Learner Guide

Cambridge International AS & A Level

Psychology 9990

For examination from 2024

© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024 v1
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Assessment is a department of the University of Cambridge.

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Contents

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................. 4

1. Syllabus content – what you need to know.................................................................................................... 5

2. How you will be assessed.................................................................................................................................. 6

3. What skills will be assessed?............................................................................................................................ 8

4. Example response........................................................................................................................................... 10

5. Revision and preparation............................................................................................................................... 13

6. Useful resources............................................................................................................................................... 67

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Learner Guide

Introduction

This guide explains what you need to know about your Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 course
and examinations.

This guide will help you to:

9 understand what skills you should develop by taking this Cambridge International AS & A Level course
9 understand how you will be assessed
9 understand what we are looking for in the answers you write
9 plan your revision programme
9 revise, by providing revision tips and an interactive revision checklist (Section 5).

Following a Cambridge International AS & A Level programme will help you to develop abilities that universities value
highly, including a deep understanding of your subject; higher order thinking skills (analysis, critical thinking, problem
solving); presenting ordered and coherent arguments; and independent learning and research.

Studying Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology will provide you with opportunities to explore key concepts
and debates that underpin the subject of psychology and to develop the skills of knowledge and understanding,
application, analysis, and evaluation while studying a range of stimulating topics and real-world issues.

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1. Syllabus content – what you need to know

This section gives you an outline of the syllabus content for this course.

For AS Level there are two papers:

• Paper 1: Approaches, Issues and Debates
• Paper 2: Research Methods

For A Level there are a further two papers:

• Paper 3: Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and Debates
• Paper 4: Specialist Options: Application and Research Methods

There are two components for the AS Level and four components for A Level. For A Level you will study two of the four
listed options. Your teacher will tell you which two options you are studying. Make sure you always check the latest
syllabus, available from the School Support Hub.

Prior knowledge
There is no assumed prior knowledge needed to study Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990.
However, a good grasp of English, Mathematics and Science is preferable.

Key concepts
Key concepts are essential ideas that will help you develop a deep understanding of your subject and make links
between different aspects of the course. The key concepts for Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology are:

Nature versus nurture – A key focus of contemporary psychology is to consider the relative contributions of nature
versus nurture. Behaviours could be seen as resulting from innate, genetic factors (nature) or behaviours could be
explained in terms of the environmental influences that begin to shape us from conception (nurture). You should be
aware of this debate while planning studies and evaluating studies as part of this course.

Ethics – Ethics must be considered when planning a psychological investigation to ensure that data is gathered without
compromising the wellbeing of the participant(s). The approach to ethics in psychological research has changed
over time as our understanding has developed and attitudes towards ethical and moral implications change. As a
result, some of the earlier studies that were the basis of the subject no longer meet the current guidelines. We should
continually evaluate the ethical and moral implications of psychological research.

Research methods – Every research method has strengths and weaknesses, and a psychologist must evaluate how
the method they have chosen contributes to the validity and reliability of their specific investigation as well as to wider
psychological research.

No one view in psychology is definitive – Psychological research is influenced by the approach of the researcher
and the time and context they are working in. Any topic is likely to be studied from the perspective of more than one
psychological approach, and each approach has its own assumptions.

Relevance of psychology in contemporary society – By understanding psychology, we can improve how we live
our lives and society in general. Every study is undertaken with a specific purpose in mind which can then be applied
in everyday life – whether it is improving how we learn, understanding how groups of people behave or treating a
disorder. You should be able to recognise how psychological studies of a specific area can be applied to other scenarios
in everyday life.

These concepts are embedded in the syllabus through the studies and topics chosen.

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2. How you will be assessed

Cambridge International AS Psychology makes up the first half of the Cambridge International A Level course in
Psychology and provides a foundation for the study of Psychology at Cambridge International A Level.

About the examinations

There are three routes you can take for Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology:
Route Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3 Paper 4

1 AS Level only yes yes no no

(Candidates take all AS
components in the same exam
series)

2 A Level (staged over two years) yes yes no no

Year 1 AS Level*

Year 2 Complete the A Level no no yes yes

3 A Level yes yes yes yes

(Candidates take all components in
the same exam series)

Find out from your teacher which papers you will be taking, and when you will be taking them.

