Intertextuality is a literary and cultural theory concept that and disillusionment, echoing themes from earlier

refers to the relationship between different texts. It suggests literary works.

that any text (whether written, spoken, or visual) is connected Appropriation
to and shaped by other texts.  Definition: Appropriation involves taking elements
from one text or culture and using them in a new
Adaptation context, often with a transformative or critical intention.
 Definition: Adaptation involves taking a text from one Example: The novel "Wide Sargasso Sea" by Jean
medium (such as a novel, play, or poem) and Rhys appropriates the character of Bertha Mason from
transforming it into another medium (such as a film, "Jane Eyre" by Charlotte Brontë and reimagines her
TV series, or stage play). Example: The Great Gatsby backstory, offering a critique of the colonial and gender
Quotation dynamics in Brontë’s work.
 Definition: Quotation is the direct use of someone
else’s words or phrases within a new text, typically
enclosed in quotation marks. Example: A speaker in a
political speech might quote from Martin Luther King
Jr.’s "I Have a Dream" speech to underscore a point
about equality and justice. The quotation is used
verbatim from the original source.
Parody
 Definition: Parody is a humorous or satirical
imitation of a serious work, genre, or author, often
exaggerating characteristics for comedic effect or
critique. Example: "Don Quixote" by Miguel de
Cervantes is a parody of the chivalric romance genre.
It exaggerates the unrealistic nature of the knights in
these stories, presenting Don Quixote’s adventures as
a critique of the idealized notions of heroism and honor.
Allusion Hypertext refers to text that is digitally linked to other pieces
 Definition: An allusion is a brief, indirect reference to of information, often through clickable links (or hyperlinks) that
another text, event, or person. The reference is take users to related content, allowing for a non-linear,
typically not explained, assuming that the audience interactive form of reading or navigation.
recognizes the connection. Example: In T.S. Eliot’s Hypertext vs. Traditional Text:
poem "The Waste Land," there are multiple allusions  Traditional Text: The content is linear; you start from
to works like The Bible, Shakespeare, and Dante’s the beginning and proceed to the end, one section after
Inferno. A reference like "April is the cruellest month" another.
alludes to the idea of spring as both a time of renewal
  Hypertext: It offers a web of connections, where the  Example: A news website that updates with the latest
user can decide where to go next, making it more stories based on your location or the recommendation
flexible and user-driven. engine on an e-commerce site that suggests products
Distinguishing Between Static and Dynamic Hypertexts based on your browsing history.
1. Static Hypertext: Identifying If a Material is in Hypertext:
 Definition: A static hypertext consists of fixed To determine if the material you're reading is in hypertext,
content that does not change or adapt based on user look for these indicators:
interaction. Once the text or information is created and 1. Presence of Hyperlinks:
published, it remains the same unless manually o If the text contains clickable words, phrases, or
updated by the creator. images that take you to other sections of the
 Characteristics: content, other documents, or external websites,
o The hyperlinks lead to predetermined it is likely in hypertext.
destinations. o These links are often underlined or highlighted
o The content does not change based on user in some way (usually blue text in many digital
input or external conditions. formats).
o Common in simple websites, HTML pages, or 2. Non-linear Structure:
documents where the text is set. o If the content allows you to jump from one part
 Example: A Wikipedia article (before updates) or a of the material to another without following a
simple webpage with links that do not adjust based on strict sequence (i.e., skipping sections or
your behavior or preferences. choosing your path), it is a characteristic of
2. Dynamic Hypertext: hypertext.
 Definition: A dynamic hypertext changes or updates o Example: Clicking a link in an article that leads
content based on the user’s interaction, preferences, you to related content or resources.
or context. It is more flexible and responsive to real- 3. Interactive Elements:
time input, such as user actions, choices, or external o Hypertext often involves interactive elements
conditions. like menus, clickable maps, or searchable text
 Characteristics: that lead to other sections of content, reflecting
o The content can adapt, change, or update the dynamic nature of the material.
based on user behavior (e.g., searches, clicks, 4. Context-Sensitive Content:
or location). o If the content responds to user input—such as
o Often found in interactive websites, filling in a search box and seeing results based
databases, e-commerce sites, or social on your query—it suggests the presence of
media platforms. dynamic hypertext, where the content changes
o Uses technologies such as JavaScript, PHP, or based on your interaction.
