI NKE ASAA
AKỤ NKE AYODEJI

Ayodeji lọtara Agamagudu jiri ọtụtụ akụ na ụba na ahụmịhe

nke mkpụrụ osisi jị otutu akụ na ụba niu. Ka ọ na-eche banyere
nnukwu isi ego ọ ga-eji malite ubi mkpụrụ osisi nke ya, e zutere
ya na nnukwu ohere nke ndụ ya. Ohere ahụ sitere naka Eze
Agamagudu onye nyere ya eka iri abụọ, juputara na mkpụrụ
osisi dị iche iche na nloghachị ọ ga-enye eze pasent iri na anọ
nke uru mgbe owuwe ihe ubi ruo naani afọ iri mgbe nke ahụ
gasịrị, o ghaghị akwụ ụgwọ ọzọ ma ọ bụrụ na ọ ga-abụ onye
ahụ, onye nwe ahihia zuru oke.
Agbanyeghị , site na mmepe a, ọ ga-ebi ndụ n’ezie na-atụ
anya. N’oge na-adighi anya, Ayodeji malitere ọrụ n’ime ogige
ahụ nwere ihe dị ka ndị ọrụ iri na ndị ọrụ ise. Ọ nwere ike ịkwụ
ndị ọru ụgwọ naani maka ọrụ enyere na ngwusị izu, n’ihi obere
ego nke Chiifu Abezimi nyere ya. Site na nke a, ọ kwụrụ ndị
ọrụ mana ndị ọrụ ọzụzụ na-anọyere ya mgbe niile n’izụ.
Ndị ọrụ ọzụzụ ise mere ka ikpochapụ ụzọ ọhịa ahụ ebe ọ bụ
naani na ngwusị izu, ndị ọrụ ahụ rụrụ ọrụ na ọgwụgwọ nke
mkpuru osisi na kemịkalu obodo megide nnụnụ na ụmụ ahuhu.
Nke nta , ubi ahụ na-adi ndụ karịa ka ha di mgbe Ayodeji
weghaara na tupu oge owuwe ihe ubi. Ndi obodo ahụ amarala
na Ayodeji ga-ezute akụ na ụba ya n’oge owuwe ihe ubi biara.
Ire mkpụrụ osisi ahụ ghọrọ usoro nke ụbọchi. Ihe di ịtụnanya
n’oge ahu bu na Ayodeji ebughị mkpụrụ osisi ahụ n’ahịa maka
ire ere mana erere mkpụrụ osisi ahu n’ubị ahụ. Site na iwepụ
ego njem na ibụje mkpụrụ osisi.
Na njedebe nke owuwe ihe ubi, eze chịkọtara òke ya nke
pasent iri anọ ebe Ayodeji na-eme ihe ruru pasent nke iri isii,
n’ezie ihe isi ike oge ahụ agwụla. Sité na pasent iri isii nke uru
ya. Ayodeji malitere ọrụ ahụ na-arusị orụ ike maka oge owuwe
ihe ubi na-esote nke ọ maghị ga-abịa n’ihe na-erughị ọnwa atọ
n’oge ahụ. Ayodeji lụrụ nwanyị mara mma si n’obodo Ijekuma,
onye ọ na-enwe mmasi ịlụ n’oge ọnụnọ ya n’obodo ahu.
42
 N’ihe ịtụnanya Ayodeji, oge owuwe ihe ubi biara. N’oge a, ọ
rere oroma na unere na ọnụ ọgụ buru ibu na njedebe nke
owuwe ihe ubi, ọ malitere iwu ụlọ nke ya nke ọ rụchara n’oge
owuwe ihe ubi nke afọ na-eso ya.
Eze hụrụ na Ayodeji rụrụ ezigbo orụ n’ịgbanwe Agamagudu
gaa n’etiti azụmahịa nke mkpụrụ osisi. Ya mere o nyere ya ikike,
echịchị anakpọ ‘Agamadu’ nke Agamagudu nke putara ‘onye
nnaputa ebube anyi furu efu.’ Ọ bụ n’ememe ọgbụgba ndu ahụ
ka afọ iri nke ịkwụ ụgwọ pasent iri anọ nke uru dị ka ụdị ahụ
belatara afọ ise.
Na njedebe, Ayodeji ghọrọ nwoke bara ọgaranya n’obodo
nke ya, ọ zulịtere ubi ya n’onwe ya. Ezinaụlọ Ayodeji niile bi
n’ulọ mgbasi na-abughị ulọ mkpụrụ.

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF THE TRANSLATED TEXT

Introduction
Translation analysis is a complicated process that involves examining and highlighting all the
technical procedures used in a translated work. The purpose of analyzing a translated work is to
provide clarity and justification for the translation techniques used. The translation of Bright spot
from English to Igbo was also analyzed, and the process revealed various challenges encountered
in the translation process, including cultural, characterization, style, ecological, equivalence, and
linguistic problems.

Cultural Problems

Transmitting cultural elements through literary translation is a challenging and risky task. The
source text contains cultural elements that are presented in the table below.

Table 1: A table showing some cultural words found in the source text including their page
numbers, translations in the target text, pages were the examples were extracted from as well as
the techniques used in the translation process.