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About the papers

The table below gives you further information about the examination papers:

Component Time and Skills assessed Details Percentage of

marks total marks

Paper 1 1 hour 30 AO1 Knowledge and Section A: Short answer 50% of AS

Approaches, minutes understanding questions based on core Level
Issues and 60 marks AO2 Application studies. 25% of A Level
Debates Section B: Extended response
AO3 Analysis and evaluation
and essay questions, based on
core studies.

Paper 2 1 hour 30 AO1 Knowledge and Section A: Short answer 50% of AS

Research minutes understanding questions, and scenario-based Level
Methods 60 marks AO2 Application questions. 25% of A Level
AO3 Analysis and evaluation Section B: A planning question
divided into several parts.

Paper 3 1 hour 30 AO1 Knowledge and Candidates answer questions 25% of A Level
Specialist minutes understanding from two specialist options.
Options: 60 marks AO2 Application
Approaches,
AO3 Analysis and evaluation
Issues and
Debates

Paper 4 1 hour 30 AO1 Knowledge and Section A: Candidates answer 25% of A Level
Specialist minutes understanding questions from two specialist
Options: 60 marks AO2 Application options.
Application Section B: A planning question
AO3 Analysis and evaluation
and Research divided into several parts.
Methods

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3. What skills will be assessed?

The examiners will take account of the following assessment objectives (AOs) in the examinations.

Component What does the AO mean? AO as percentage for each

component

AO1 Knowledge and This AO is about demonstrating knowledge and Paper 1 (53% of marks)
understanding understanding of: Paper 2 (22% of marks)
• psychological terminology, concepts, theories, Paper 3 (26% of marks)
studies, evidence and methodology including
Paper 4 (26% of marks)
research methods, issues and debates
• the theoretical, ethical and practical considerations
that influence the planning and conduct of
psychological research
• psychological techniques used by psychologists in
everyday life.

AO2 Application This AO is about using knowledge and understanding Paper 1 (17% of marks)
of psychology, as listed above, so that it can be applied Paper 2 (50% of marks)
to a range of scenarios. Scenarios could be familiar or
Paper 3 (26% of marks)
unfamiliar and may be taken from a range of everyday life
or theoretical contexts. Paper 4 (44% of marks)
This includes:
• explaining how psychology is applicable to a
particular scenario, context or issue
• using and applying information in words or using
other forms of presentation
• using relevant psychology to support points or
develop arguments
• demonstrating awareness of the links between
psychology used to support points or develop
arguments
• using knowledge and understanding to plan an
investigation.

AO3 Analysis and This AO is about analysing and evaluating psychological Paper 1 (30% of marks)
evaluation concepts, theories, studies, evidence and methodology in Paper 2 (28% of marks)
terms of issues and debates. This includes:
Paper 3 (48% of marks)
• recognising bias in psychological data, research and
Paper 4 (30% of marks)
studies
• explaining the strengths and weaknesses of
psychological concepts, theories, studies and
methodology and of candidates’ plans for
investigations
• being able to use a range and/or variety of evidence
to demonstrate the complexity of psychological
issues and debates
• reaching conclusions about arguments based on a
reasoned consideration of available evidence.

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It is important that you know the different weightings (%) of the assessment objectives, as this affects how the
examiner will assess your work.

Assessment objectives Weighting in AS Level % Weighting in A Level %

AO1 Knowledge and understanding 35 30

AO2 Application 35 35

AO3 Analysis and evaluation 30 35

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Learner Guide

4. Example response

This section takes you through a question and example response to Specimen Paper 1 Question 10. It will help you
to see how to identify the command words within questions and to understand what is required in your response.
Understanding the questions will help you to know what you need to do with your knowledge. For example, you might
need to state something, calculate something, find something or show something.

All information and advice in this section is specific to the example question and response being demonstrated. It
should give you an idea of how your responses might be viewed by an examiner, but it is not a list of what to do in all
questions. In your own examination, you will need to pay careful attention to what each question is asking you to do.