AJAX to generate or modify content What is Assertion?
dynamically.
 An assertion is a statement or declaration made claims. On the other hand, assertions in argumentative texts
regarding an idea, a topic, or an issue. It expresses a person’s must be supported by evidence like facts, statistics, and
opinion, feelings, or belief. As defined by Tiongson (2016), examples. Also, they present both the opposing arguments
assertions are “declarative sentences that claim something is and rebuttals for those arguments.
true about something else”. It is a way to convince a critical
How do you organize
reader to accept the writer’s claim. These sentences may
your assertion?
either be statements of truths or opinions.

Writers often make assertions to convey their message You can write a simple paragraph of assertion by following
or their stand on an issue. They frame their arguments as these steps.
assertions so that the statements are strong and convincing to 1. Read and understand the text thoroughly
their readers. In this lesson the focus will be assertions as 2. State your assertions regarding the text or the author’s
evaluative statements to show how one feels toward the works ideas.
of others. It can be about the content and organization of the 3. You can cite the actual statements in the text that led
text read. you to make such assertions.
TYPES OF ASSERTION 4. Explain your assertions and provide support.
BASIC ASSERTION - This is a simple and direct expression In addition, you must also take note of the following tips to be
of one’s opinion, feelings, or belief. able to produce a believable assertion, most applicably in
EMPATHIC ASSERTION – This shows sympathy to another writing assertions for persuasive and argumentative texts.
person. It is an acknowledgment of the other person’s feelings  Be knowledgeable.
or situation and at the same time a show of support to the In order to make the reader believe in what you are trying to
rights of the person. stand up for, examine the topic thoroughly. You cannot write
POSITIVE ASSERTION – This expresses positive feelings or about it, if you don’t really understand what the text is all
emotions. To make this assertion, one gives a reason or an about.
explanation for feeling good.  Back it all up.
PREFERENCE – Preference relies on personal choice. These Research and gather useful information as much as you can to
are completely subjective assertions that cannot be objectively support your own assertions and make it stable and solid. Be
proven. careful and leave out irrelevant evidence to avoid confusion for
Persuasive texts and argumentative texts naturally the readers.
comprise assertions. Persuasive texts like advertisements,  Be clear and concise.
campaign speeches, and persuasive essays have assertions
that may not include factual evidence in support to the author’s
Get straight to the facts. Let the readers know what you want 3. Think of opposing arguments that can disprove or weaken
them to know at once and present them complete with the author’s main claim and cite some textual evidence. This
supporting details. evidence may come from the author’s writing or from other
When one is in an argument, it makes sense to address the credible sources.
opposite side of what is being argued about and point out why 4. Formulate your counterclaims and provide the necessary
that view is wrong. This is called a counterclaim. support. Be clear, concise, and precise.
Claim: Although they are traditionally seen as a distraction, The Skeptical Reader
students should be able to bring cellphones to school because A cautious reader is a skeptical reader. Being a skeptical
digital literacy can be used for educational purposes. reader means that you should know the veracity of the author,
Counterclaim: students should not be able to bring his assertions, as well as how definite and valid are the
cellphones to school because they could use them to evidences that he is presenting. Furthermore, you aren’t easily
communicate during a test. “swayed” on one side; rather you evaluate the text closely
A counterclaim answers the question, “What are other before forming a sound judgment.
credible possibilities?” And to answer this, one considers the Do you possess those qualities? If so, let’s have a jump
following steps: start of this module! On the other hand, if you still doubt your
1. Address the case of the opposition reading capability, worry not because we’re going to work it
2. Concede points which cannot be refuted out.
 Use signal words and phrases such as Admittedly, While it is
true that, etc. The Four Types of Evidence
3. Offer refutation for claims which can be countered 1. Statistical Evidence – The strongest type of evidence in
 Use signal words and phrases such as It has been argued, formal writing is statistical evidence. This ranges from true,
However, etc.
hard data presented as a percentage or number, to survey-
Claims are debatable, that is, they are open to discussion or type data.
argument. Therefore, a counterclaim should cite evidence or
counterarguments to rebut or disprove the claim. “In 2015 alone, an estimated 350,000 migrants have
Below are things to consider in formulating counterclaims. crossed the borders of the European Union.”
