MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

UNIT V
PROTOTYPING
Reliability, failure identification techniques, Poka-Yoke, Design for the environment,
design for maintainability, product safety, liability and design, design for packaging.

PROTOTYPING

We define prototype as “an approximation of the product along one or more

dimensions of interest.” Under this definition, any entity exhibiting at least one
aspect of the product that is of interest to the development team can be viewed as a
prototype. This definition deviates from standard usage in that it includes such
diverse forms of prototypes as concept sketches, mathematical models, simulations,
test components, and fully functional preproduction versions of the product.
Prototyping is the process of developing such an approximation of the product.

TYPES OF PROTOTYPES

Prototypes can be usefully classified along two dimensions. The first

dimension is the degree to which a prototype is physical as opposed to analytical.
Physical prototypes are tangible artifacts created to approximate the product.
Examples of physical prototypes include models that look and feel like the product,
proof-of-concept prototypes used to test an idea quickly, and experimental hardware
used to validate the functionality of a product.
Analytical prototypes represent the product in a nontangible, usually mathematical
or visual, manner. Interesting aspects of the product are analyzed, rather than built.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
Examples of analytical prototypes include computer simulations, systems of
equations encoded within a spreadsheet, and computer models of three-dimensional
geometry.
The second dimension is the degree to which a prototype is comprehensive as
opposed to focused.
Comprehensive prototypes implement most, if not all, of the attributes of a product.
An example of a comprehensive prototype is one given to customers in order to
identify any remaining design flaws before committing to production.
In contrast to comprehensive prototypes, focused prototypes implement one, or a
few, of the attributes of a product.
Examples of focused prototypes include foam models to explore the form of a
product and hand-built circuit boards to investigate the electronic performance of a
product design.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

What Are Prototypes Used For?

Within a product development project, prototypes are used for four

purposes: learning, communication, integration, and milestones.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
1. Learning:

Prototypes are often used to answer two types of questions: “Will

it work?” and “How well does it meet the customer needs?” When used
to answer such questions, prototypes serve as learning tools. In
developing the wheels for the PackBot, the team built focused-physical
prototypes of the novel spiral spoke geometry of the wheels. Also, in
development of the wheel design, mathematical models of the spokes
were analyzed to estimate the stiffness and strength of the wheels. This
is an example of a focused-analytical prototype used as a learning tool.

2. Communication:
Prototypes enrich communication with top management, vendors,
partners, extended team members, customers, and investors. This is
particularly true of physical prototypes: a visual, tactile, three-dimensional
representation of a product is much easier to understand than a verbal
description or even a sketch of the product. This model was constructed from
components using stereo- lithography rapid prototyping technology,
assembled, and painted to represent the actual size and appearance of the
product.

3. Integration:

Prototypes are used to ensure that components and subsystems of the

product work together as expected. Comprehensive physical prototypes are
most effective as integration tools in product development projects because
they require the assembly and physical interconnection of all the parts and
subassemblies that make up a product. In doing so,the prototype forces
coordination between different members of the product development team. If
the combination of any of the components of the product interferes with the
over- all function of the product, the problem may be detected through
physical integration in a comprehensive prototype.

4. Milestones:

Particularly in the later stages of product development, prototypes

MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
are used to demonstrate that the product has achieved a desired level of
functionality. Milestone prototypes provide tangible goals, demonstrate
progress, and serve to enforce the schedule. Senior management (and
sometimes the customer) often requires a prototype that demonstrates
certain functions before allowing the project to proceed. For example, in
many government procurements, a prototype must pass a
“qualification test” and later.

Prototyping Technologies

Hundreds of different production technologies are used to create prototypes,

particularly physical prototypes. Two technologies have emerged as particularly
important in the past 20 years: three-dimensional computer modeling (3D CAD)
and free-form fabrication (3D printing).