This section is structured as follows.

Question
Command words have been highlighted and their meaning
explained. This will help you to understand clearly what is
required.

Example response
This is a sample answer written by Cambridge of a middle
standard. Good points and problems have been highlighted.

How the answer could be improved

This summarises what could be done to gain more marks.

Common mistakes and guidance

This will help you to avoid common mistakes made by
candidates. So often, candidates lose marks in their exams
because they misread or misinterpret the questions.

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Question 10 Evaluate is the command word here. The

Evaluate the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) question clearly tells you that you will have
in terms of two strengths and two weaknesses. At least one of your to make some judgement about the study
evaluation points must be about generalisations. named in the question – in this case HÖlzel
et al. The question then tells you how the
command word is to be used – in this case
Example response two strengths and two weaknesses are
The study by Hölzel et al. used an experiment. Using an needed in the entire answer. There is further
experiment is an advantage for the researcher because guidance given at the very end as we tell you
they can tell cause and effect, showing the influence of that at least one of your evaluation points
one variable on the other in this case mindfulness on must be about generalisations.
brain plasticity.

Another strength of this study is that it used a The strength provided is correct, and a brief
longitudinal design which retested the participants. context provided that is linked to the study.
This meant researchers could wait for the mindfulness
intervention to have an effect on participant brain
plasticity and changes weren’t because of using lots of A valid strength is raised and provides some
different participants like in a cross-sectional study. depth in terms of adding context from the
study.
Lab experiments also have a standardised procedure
with high levels of controls so it can be replicated and
tested for reliability. This is a correct third strength of the study,
but does not give context of Hölzel et al.
On the other hand, the experiment had some ethical
issues which could be a weakness. They used an MRI
scanner which is noisy and a small space which could A correct weakness is raised and provides
be stressful for some participants, so the participants depth with an example from the study.
weren’t protected from harm in fact two participants
were so uncomfortable they withdrew from the study.

Generalisability was a problem for this study because all

the participants were right-handed. This could make The requirements of the named issue is
generalisations difficult because right-handed people fulfilled and explained well in context,
might use their brains in different ways to left-handed referring to detail from the results
people. So, if the mindfulness causes brain changes and indicating why it is an issue for
for the right-handed participants, this result can’t be generalisation.
generalised to left-handed people as well.

Mark awarded = 7 out of 10

How the answer could be improved

• The response needed to ensure that every evaluative comment was situated in the context of the study by
Hölzel et al. If the answer is written in a way that can be applied to more than one study, then it is not in context
and can only be awarded partial credit.
• The response needed to aim for four evaluative points: two strengths and two weaknesses, including the named
issue.
• Each evaluation point needed to follow a logical progression to be able to get into the Level 5 marking band.
• For each evaluative point, the strength/weakness needed to be identified and then described what this means.
• Evidence from the study needed to be used to demonstrate understanding of why the chosen comment is a
strength/weakness.
• Each evaluation point needed to be explained as to why it is a strength/weakness, e.g. why does it reduce
ecological validity, or why can it be easily replicated.

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Learner Guide

Common mistakes and guidance

• Describing the study is not creditworthy on its own. The question requires evaluation and marks are awarded for
providing strengths and weaknesses.
• Not covering two strengths and two weaknesses in the answer.
• Covering more than two strengths and two weaknesses in little or no depth, e.g. a list or grid simply stating ‘+/–’.
• Not including the named issue in the answer as either a strength or weakness (it can be both a strength and
weakness, if applicable). The named issue must be included to access the Level 4 or Level 5 marking band.
• Not putting each of the evaluation points into context – if the point made is generic and/or can be applied to many
studies it will not be considered to be in detail.

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 Learner Guide

5. Revision and preparation

This advice will help you revise and prepare for the examinations. It is divided into general advice and specific advice
for each of the papers.

Use the tick boxes to keep a record of what you have done, what you plan to do or what you understand.

General advice
Before the examination
Find out when the examinations are and plan your revision, so you have enough time for each topic. A revision
timetable will help you.