1. Understand the main claim of the author and examine the
supporting information. Statistical evidence can be proven as fact. You can
2. Determine the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s actually go out and find hard information to prove your
claim. Identify the points that are backed up by insufficient or particular claim.
outdated evidence and those that are explained by illogical
2. Testimonial Evidence - Testimonial evidence can also be
reasoning.
collected from experts and authorities in a given field. Doctors,
dentists, lawyers often provide expert testimonials. Their
authority is not often questions. They are expected to "know To better evaluate the author’s argument, one should
their stuff." be able to determine the evidence from the text. This will allow
him/her to validate the assertions of the author and his/her
“An EU leader, Federica Mogherini, has gone as far as
own counterclaims as a response to reading. Evidence is
to say, “We are rich. We are in peace. We have the duty to
defined as the details given by the text author to support
save and protect people that are fleeing from war” (qtd. In
his/her claim. The evidence provided by the writer
Pearson 42)”
substantiates the text. It reveals and builds on the position of
3. Anecdotal Evidence - Storytelling, although based on fact, the writer and makes the reading more interesting. Evidence is
can include quite a bit of opinion, thus making it less objective. crucial in swaying the reader to the author’s side. A jury or
Usually, eyewitnesses are used as providers of anecdotal judge, for example, relies on evidence presented by a lawyer
evidence. They saw or experienced the phenomenon at hand before it makes a decision regarding a case.
are telling their version or side of the story. Evidence can include the following;
 Facts and statistics (objectively validated
“I know John loved Judy because he told me so just information on your subject);
before he died.”
 Opinion from experts (leading authorities on a
“I know black swans exist because I saw one flying topic, such as researchers or academics); and
away today.”  Personal anecdotes (generalizable, relevant,
and objectively considered).
4. Analogical Evidence – Analogies are mainly useful when
dealing with a topic that is under-researched. If you are on the
The following are some questions to help you
cutting edge of an issue, you’re the person breaking new
ground. When you don’t have statistics to refer to or other determine evidence from the text:
authorities on the matter to quote, you have to get your  What questions can you ask about the claims?
evidence from somewhere. Analogical evidence steps in to  Which details in the text answer your
save the day. questions?
“While no one can predict the future impacts of the  What are the most important details in the
mass migration into the EU, studies of the past can shed light paragraph?
on the matter at hand. A study conducted in Denmark during  What is each one’s relationship to the claim?
the 1990’s showed that an influx of refugees actually pushed  How does the given detail reinforce the claim?
native workers into more skilled jobs and increased their  What details do you find interesting? Why?
standards of living (NY Times 3).”  What are some claims that do not seem to have
Determining Textual Evidence support? What kinds of support could they be
provided with?
  What are some details that you find to previous works of the writer or has it any similarities or
questionable? Why do you think so? differences to other works in the field.
 Are some details outdated, inaccurate, 5. Objective evaluation. Objective evaluation must be clearly
presented and well-supported. Every statement of the reviewer
exaggerated, or taken out of context?
must be supported with explanation and excerpt from the text
 Are the sources reliable? reviewed.
The following are the characteristics of good evidence: 6. Quotations. Selected quotations from the book under
 Unified; review may be used to represent the theme, tone and style.
 Relevant to the central point Title. Starts the book review or critique with a striking title. Do
 Specific and concrete; not use the same title as work for review, though it may be
 Accurate; and included. Your readers must have a sense of work’s content
 Representative or typical and reviewer’s perspective.
Book review is a form of literary criticism in which book is Introduction. Introduces the bibliographical information of the
objectively analyzed, evaluated and commented based on book for review. It also includes general statement from the
content, style and merit. Its purpose is to provide an informed reviewer that indicates the work’s content and reviewer’s
analysis that will help potential readers decide whether to read reaction to it. This statement usually serves as the thesis
or not the book being evaluated. statement of the review.