3D CAD Modeling and Analysis

Since the 1990s, the dominant mode of representing designs has shifted
dramatically from drawings, often created using a computer, to 3D computer-aided
design models, known as 3D CAD models. 3D CAD models represent designs as
collections of 3D solid entities, each usually constructed from geometric primitives,
such as cylinders, blocks, and holes.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
The advantages of 3D CAD modeling include the ability to easily visualize
the three- dimensional form of the design; the ability to create photo-realistic images
for assessment of product appearance; the ability to automatically compute
physical properties such as mass and volume; and the efficiency arising from the
creation of one and only one canonical description of the design, from which other,
more focused descriptions, such as cross-sectional views and fabrication drawings,
can be created. Through the use of computer-aided engineering (CAE) tools, 3D
CAD models have begun to serve as analyt- ical prototypes. In some settings this
can eliminate one or more physical prototypes. When 3D CAD models are used to
carefully plan the final, integrated assembly of the product and to detect geometric
interference among parts, this may indeed eliminate the need for a full-scale
prototype. For example, in the development of the Boeing 777 and 787 jets, the
development teams were able to avoid building full-scale wooden prototype models
of the planes, which had historically been used to detect geometric interferences
among structural elements and the components of various other systems, such as
hydrau- lic lines. Using a 3D CAD model of an entire product in this manner is
known, depending on the industry setting, as a digital mock-up, digital prototype, or
virtual prototype.

3D CAD models are also the underlying representation for many types of
computer- based analyses. Forms of CAE include finite-element analysis of thermal
flow or stress distribution, virtual crash testing of automobiles, kinematic and
dynamic motion of complex mechanisms, all of which have become more
sophisticated every year. In the PackBot development, engineers conducted finite-
element analysis of structural integrity to understand impact stresses at various drop
and crash angles. Exhibit 14-13 shows one such analytical result, based on a 3D
CAD model of the PackBot. Engineers also computed heat flows and thermal
dissipation performance using finite-element analysis based on 3D CAD models.

3D Printing
In 1984, the first commercial free-form fabrication system was
introduced by 3D Systems. This technology, called stereolithography, and
dozens of competing technologies that followed it, create physical objects
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
directly from 3D CAD models, and can be thought of as “3D printing.” This
collection of technologies is often called rapid prototyp- ing. Most of the
technologies work by constructing an object, one cross-sectional layer at a time,
by depositing a material or by using a laser to selectively solidify a liquid or
pow- der. The resulting parts are most often made from plastics, but other
materials are avail- able, including wax, paper, ceramics, and metals. In some
cases the parts are used directly for visualization or in working prototypes;
however, the parts are often used as patterns to make molds or patterns from
which parts with particular material properties can then be molded or cast.

Three-dimensional printing technologies enable realistic 3D prototypes to be

created earlier and less expensively than was possible before. When used
appropriately, these pro- totypes can reduce product development time and/or
improve the resulting product quality. In addition to enabling the rapid construction
of working prototypes, these technologies can be used to embody product concepts
quickly and inexpensively, increasing the ease with which concepts can be
communicated to other team members, senior managers, development partners, or
potential customers. For example, the PackBot prototype shown in Exhibit 14-3(a)
was made of components fabricated using stereolithography in only four days

Planning for Prototypes

A potential pitfall in product development is what Clausing called the

“hardware swamp” (Clausing, 1994).1 The swamp is caused by misguided

prototyping efforts; that is, the building and debugging of prototypes (physical or
analytical) that do not substantially contribute to the goals of the overall product
development project. One way to avoid the swamp is to carefully define each
prototype before embarking on an effort to build and test it. This section presents a
four-step method for planning each prototype during a product development project.
The method applies to all types of prototypes: focused, comprehensive, physical, and
analytical. A template for recording the information gener- ated from the method is
given in Exhibit 14-14. We use the PackBot wheel prototype and impact test shown
in Exhibit 14-6 as an example to illustrate the method.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
Step 1: Define the Purpose of the Prototype

Recall the four purposes of prototypes: learning, communication, integration,

and mile- stones. In defining the purpose of a prototype, the team lists its specific
learning and communication needs. Team members also list any integration needs
and whether or not the prototype is intended to be one of the major milestones of the
overall product development project.