Exampl Source text- The page, Target text- Translation

e English language line in the Igbo language technique
source text
1. A cloudy Chapter Ọ bụ mgbede Transpositi
evening 1,Page 1, line igwe ọjii on
1

2 Ayodeji entered Chapter 1, Ayodeji Literal

his small room page 2, line 2 batara n’ime technique
obere ulọ ya
3 At this time a Chapter 2, N’oge a bụ Explicative
Baron in blue page 7, line 4 Onye isi technique
island n’agwaetiti

44
 na-acha
anụnụ
4 April fool’s day Chapter 1, Ubochi nzuzu Transpositi
page 1, line Eprel on and
13 Loaning
5 Where he met Chapter 1, ebe ọ zutere Literal
one Pa page 2, line nwoke bu Pa technique
Okechukwu who 7-9 Okechukwu
had been very ill onye rịaworo
and at the point ọrịa nọ n’isi
of death ọnwụ

6 Father’s hut Chapter 1, ụlo urọ nna Transpositi

page 2, line 3 ya on

7 Marriageable Chapter 1, afọ ịlu dị Transpositi

age page 2, line on
11
8 When Pa Chapter 1, Mgbe Pa Literal
Okechukwu was page 2, line Okechukwu technique
at the point of 12-15 nọ n’ịsị ọṅwu, and
death, he ọ nyefere nwa explicative
handed over his ya nwanyị modulation
beautiful mara nma
daughter to nye Ayodeji
Ayodeji for maka nlekọta
proper care as a kwesiri
wife ekwesị yana
dịka nwunye
Two different Chapter 1, ọnọdụ abụọ Transpositi
9 situation page 2, line dị ịche iche on
17

45
In Table 1, example (i) transposition was used to change
position of ‘evening’ from word final position to medial position
in the Target text. Transposition involves changing the
grammatical category of a word or phrase.

In example ii, literal technique is used which is translating a text

word for word without any modification or adaptation.

In example iii, Explicative technique was utilized to provide a

more comprehensive explanation of the source language
message, making it easier for the target reader to comprehend.
When translating cultural elements, if a comparable custom
does not exist in the target language, the explicative technique
is employed.

In example iv, transposition was used to change the position of

‘day’ from word final position to word initial position, while the
position of ‘April’ from word initial to word final position and
the word ‘Eprel’ is a loan word in Igbo that was adapted from
the English word April. Therefore, ‘Eprel’ is an example of
borrowed word in Igbo.

In example V, Literal technique is used while translating word

for word without any modification or adaptation.

46
In example Vi, Transposition was used to change the position of
‘hut’ from word final position to word initial position.

In example Vii, Transposition was used to change the position of

‘age’ from word final position to word initial position.

In example Viii, Literal technique was used while translating

word for word and Explicative modulation was used for the
word ‘proper care’ in the translating the target text, since it’s
the best technique which best translates the Source text to
Target text. The message is clearer in the Target text.

In example ix, Tranposition was used to change the position of

‘situation’ from word final position to word initial position,
while the position of ‘two’was changed from word initial to
medial position, while the position of ‘different’ was changed
from medial position to word final position.

Examp Source text- The Target text - Translation

le English page, Igbo language Technique
language line in
the
source
text
1. To be rich Chapter ịba ọgaranya Literal
and 1, page na inwe nkasi technique
comfortable 2, line ọbi na Juliette
with Juliette 17-18
2 unknown Chapter ebe a na- Diluted unit

47
 destination 1, page amaghị ama
2, line
23
3. Thenthere Chapter Mgbe ahu ala Literal
came an 1, page ọma jijiji ahụ technique
earthquake 2-3, line bibiri ala ahụ
that 26-29 dụm, ụlọ
destroyed the mkpọrọ, ulọ
whole land, nkwarị akụ, na
prisons, ihe ndị ọzọ
hotels,
houses and
so on
4 But had no Chapter Mana onweghị Literal
hope of 1, page olileanya ịhụ technique
seeing her 2, line ya ọzọ
again 24
5 As a result of Chapter N’ihi nka, Literal
this, Ayodeji 1, page Ayodeji technique
got the 3, line nwetara ohere
chance to 3-4 igbapụ
escape
6 Ayodeji was Chapter E tịrị Ayodeji Transpositi
brutally 1, page nnukwu ihe on and
beaten up 3, line Explicative
14 technique
7 He was Chapter A tọhapụrụ Literal
released and 1, page yama duọ ya technique
advised to 3, line ọdu ka ọ
flee without 17-18 gbalaga
thinking of n’echeghị
Juliette banyere

48
 Juliette
8 Blue island Chapter Agwaetiti na- Transpositi
2, page acha anụnụ on
7, line 1 anụnụ
9 Ndifreke Chapter Ndifreke onye Literal
who had 2, page bu enyi nwata Technique
been his 7, line ya si and
childhood 1-4 Agamagudu Explicative
friend from onye bu n’oge technique
Agamagudu ahu bu ndì isi
and who was
a Baron
10 His village Chalter Enyị obodo ya Transpositi
friend 2, page on
8, line 1
11 Their past Chapter Ahụmịhe ha Transpositi
experiences 2, page gara aga on
7, line 5
12 Ayodeji and Chapter Ayodeji na Literal
Ndifreke 2, page Ndifreke yi technique
dressed 8, line uwe dị ka ndi
themselves 13-16 isi, yị be
like Barons, ịnyịnya ha uwe
dressed their dị mms dị ka
horses ụmụ nwoke
gorgeously bara ọgaranya,
like rich men, wee pụọ
and left ozugbo maka
immediately mba ọla edo
for the gold
country,

49
50