Article critique analyzes and comments on an Body. Contains the summary of the work for review, purpose
article or text instead of the entire book. Though “critique’’ may of the book and evaluation. Each will be at least one
have negative connotation, it includes merit recognition, since paragraph. The length of the review varies with the extent of
article critique can be part of book review. what to say and the nature of the review.
Elements of Book Review or Article Critique Summary. Emphasizes the important points of the writer. It
Book review or critique may contain some or all of the should state the overall impression of the book.
elements below. Purposes of the book state in the foreword or introduction.
1. Summary. It summarizes in detail the main ideas and Author’s background may be included to establish connection
important contents of the book. with previous works.
2. Reviewer’s statement. The reviewer explicitly states his Evaluation discusses the negative and positive features of the
thesis where his review will focus on. He will then thoroughly
book for review. Your judgment as a reviewer must be clear
discuss his thesis statement relating his analysis of the work.
3. Brief Biographical Sketch. It gives a short biographical and must be supported with evidence from the work especially
sketch of the intellectual life of the author and relates his when you challenge the assumption of the writer. This may be
background to the book for review. done through paraphrasing and quoting excerpts from the
4. Relevance to other works. A discussion must be provided material.
by the reviewer whether the book under review has relevance Conclusion. Restates the overall impression of the book. No
new information must be included. Explain why you
recommend or not recommend the book. Some review 6. Methodological Literature Review. A review that focuses
structure includes rating, but this is optional. on how. This approach provides a framework of understanding
at different levels.
Literature review is an examination of information from
scholarly published books or articles about a particular topic Organization
relevant to your study. It is a required section in academic Like other academic writings, literature review contains
research paper. The term “literature” does not necessarily mean three elements: introduction, body and conclusion. Introduction
literary texts. This refers to collection of books or articles about a explains clearly the research topic and its parameters. The
particular subject. body summarizes and synthesizes the information from the
Its purpose is to provide a comprehensive presentation of scholarly published books and articles. The summary of
what experts have commented about particular issue and a information can be effectively presented in the following ways:
justification of its value and significance. It reveals what is known 1. Chronological. This method of organizing
or not known about the topic and identify gaps your research can
information arranges materials to when they were published.
fill.
Researches usually requires recent information. It is important
Types of Literature Review
to clarify with your teacher the span of publication years may
The pervasiveness of academic writing in the academe
be considered as current and may be used in the review.
brought us to the types of Literature Review. Listed below are
most the common types.
2. Thematic. Thematic is another organizing method
1. Systematic Literature Review. This type is particular to
that shifts between time period. Instead of time progression, it
health care and medical studies. It identifies and compares
organizes reviews around the topic.
answers to health care related questions.
3. Methodological. It is a way of organizing by
2. Literature or Narrative Literature Review. It is often use focusing on the ‘method’. This determines whether a research
as a chapter in a thesis or dissertation. protocol of the reviewed material is similar, may be adapted or
3. Integrative Review. The integrative literature review is a meritorious.
distinctive form of research that generates new knowledge Conclusion summarizes the findings in the review of
about a topic by reviewing, critiquing, and synthesizing literature and emphasize the significance.
representative literature on a topic in an integrated way.
How to Write Literature Review
4. Theoretical Literature Review. Theoretical literature
Writing literary review gives a clear state of relevant
reviews play an instrumental role in establishing what theories
and current knowledge on the particular topic. It is a must that
already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree
you read and look for relevant scholarly materials for review.
the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
The following suggested steps below may be followed in
new hypotheses to be tested.
writing literary review.
5. Historical Literature Review. Historical reviews are
1. Clarify issues as to the technicalities of the
focused on examining research throughout a period of time,
project being made. Ask your teacher how many relevant
often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, and
materials may be included in the review, what span of time to
phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution
consider the recency of the material presented, or how will the
within the scholarship of a discipline.
review be organized.