For the wheel prototypes, the purpose was to determine the shock absorption
characteristics and robustness of the wheels using various geometry and materials.
While these learning prototypes were primarily focused on performance, the team
was also considering the manufacturing cost of the materials, some of which were
not moldable and must be machined.

Step 2: Establish the Level of Approximation of the Prototype

Planning a prototype requires definition of the degree to which the final
product is to be approximated. The team should consider whether a physical
prototype is necessary or whether an analytical prototype would best meet its
needs. In most cases, the best prototype is the simplest prototype that will serve
the purposes established in step 1. In some cases, an earlier model serves as a
testbed and may be modified for the purposes of the prototype. In other cases,
an existing prototype or a prototype being built for another purpose can be
utilized.

For the wheel prototype, the team decided that materials and geometry
of the wheel were critical attributes related to impact performance, so the
prototype needed to be constructed carefully with these attributes in mind;
however, other aspects of the wheel could be ignored, including the
production method (molding versus machining), the attachment to the drive
system and the track belt, and the color and overall appearance of the wheel.
A member of the team had previously explored an analytical model of the
wheel spoke bending performance and felt that the physical prototype was
neces- sary to verify her analysis. She had discovered that there was a basic
trade-off between shock absorption, which required more flexible spokes, and
strength of the wheel, which required larger spokes. The team used the
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
analytical prototype to determine the wheel spoke dimensions that would be
investigated with the physical prototype.

Step 3: Outline an Experimental Plan

In most cases, the use of a prototype in product development can be
thought of as an experiment. Good experimental practice helps ensure the
extraction of maximum value from the prototyping effort. The experimental
plan includes the identification of the variables of the experiment (if any), the
test protocol, an indication of what measurements will be performed, and a
plan for analyzing the resulting data. When many variables must be explored,
efficient experiment design greatly facilitates this process. Chapter 15, Robust
Design, discusses design of experiments in detail.

For the wheel prototype tests, the team decided to vary only the
materials and web geometry of the spokes. Based on the analytical models, two
spoke shapes were selected for testing. Six different materials were also chosen,
for a total of 12 test designs. The team designed a weighted platform to which
each wheel could be mounted and a test apparatus for dropping the platform at
various heights. They decided to instrument the platform to measure the
acceleration forces transmitted through the wheels to the PackBot upon impact.
After each test, they inspected the wheel for damage in the form of cracks or
plastic deformation before increasing the test height. These test results would
not only be used to choose the best spoke geometry and material, but also to
improve the analyti- cal model for future use, which may eliminate further
physical prototyping of modified wheel designs.

Step 4: Create a Schedule for Procurement, Construction, and Testing

Because the building and testing of a prototype can be considered a

subproject within the overall development project, the team benefits from a
schedule for the prototyping activ- ity. Three dates are particularly important in
defining a prototyping effort. First, the team defines when the parts will be
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
ready to assemble. (This is sometimes called the “bucket of parts” date.)
Second, the team defines the date when the prototype will first be tested. (This
is sometimes called the “smoke test” date, because it is the date the team will
first apply power and “look for smoke” in products with electrical systems.)
Third, the team defines the date when it expects to have completed testing and
produced the final results.

For the wheel prototypes, no assembly was involved, so when parts were available
the prototypes could be assembled and tested rather quickly. The team planned for
eight days of testing and two days of analysis

RELIABILITY ENGINEERING

Reliability engineering consists of the systematic application of time-honored

engineering principles and techniques throughout a product lifecycle and is thus an
essential component of a good Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) program. The
goal of reliability engineering is to evaluate the inherent reliability of a product or
process and pinpoint potential areas for reliability improvement. Realistically, all
failures cannot be eliminated from a design, so another goal of reliability engineering
is to identify the most likely failures and then identify appropriate actions to mitigate
the effects of those failures.
What is Reliability?