Find out how long each paper is, questions you must answer.

Know the meaning of the command words used in questions and how to apply them to the information given.
Highlight the command words in past papers and check what they mean using the list provided in the syllabus.

Make revision notes; try different styles of notes.

Work for short periods then have a break. Revise small sections of the syllabus at a time.

Build your confidence by practising questions on each of the topics.

Make sure you practise lots of past examination questions so that you are familiar with the format of the
examination papers. You could time yourself when doing a paper so that you know how quickly you need to work
in the real examination.

Look at mark schemes to help you to understand how the marks are awarded for each question

Make sure you are familiar with the mathematical notation that you need for this syllabus. Your teacher will be able
to advise you on what is expected.

During the examination

Read the instructions carefully and answer all the questions that you are instructed to answer. Do not leave out
questions or parts of questions. Remember, no answer means no mark.

Check the number of marks for each question or part question. This helps you to judge how long you should be
spending answering each question, so you do not run out of time.

Use any time you have left in the examination to review your answers and return to any questions you have not
answered.

For questions that are worth higher marks and require a longer answer, consider planning your answer before you
start writing.

You do not have to answer the questions in the order they are printed in the answer booklet. You may be able to do
a later question more easily, then come back to an earlier one for another try.

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Learner Guide

Read each question very carefully:

• Identify the command words – you could underline or highlight them.
• Identify the other key words and perhaps underline them too.
• Try to put the question into your own words to understand what it is really asking.

Read all parts of a question before starting your answer. Think carefully about what is needed for each part. You
will not need to repeat material.

Look very carefully at the information you are given.

• For graphs and/or tables, read the title, key, axes, etc. to find out exactly what they show.
• Try using coloured pencils or pens to pick out key information in the question.

Answer the question. It is important to use your knowledge and understanding of psychology throughout each
answer.

Do not cross out any work until you have replaced it by trying again. Even if you know it’s not correct, you may still
be able to get method marks. If you have made two or more attempts, make sure you cross out all except the one
you want marked.

Use psychological terms in your answers when possible.

Make sure all your numbers are clear, for example make sure your ‘1’ does not look like a ‘7’.

If you need to change a word or a number, or even a sign (+ to – for example), it is better to cross out your work and
rewrite it. Do not try to write over the top of your previous work as it will be difficult to read, and you may not get
the marks.

Avoid writing your answers in the columns of the page. The answer spaces provided correspond to the number of
marks each question is worth. If you require extra space, please use a continuation booklet.

Advice for Paper 1

Remember that the characteristics of a sample refer to participant variables such as age, gender, nationality etc.

The features of a sample include the characteristics of the sample, as well as the sampling technique (how
participants were recruited).

For results, a meaningful comparison is needed to gain full marks (e.g. comparing one group to another group of
participants).

A conclusion should be based on the results but should not contain any actual results.

When describing the debates, you must label each side of your description (e.g. nature versus nurture - you must
tell the examiner which is nature, and which is nurture).

If a question ends with ‘…in this study’ then it is expected that you use an example from the study as part of your
answer.

In the extended response ensure that you write about two strengths and two weaknesses using examples from the
named study. You must ensure at least one of your evaluation points is the named issue in the question.

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Advice for Paper 2

Practise using psychological terms and concepts for designing, analysing, or evaluating when answering questions
that contain unfamiliar/novel material.

If a question ends with ‘…in this study’ or makes a direct reference to a scenario, use an example or evidence from
the study as part of your answer.

When referring to the unfamiliar/novel scenario, your answer must be meaningful. For example, rather than just
repeating the name of the person from the scenario, explain what it is about their situation that makes your
answer relevant.

If a question asks for you to mention two concepts, e.g. similarities and differences, both need to be included.

If a question only asks for only one concept, do not waste time writing about what is not required. If you are told
not to refer to a concept in your answer, avoid doing so, e.g. ‘Do not refer to ethics in your answer’.

You will be required to design an original study for a novel research question. This is a creative process and
requires practice. You can develop this skill by:
• Thinking about possible studies on day-to-day psychology questions, such as ‘Do males and females differ in
behaviour X?’ or ‘Is there a correlation between cognition Y and emotion Z?’
• Try to imagine different research methods being used to investigate a range of questions.