 2. Search for relevant literature. Before searching for b. Development and Validation of a Software for
relevant literature, first clearly define your topic. Narrow your Detecting Plagiarism
topic so that you only get the most relevant information. 2. Abstract-contains the summary of the research findings
3. Evaluate and select the sources. Narrowing the and conclusions. It briefly presents the context of the study,
topic greatly helps in selecting the sources as you do not have research questions or objectives, methodology, major
the richness of time to read all sources. findings, conclusions, and sometimes implications. An
4. Summarize and Synthesize. When you summarize abstract does not contain any citation or a great deal of
each material, look into its main points. Establish its relevance statistical results. Its length ranges from 100 to 250 words.
with your new research. Evaluate the weaknesses of previous 3. Introduction- explains the current state of the field and
researches to determine the gaps. identifies research gaps. It is also the part where the
5. Outline the organizing structure. Choose the research focus is presented by addressing the identified
structure you feel effective in presenting information. gaps in the topic. It puts the research topic in context. It is
6. Begin composing. Once everything is settled, you usually three to five paragraphs long.
may now write your formal review. Always remember to use
4. Literature Review-contains the summary and synthesis of
evidence in presenting your interpretation of your sources. Use
all available sources directly related to the study. In
quotes sparingly.
research report, the literature review is divided into two
7. Revise. Check whether you work conforms to the
sections: related concepts and related studies. Both the
standards set by your teacher.
related concepts and studies will help the writer to explain
8. Include references. List down the works you
the phenomena that may arise in the study.
consulted.
A research report is an expanded paper that
Related concepts present some of the fundamental
presents interpretations and analyses of a phenomenon
concepts needed by the readers to better understand
based on experiments and previous information so that
the study. Concepts and theories are defined,
readers can better understand it. It is a laborious work
explained, and described.
produced through formal investigation and scientific inquiry.
Related studies are based on previously conducted
studies directly related to the paper.
Parts of Research Report 5. Methodology-describes how the experiments or tests in
the research were conducted. It presents the context within
1. Title page-contains an informative title that describes the which the study was conducted, the participants, the
content of the paper, the name of author/s, addresses or instruments used, data gathering procedure, and the data
affiliations, and the date of submission. Examples of an analysis. In discussing the context of the study and the
informative title are the following: participants, the number and the demographic profiles of
a. Effects of Facebook on the Academic Achievement the participants are explained as well as the place where
of Grade 8 the study was conducted.
Instrument- presents the tools in gathering data.
These tools may be in a form of a questionnaire,
 interview, focus group discussion, survey, and tests, related to each specific research question. It can either be in
among others. the form of an interview guide or a questionnaire.
Data Gathering- presents the details on how the data
were collected A survey instrument usually has four parts:
Data Analysis-presents how the data were analyzed 1. Personal information section for participants/respondents
either qualitatively (coding) or quantitatively (this is usually optional since, except for disclosing the
(statistical tools) gender and age and other general demographic
information, most participants wish to remain anonymous
6. Results-factually describes the data gathered and the 2. Basic questions that establish the eligibility of the
tables and graphs that summarize the collected data. participants/respondents
Along with the tables and graphs are their interpretations. 3. Main questions that are linked to the research questions
7. Discussion- provides an explanation of all the results in 4. Open ended questions (optional)
relation to the previous studies presented in the literature
review. In this section, the research problems or objectives, When preparing a survey instrument, follow these steps:
as well as the major findings, are restated in the first
paragraph. The succeeding paragraphs should explain a. Do a preliminary research. You may visit your library or
whether the study supports or rejects the previous use online sources for this.
findings and explain the reasons for this. New findings b. Talk to a person who is knowledgeable in preparing
uncovered in the research should also be stated. Similar to survey instruments.
the flow of the results, the discussion part follows the flow c. Master the guidelines in preparing a questionnaire or
of the research problems or objectives. interview guide.
8. Conclusion-contains the restatement of the major findings, d. Clarify your research questions. Be sure that the items
the limitations of the study, the recommendations, and the indicated in your survey instrument are directly related
implications. Note that in some cases, the conclusion is to each specific research question.
integrated in the introduction. e. Write the instrument using the appropriate format. Get
9. References-contains the different sources used in the model instruments if needed.
study. These may be academic books, journals, and f. Edit your instrument and match it with your research
other online sources. Its format depends on the school, questions
teacher, or field of study. g. Revise when necessary.