Reliability is a broad term that focuses on the ability of a product to perform its
intended function. Mathematically speaking, assuming that an item is performing its
intended function at time equals zero, reliability can be defined as the probability that
an item will continue to perform its intended function without failure for a specified
period of time under stated conditions. Please note that the product defined here could
be an electronic or mechanical hardware product, a software product, a manufacturing
process or even a service.
Why is Reliability Important?

There are a number of reasons why reliability is an important product attribute,

including:
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
 Reputation. A company's reputation is very closely related to the reliability of
its products. The more reliable a product is, the more likely the company is to
have a favorable reputation.
 Customer Satisfaction. While a reliable product may not dramatically affect
customer satisfaction in a positive manner, an unreliable product will negatively
affect customer satisfaction severely. Thus high reliability is a mandatory
requirement for customer satisfaction.
 Warranty Costs. If a product fails to perform its function within the warranty
period, the replacement and repair costs will negatively affect profits, as well as
gain unwanted negative attention. Introducing reliability analysis is an important
step in taking corrective action, ultimately leading to a product that is more
reliable.
 Repeat Business. A concentrated effort towards improved reliability shows
existing customers that a manufacturer is serious about its product, and committed
to customer satisfaction. This type of attitude has a positive impact on future
business.
 Cost Analysis. Manufacturers may take reliability data and combine it with
other cost information to illustrate the cost-effectiveness of their products. This
life cycle cost analysis can prove that although the initial cost of a product might
be higher, the overall lifetime cost is lower than that of a competitor's because
their product requires fewer repairs or less maintenance.
 Customer Requirements. Many customers in today's market demand that their
suppliers have an effective reliability program. These customers have learned the
benefits of reliability analysis from experience.
 Competitive Advantage. Many companies will publish their predicted
reliability numbers to help gain an advantage over their competitors who either do
not publish their numbers or have lower numbers.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
POKA YOKE

Definition of Poka Yoke

This is a Japanese word that means mistake proofing of equipment or processes

to make them safe and reliable.
These are simple, yet effective design features that make it almost impossible for
errors to occur.
In fact, the original term was Baka-Yoke or “fool-proof”. Due to the inappropriateness
of the term, “mistake-proofing” became the preferred term.
The aim of mistake-proofing is to remove the need for people to think about the
products or processes they are using. This is because the products have a design that
makes it impossible to use them in the wrong way.
When someone uses the product the wrong way, it does not function and it becomes
obvious to the user that they are doing the wrong thing. The simple yet effective
design features make it difficult for errors to occur during usage of the product.
What is a poka-yoke?

A poka-yoke is a mechanism that is put in place to prevent human error. The purpose
of a poka-yoke is to inhibit, correct or highlight an error as it occurs. Poka-yoke
roughly means "avoid unexpected surprises" or "avoid blunders" in Japanese. In
English, a poka-yoke is sometimes referred to as "mistake-proof" or "fool-proof."

Essentially, a poka-yoke is a safeguard that prevents a process from proceeding to the

next step until the proper conditions have been met. Poka-yokes can be either warning
mechanisms or control mechanisms. Warnings provide an alert that is designed to
prevent additional errors or defects from happening. Control mechanisms stop the next
step of a process from occurring.

Automobiles often have a number of poka-yokes to help drivers avoid making

mistakes. Should a driver exit the vehicle but fail to remove the ignition key, for
example, many cars are designed with a poka-yoke that will warn the driver with an
auditory alert that he has forgotten his key.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
To prevent the driver from accidentally locking himself out, some cars also have a
control poka-yoke that prevents the vehicle door from locking when the key is still in
the ignition in the off position.

Poka-yokes have their roots in lean manufacturing and are closely aligned with Six
Sigma methodologies, continuous improvement (kaizen) and the Toyota
Way Production System. The concept of designing process steps to be fool proof was
developed by Dr. Shigeo Shingo, an industrial engineer who was a Toyota consultant
and author of "Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the Poka-Yoke System."