You also need to be able to identify practical/methodological and ethical strengths and weaknesses of your
designs. Consider:
• Would the results be valid and reliable in real life?
• If not, why not?
• What could be done about the problem?

Your evaluation of study design must be directly relevant to the actual procedure you have described or has been
presented to you in the scenario provided. This is the difference between a ‘generic’ and a ‘specific/linked’ answer.

Advice for Paper 3

Ensure you only answer questions from the two options that you have studied at A Level from the four Specialist
Options that are listed in the answer booklet.

Make sure you know the five topic areas from within each of the two options you have studied from the syllabus.
You will need to know which studies, theories, research methods, issues and debates go with each.

Practise evaluation/analysis for several issues for every bullet point (e.g. reductionism, determinism, study issues
like validity, ethics), rather than just learning the content. This will help you to ‘think like a psychologist’ and
become more skilled at applying your knowledge.

When evaluating issues and debates, practise writing more in-depth answers. Use specific examples to support the
points you make in your answer rather than giving generic statements like ‘the sample was unrepresentative’, as
this could be applied to many studies.

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Learner Guide

Advice for Paper 4

Ensure that for Section A you answer all the questions for both options you have studied.

Ensure that for Section B you answer the question for only one of the options you have studied.

When evaluating one strength and one weaknesses for four marks, two marks maximum will be available for the
strength and two mark maximum for the weakness.

Pay attention to what each question requires so you avoid writing too much or not enough. If a question requires
you to explain one weakness but you write about more than one, only the highest scoring weakness will earn you
marks.

In the 10 mark ‘Plan a study’ questions, ensure that you cover the main features of the research method presented
in the question (or for one you have chosen if the question does not specify one).

In the 10 mark ‘Plan a study’ questions, you should include general features when answering about any method
such as sample, sampling technique, ethics, types of data, reliability, and validity.

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Revision checklists
In the next part of this guide we have provided some revision checklists. These include information from the syllabus that you should revise. They don’t contain all the detailed
knowledge you need to know, just an overview. For more detail see the syllabus and talk to your teacher.

The table headings are explained below:

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Here is a list of the topics Here are some suggestions of how to You can use the tick boxes to show when you have You can:
you need to cover and practise your skills revised an item and how confident you feel about • add more information about the details for
work on. it. each point
R = RED means you are really unsure and lack • add additional notes
confidence; you might want to focus your revision
• include a reference to a useful resource
here and possibly talk to your teacher for help
• highlight areas of difficulty or things that
A = AMBER means you are reasonably confident
you need to talk to your teacher about or
but need some extra practice
look up in a textbook.
G = GREEN means you are very confident.
As your revision progresses, you can concentrate
on the RED and AMBER items in order to turn them
into GREEN items. You might find it helpful to
highlight each topic in red, orange or green to help
you prioritise.

Note: the tables below cannot contain absolutely everything you need to know, but it does use examples wherever it can.

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Learner Guide

Paper 1 Approaches, Issues and Debates

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Biological approach • outline two main assumptions of the biological approach.

Dement and Kleitman • the psychology that is being investigated

(sleep and dreams) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Hassett et al. (monkey toy • the psychology that is being investigated

preferences) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.
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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Hölzel et al. (mindfulness • the psychology that is being investigated

and brain scans) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Cognitive approach • outline the main assumptions of the cognitive approach.

Andrade (doodling) • the psychology that is being investigated

• the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Baron-Cohen et al. • the psychology that is being investigated

(eyes test) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) • the psychology that is being investigated

• the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Learning approach • outline the main assumptions of the learning approach.

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 Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Bandura et al. (aggression) • the psychology that is being investigated

• the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Fagen et al. (elephant • the psychology that is being investigated

learning) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Saavedra and Silverman • the psychology that is being investigated

(button phobia) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Social approach • outline the main assumptions of the social approach.