Steps in Writing a Research Report h. Pilot your survey instrument to further improve its
quality. This means that you have to get some
Preparing a Survey Instrument respondents to try to answer the instrument and give
feedback. Then, revise the instrument accordingly.
A survey instrument is a document that lists planned i. Implement the instrument and gather the data.
questions used to measure attitudes, perceptions, and j. Analyze the collected data and interpret it through
opinions of the respondents. It contains responses directly tables and graphs.
k. Write the methodology and results sections.
 l. Write the introduction and literature review.  A document that outlines everything the stakeholders
m. Write the discussion. Be sure to link the literature need to know to initiate a project. A first step towards
review to the discussion section. getting a project off the ground
n. Write the conclusion.  A detailed description of a series of activities aimed at
o. Prepare the reference list. Be sure to list all the items solving a certain problem
cited in the body of your paper. It is useful to keep a  It is a bid or offer to initiate a project for an individual
separate word document or physical notebook where or a group. It ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 words
you can list your references as you come across them depending on the complexity of the project being
to make sure you do not leave anything out when you proposed
have to prepare the reference list. Parts of a Project Proposal
p. Edit and format your paper. Observe the proper 1. Cover Letter
mechanics.  Introduces the proposal to the reader
 States the project proposal title, date the
Guidelines in Writing a Research Report proposal was requested, general purpose and scope of
the proposal, and acknowledgment of people who have
Now that you are aware of the steps in writing research contributed to the completion of the proposal.
report, follow the writing guidelines below to ensure that 2. Title Page
your report is well-written.  Includes the project title that is concise and
informative
1. Fifty to seventy-five percent of the paper should be  Includes the lead organization, place and date
devoted to results and discussions. of project, client’s or donor’s name, proponent’s name
2. Be sure to cite all your sources whether they are and the department or organization he/she represents
paraphrased or directly quoted. and date of submission.
3. Use direct quotation sparingly; paraphrase as much as 3.Abstract or Executive Summary
possible.  Includes the objectives, implementing
4. Strictly follow the required documentation style. organization, major project activities, and total project
5. Topic should be relevant, interesting, current, and cost
manageable in terms of resources, skills needed, and  Usually composed of 200 to 250 words and
time. They should not be too sensitive and too highlights only the major points; some abstract may be
controversial. longer depending on the culture of the funding agency
6. Research questions should directly address the given  Uses a paragraph format
topic or thesis statement. 4.Context of the Proposal
PROJECT PROPOSAL  Describes the socio-economic, cultural and
 A highly persuasive and informative document that political background in which the proposal is situated
aims to address a particular problem or issue  Presents data collected from other sources that
are relevant to the planning stage
 5.Project Justification  Specifies the schedule for reporting the
 Provides a rationale for the project finances and progress of the project
 Includes a problem statement that specified the 11.Conclusion
problem addressed by the project  Briefly describes the project, the problem it
 Points out why the problem is an issue that addresses, and its benefits to all stakeholders through a
requires immediate attention summary
 Specifies the target group’s needs that arise  Directs the readers back to the good features of
from the adverse effect of the described problem the project
 Presents the approach or strategy that will be  Urges the readers to contact the proponent to
used to address the problem work out the details of the project proposal
 Describes the capability of the implementing 12.Reference
organization or group by stating its track record  Lists all the references used in drafting the
6. Persons Involved project proposal using the format required by the funding
 Lists the people involved in the project, their agency
corresponding roles, and their summary of qualifications Guidelines in Preparing a Project Proposal
7.Project Implementation 1. Decide on the problem to be addressed.
 Is divided into two: activity plan-schedule of 2. Arrange ideas systematically.
activities and resource plan-specifies the items needed 3. Identify your specific activities, outputs, resources
to implement the project and methodologies.
 Describes the activities and resource allocation 4. Create a team for the project and its duties and
in detail, as well as the person in charge of executing responsibilities.
the activities 5. Identify the fund sources of the project.