The concept was originally called baka-yoke, but Dr. Shingo changed the name to
poka-yoke after realizing that the label "fool-proof" was humiliating to workers.
Like Kanban and many other lean production concepts, the concept of poka-yokes has
been adopted by many other industries, including software development and health
care.
Poka-yokes in manufacturing

In manufacturing, there are three main types of poka-yoke for quality assurance:
contact methods, fixed-value methods and motion-step methods. Each can be a control
method or a warning method. Contact methods rely on sensing devices that ascertain
whether a product makes contact with a device. This can be physical, as in a pin that
must be placed correctly, or energetic, wherein photoelectric beams sense something
is not positioned correctly.

Fixed-value methods are used when a process must be done a certain number of times
or when a certain number of parts are associated with the completion of a task -- for
example, bolts that need tightening a certain number of times or the parts required in
package. In fixed-value, a signal is given or present when the number is reached or the
product is released to the next stage upon completion.

Motion-step methods monitor whether a motion or step has occurred within a certain
timeframe or sequence. An example would be an indicator light that is turned on if a
step in a machine cycle is not done in the proper sequence or timeframe.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
Motion-step methods typically rely on sensors and devices to detect that the
appropriate actions have occurred. In the indicator light example, the steps of the
machine cycle are all wired to the indicator board and a timer. The light is triggered if
a step has not been completed in time and in sequence.

DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT

In June 2009, Herman Miller, Inc., a U.S.-based office furniture manufacturer,

launched the Setu multipurpose chair. The Setu (named after the Hindi word for
bridge) aims to set new standards of simplicity, adaptability, and comfort for
multipurpose seating while being environmentally friendly.
Herman Miller designed the Setu chair in collaboration with Studio 7.5, a design
firm based in Germany. Multipurpose chairs, such as the Setu, are used where people
sit for relatively short periods, such as conference rooms, temporary workstations, and
collaborative spaces.
The Setu is designed for material recycling and is produced using environmentally
safe materials and renewable energy. The following factors explain its level of
environmental performance:

• Environmentally friendly materials: The Setu multipurpose chair consists of

environmentally safe and nontoxic materials such as 41 percent (by weight)
aluminum, 41 percent polypropylene, and 18 percent steel.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

• Recycled content: The Setu is made of 44 percent recycled materials (by

weight, comprising 23 percent postconsumer and 21percent postindustrial
recycled content).

• Recyclability: The Setu is 92 percent recyclable (by weight) at the end of its
useful life. Steel and aluminum components are 100 percent recyclable.
Polypropylene components are identified with a recycling code whenever
possible to aid in returning these materials to the recycling stream. (Of course,
recycling of industrial materials depends on the availability of such recycling
streams.)

• Clean energy: Setu is manufactured on a production line that utilizes 100

percent green power (half from wind turbines and half from captured landfill
off-gassing).

• Emissions: No harmful air or water emissions are released during Setu’s

production.

• Returnable and recyclable packaging: Setu components are received by

Herman Miller from a network of nearby suppliers in molded tote trays that are
returned to the suppliers for reuse. Outgoing packaging materials include
corrugated cardboard and a polyethylene plastic bag, both materials capable of
repeated recycling.
Design for environment (DFE) is a way to include environmental considerations in the
product development process.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
Design for environment (DFE)
Every product has environmental impacts. DFE provides organizations with a
practical method to minimize these impacts in an effort to create a more sustainable
society. Just as effective design for manufacturing (DFM) practice has been shown to
maintain or improve product quality while reducing costs, practitioners of DFE have
also found that effective DFE practice can maintain or improve product quality and
cost while reducing environmental impacts.
Environmental impacts of a product may include energy consumption, natural
resource depletion, liquid discharges, gaseous emissions, and solid waste generation.
These impacts fall into two broad categories—energy and materials—and both
represent critical environmental problems that need to be solved.

Two Life Cycles

Life cycle thinking is the basis of DFE. This helps to expand the
traditional manufacturer’s concern with the production and distribution of its
products to comprise a closed- loop system relating the product life cycle to the
natural life cycle, both of which are illustrated in Exhibit 12-3. The product life
cycle begins with the extraction and processing of raw materials from natural
resources, followed by production, distribution, and use of the product. Finally,
at the end of the product’s useful life there are several recovery options—
remanufacturing or reuse of components, recycling of materials, or disposal
through incineration or deposit in a landfill. The natural life cycle represents the
growth and decay of organic materials in a continuous loop. The two life cycles
intersect, as shown in the diagram, with the use of natural materials in industrial
products and with the reintegration of organic materials back into the natural
cycle.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

Environmental Impacts
Every product may have a number of environmental impacts over its life cycle. The
fol- lowing list explains some of the environmental impacts deriving from the

manufacturing sector (adapted from Lewis and Gertsakis, 2001):1

 Global warming: Scientific data and models show that the temperature of the
earth is gradually increasing as a result of the accumulation of greenhouse
gases, particulates, and water vapor in the upper atmosphere. This effect
appears to be accelerating as a result of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), black carbon particles, and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) from industrial processes and products.

 Resource depletion: Many of the raw materials used for production, such as
iron ore, gas, oil, and coal, are nonrenewable and supplies are limited.

 Solid waste: Products may generate solid waste throughout their life cycle.
Some of this waste is recycled, but most is disposed in incinerators or landfills.
Incinerators generate air pollution and toxic ash (which goes into landfills).
Landfills may also create concentrations of toxic substances, generate methane
gas (CH4), and release groundwater pollutants.

 Water pollution: The most common sources of water pollution are discharges
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
from industrial processes, which may include heavy metals, fertilizers,
solvents, oils, synthetic substances, acids, and suspended solids. Waterborne
pollutants may affect groundwater, drinking water, and fragile ecosystems.

 Air pollution: Sources of air pollution include emissions from factories,

power- generating plants, incinerators, residential and commercial buildings,
and motor vehicles. Typical pollutants include CO2, NOx, sulfur dioxide
(SO2), ozone (O3), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

 Land degradation: Land degradation concerns the adverse effects that raw
material extraction and production, such as mining, farming, and forestry,
have on the environ- ment. The effects include reduced soil fertility, soil
erosion, salinity of land and water, and deforestation.

 Biodiversity: Biodiversity concerns the variety of plant and animal species,

and is affected by land clearing for urban development, mining, and other
industrial activities.

 Ozone depletion: The ozone layer protects the earth against the harmful
effects of the sun’s radiation. It is degraded by reactions with nitric acid
(created by the burning of fossil fuels) and chorine compounds (such as
CFCs).

The Design for Environment Process

MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

Step 1: Set the DFE Agenda: Drivers, Goals, and Team

The DFE process begins as early as the product planning phase with setting the
DFE agenda. This step consists of three activities: identifying the internal and external
drivers of DFE, setting the environmental goals for the product, and setting up the
DFE team. By setting the DFE agenda, the organization identifies a clear and
actionable path toward environmentally friendly product design.
 Identify the Internal and External Drivers of DFE

The planning phase of DFE begins with a discussion of the reasons why the
organization wishes to address the environmental performance of its products.
It is useful to document both the internal drivers and the external drivers of
DFE. This list may evolve over time, as changes in technology, regulation,
experience, stakeholders, and competition each affect the capability and
challenges of the organization.

Internal drivers are the DFE objectives within the organization.

 Product quality: A focus on environmental performance may raise the

quality of the product in terms of functionality, reliability in operation,
durability, and repairability.
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
 Public image: Communicating a high level of environmental quality of a
product can improve a company’s image.

 Cost reduction: Using less material and less energy in production can result
in consid- erable cost savings. Generating less waste and eliminating
hazardous waste results in lower waste disposal costs.

 Innovation: Sustainable thinking can lead to radical changes in product

design and may foster innovation across the whole company.