 Indicates the time and place of activities 6. Talk about the plans for the project.
8.Budget 7. Have sufficient time for planning.
 Presents the expected income and expenses 8. Orient team members on their tasks and
over a specified time period responsibilities.
 Itemizes the budget 9. Ensure that objectives and activities are within
9. Monitoring and Evaluation the given time and resources.
 Specifies when and how the team will monitor 10. Study well the project proposal.
the progress of the project How to Write a Project Proposal
 Specifies the method for monitoring and Step 1. Define the problem
evaluation  Make your audience see the problem the way you
 Specifies the personnel in charge of monitoring see it.
and evaluation  Make sure that the main point is well described and
10.Reporting Scheme in a manner that resonates with them.
  Don’t exaggerate. Instead, use data from your A position paper ranges from the simplest format of a
research to back up your assertions. letter to the editor to the most complex in the forms of an
Step 2. Present your solution academic position paper. It is also used by large organizations
 Discuss why other solutions won’t work for the to make public the official beliefs and recommendations of the
situation. group.
 Back-up the proposed solutions.
 Present the impact of the solution
 Provide research-backed examples. Parts of a Position Paper
Step 3. Define your deliverable and success criteria
 Provide a picture of the functions and attributes of 1. Introduction
the deliverable and indicators of the success of the ✧ Use a lead that grabs the attention of readers.
project ✧ Define the issue and provide a thorough
Step 4. State your plan or approach background.
 Discuss how to achieve the objectives of the ✧ Provide a general statement of the position
project. Explain the approach, it’s relevance, through a thesis statement.
effectiveness, and how problems will be managed
Step 5. Outline your schedule and budget 2. Body
 Break down project costs and detail to meet the ✧ State the main arguments and provide sufficient
deadlines evidence (e.g. Statistics, interviews with experts, and
Step 6. Tie it all together testimonies) for each argument.
 Summarize the problem, solution and benefits. ✧ Provide counterarguments against possible
Emphasize the significant parts, and make the weaknesses of the arguments.
proposal stand out by restating ideas
Step 7. Edit or Proof read your proposal 3. Conclusion
 Rewrite to make it interesting, helpful, clear, ✧ Restate the position and main arguments.
and persuasive. Ask for feedback. ✧ Suggest a course of action.
A position paper is a type of academic writing that presents ✧ Explain why the position is better than any other
one’s viewpoint on a particular issue. The main objective of positions.
writing a position paper is to take part in a larger debate by ✧ End with a powerful closing statement (e.g. a
stating your arguments and proposed course of action. quotation, a challenge, or a question).

A position paper is an essay that presents an opinion Guidelines in Writing a Position Paper
about an issue, typically that of the author or another specified ✧ Do in-depth research on the issue identified.
entity; such as political party. Position papers are published in
✧ Explain and analyze the issue objectively.
academe, politics, law and other domains.
✧ Identify the weakness of the issue.
✧ Cite references and establish credibility of your paper.
✧ Strategize on how you present the issue. name of a former employer
✧ Limit the position to two pages. may be significant to
✧ Know the readers. prospective employer.
✧ Summarize counterarguments and refute them with Don’t use there are gaps in work history;
evidence. if…: calling attention to your age
✧ Unlock terms which are not familiar. could be a problem; you have
✧ Use active voice. changed jobs often;
✧ Arrange the evidences logically. entering the job market for first
✧ Use deductive or inductive method in presenting the time or after a long absence
arguments and evidences.
✧ Use ethical and logical appeals. Ethical appeals relate
to the credibility and competence of the writer; logical appeal 2. Functional Résumé
refers to the rational approach in developing an argument.