 Operational safety: By eliminating toxic materials, many DFE changes can

help improve the occupational health and safety of employees.

 Employee motivation: Employees can be motivated to contribute in new and

creative ways if they are able to help reduce the environmental impacts of the
company’s prod- ucts and operations.

 Ethical responsibility: Interest in sustainable development among managers

and prod- uct developers may be motivated in part by a moral sense of
responsibility for conserv- ing the environment and nature.

 Consumer behavior: Wider availability of products with positive

environmental bene- fits may accelerate the transition to cleaner lifestyles
and demand for greener products.

 Environmental legislation: Product-oriented environmental policy is

developing rapidly. Companies must not only understand the myriad
regulations in the various regions where they operate and sell products, but
also be able to anticipate future

 Set the DFE Goals

An important activity in the product planning phase is to set the environmental

goals for each product development project. Many organizations have
established a strategy that includes long-term environmental goals. These
goals define how the organization complies with environmental regulations
and how the organization reduces the environmental impacts of its products,
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
services, and operations.

In 2005, Herman Miller set its long-term environmental goals for the year
2020:

 Zero landfill.

 Zero hazardous waste generation.

 Zero harmful air emissions.

 Zero process water use.

 All green electrical energy use.

 All buildings certified to meet environmental efficiency standards.

 All sales from products created with the DFE process.

 Set up the DFE team

DFE requires participation by many functional experts on the product

development project. The typical composition of a DFE team (often a sub-team
within the overall project team) consists of a DFE leader, an environmental
chemistry and materials expert, a manufacturing engineer, and a representative
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
from the purchasing and supply chain organization. Of course, the DFE team
composition depends on the organization and needs of the specific project, and
may also include marketing professionals, outside consultants, suppliers, or
other experts.
Step 2: Identify Potential Environmental Impacts
Within the concept development phase, DFE begins by identifying the potential
environ- mental impacts of the product over its life cycle. This enables the product
development team to consider environmental impacts at the concept stage even
though little or no specific data (regarding material and energy use, emissions, and
waste generation) are yet available for the actual product and a detailed
environmental impact assessment is not yet possible.

Step 3: Select DFE Guidelines

Guidelines help product design teams to make early DFE decisions without
the type of detailed environmental impact analysis that is only possible after the
design is more fully specified. Relevant guidelines may be selected based in part on
the qualitative assessment of life cycle impacts (from step 2). Selecting relevant
guidelines during the concept devel- opment phase allows the product development
team to apply them throughout the product development project.

Step 4: Apply the DFE Guidelines to the Initial Product Design

As the product architecture is developed during the system-level design phase (see
Chapter 10, Product Architecture), some initial material choices are made along with
some of the module design decisions. It is beneficial, therefore, to apply the relevant
DFE guidelines (selected in step 3) at this point. In this way, the initial product
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
design may have lower environmental impacts.

Step 5: Assess the Environmental Impacts

The next step is to assess, to the extent possible, the environmental impacts of
the product over its entire life cycle. To do so with precision requires a detailed
understanding of how the product is to be produced, distributed, used over its
lifetime, and recycled or disposed.
Step 6: Refine the product design to reduce or eliminate the environmental
impacts

The objective of this step and subsequent DFE iterations is to reduce or eliminate any
significant environmental impacts through redesign. The process repeats until the
environmental impacts have been reduced to an acceptable level and the
environmental performance fits the DFE goals. Redesign for ongoing improvement
of DFE may also continue after production begins.

Step 7: Reflect on the DFE process and results

As with every aspect of the product development process, the final activity is to ask:
• How well did we execute the DFE process?
MBA OPEN ELECTIVE: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
• How can our DFE process be improved?
• What DFE improvements can be made on derivative and future products?

Based on Herman Miller’s DFE assessment tool, on a scale of 0 to 100%, with 100%
being a truly “cradle-to-cradle” product, the Setu chair achieved a rating of 72%