Description: focuses on skills and strengths;
✧ Do some readings and consult an expert.
omits specific dates, names, and
Résumé comes from the French word resume which
places; de-emphasizes a spotty work
means “summary” or “summarized”. Resume is a marketing
history
document that captures your skills and capability. It is a written
Advantage: no detailed work history; content
compilation of your education, work experience, credentials,
may appear to lack depth; disliked
and accomplishments. Most professional positions require
by many employers
applicants to submit a resume and cover letter as part of the
Disadvanta de-emphasizes a spotty work
application process.
ge: history; allows to highlight specific
Basic Types of Résumé strengths and transferable skills that
might not be obvious when outlined
1. Chronological Résumé in purely chronological order
Best Use Emphasizing transferable skills used
Description: List of work history in reverse order, when: in volunteer work, paid work, or
starting with the current or most coursework; using this or a
recent job and working backwards combination resume when you are a
Advantage: Easy to write; emphasizes new graduate; with limited work
steady employment record experience; you are changing
Disadvanta Calls attention to employment careers or doing freelance work; you
ge: gaps; Skills can be difficult to do not want to call attention to your
spot unless they are listed in age.
the most recent job. Don’t use you want to emphasize growth or
Best Use emphasizing past career if…: development; your duties and
when: growth and development; the responsibilities in recent jobs were
 limited. selectively presenting achievements
that demonstrate one’s value

customizing efforts ensuring that the

3. Combination Résumé resume has the right tone and detail
to present one as the right candidate
Description: blends the flexibility and strength of for the job
the other two types of resumes
Advantage: shows off a strong employment
record with upward mobility; shows Letter of Application for College Admission and
how the skills in the past apply to the Employment
job being sought; emphasizes An application letter serves as an introduction of
transferable skill yourself. It contains your background, summarizes your
Disadvanta work history is often on the second knowledge and experiences and includes few more details
ge: page, and employer may not read why you qualify for a job or college admission.
that far In writing an application letter, remember that:
Best Use showing off your skills developed
when: throughout the work history instead 1. It should be formal,
of the specific positions you held; 2. It should be short, precise and simple;
making a career change 3. The language used should be easy to understand.
Don’t use experience is limited; there are wide 4. It should convey the purpose for application.
if…: gaps in the work history. 5. It should be able to market the applicant.
6. It should observe correct grammatical structure.
4. Targeted Résumé Writing Your Letter
Description: highly focused resume intended for 1. Write an engaging first paragraph. Employers read a lot
specific job; a “capsule” of work of cover letters, and most of the time a hiring manager will
experience scan them quickly deciding if your letter goes in the trash or
Advantage: concise, direct, and easy to read the “keep” pile. Don’t bury the lead, treat your application letter
Disadvanta focuses too firmly on one specific job like a news article.
ge: or work; content appears limited
Best Use tailoring qualifications and  Open with a strong, declarative statement that
when: employment history to better align informs your reader that you are excited to be
with the demands of any open applying for [the position] at [company].
position  Be short and specific with what attracted you to
the job. What is it about the company that you
 like? Give an example, and don’t be afraid to be 4. Write your name underneath. After you sign off, write your
a little conversational depending on how casual full name on the last line, and affix your signature.
the company is.
 Show the manager that you are not only familiar
with the company’s work, but that you are a
good fit by writing in a similar tone to the
company.

2. State where you found the position to which you are

applying. Before applying, do some research and see if you
know anyone at the company. It’s always better to have an in
and reference, and don’t be afraid to name drop if you have
the employee’s permission.
3. Explain why hiring you will benefit the employer. You
don’t want to tell them why getting hired will benefit you.
There’s a reason this position is open, there’s a problem that
needs solving. You’re here to solve it.
4. Briefly summarize your strengths, qualifications, and
experience. In your second paragraph, you want to mirror the
job qualifications to two or three of your abilities and
experiences that show why you’re perfect for the role.
5. Paint a picture of yourself that’s not on your resume. A
hiring manager can read your CV or resume and see what you
have done in your previous jobs. You want to show the hiring
manager who the person behind the accomplishments is.
Finishing Up Your Letter
1. Briefly summarize why you’re the perfect candidate for
the job in one sentence. Ending your letter of application on
the right note is a very important part of your letter as it can
help you land the interview.
2. Invite the hiring manager to contact you. Inform your
reader that you would love the opportunity to speak further
about the position and provide your contact info again.
3. Sign off. Signing off can seem like an afterthought or
become frustrating if you don’t know what is appropriate.
Use Yours sincerely or simply Very truly yours.