Milgram (obedience) • the psychology that is being investigated

• the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

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 Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Perry et al. (personal • the psychology that is being investigated

space) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

Piliavin et al. (subway • the psychology that is being investigated

Samaritans) • the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant
quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could
be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the
study
• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues
and debates.

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Issues and debates consider in relation to each of the core studies, the following
issues, and debates:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• the use of animals in psychological research.

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 Learner Guide

Paper 2 Research Methods

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Experiments describe the main features of each type of experiment:

• laboratory
• field

evaluate each type of experiment, in terms of:

• reliability
• validity
• ethics

• describe and evaluate experimental designs as used in

psychological research (independent measures, matched
pairs, and repeated measures)
• describe and evaluate concepts relating to experimental
designs including counterbalancing, random allocation,
order effects (fatigue and practice)
• evaluate the use of experiments in psychological
research, including the use of experimental and control
group / control conditions
• apply knowledge of experiments to a given novel
research scenario.

Self reports describe the main features of each type of self-report:

• questionnaire, including technique (paper and pencil/
online) and question format (open and closed questions)
• interview, including format structured/unstructured/
semi-structured), technique (telephone/face-to-face) and
question format (open and closed questions)

• evaluate the use of self-reports in psychological research

• apply knowledge of self-reports to a given novel research
scenario.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Case studies • describe the case study method, including the main
features: a single participant/unit; studied in detail
• evaluate the use of case studies in psychological research
• apply knowledge of case studies to a given novel
research scenario.

Observations • describe the main features of an observation (e.g. overt/

covert, participant/non-participant,
• structured/unstructured, naturalistic/controlled)
• evaluate the use of observations in psychological
research
• apply knowledge of observations to a given novel
research scenario.

Correlations • describe correlations, positive and negative correlations,

and strength of correlations
• identify and give operational definitions for co-variables
(measured variables)
• evaluate the use of correlations in psychological
research, including lack of causality
• apply knowledge of correlations to a given novel research
scenario.

Longitudinal studies • describe longitudinal studies, including experiments with

longitudinal designs
• evaluate the use of longitudinal studies, including
experiments with longitudinal designs
• apply knowledge of longitudinal studies, including
experiments with longitudinal designs, to a given novel
research scenario

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Aims and hypotheses • describe and write aims

• describe and recognise null hypotheses and alternative
hypotheses including directional (one-tailed) and non-
directional (two-tailed) hypotheses.

Variables • describe what is meant by an independent variable and a

dependent variable
• describe how dependent variables can be measured
• identify independent variables and dependent variables
in studies
• understand what is meant by an ‘operational definition’

operationalise:
• an independent variable
• a dependent variable

• apply knowledge of variables to a novel research

situation.

Controlling variables • describe how psychologists can control variables (use

‘controls’) in a study
• understand control of variables / standardisation of a
procedure
• understand uncontrolled, participant, and situational
variables
• apply knowledge of control of variables (‘controls’) to a
novel research situation.

Types of data • describe what is meant by quantitative and qualitative

data and subjective and objective data
• evaluate the use of types of data as collected in
psychological research
• apply knowledge of types of data to a novel research
situation.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Sampling of participants • describe what is meant by the sample and population,

and the sampling techniques of opportunity sampling,
random sampling, and volunteer (self-selecting) sampling
• evaluate different sampling techniques as used in
psychological research, including generalisations
• apply knowledge of sampling techniques to a novel
research situation.

Ethics describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research,

in relation to human participants:
• minimising harm (and maximising benefit)
• valid consent including informed consent
• right to withdraw
• lack of deception
• confidentiality
• privacy
• debriefing

describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research,

in relation to animals:
• minimising harm (and maximising benefit)
• replacement
• species
• numbers
• procedures:
– pain, suffering and distress
– housing
– reward, deprivation, and aversive stimuli

• evaluate studies based on ethical guidelines

• apply knowledge of ethical guidelines to a novel research
situation.

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Validity • describe validity, including ecological validity

evaluate studies based on their validity:

• subjectivity /objectivity
• demand characteristics
• generalisability

• apply knowledge of validity to a novel research situation.

Reliability and replicability • describe different types of reliability, including inter-rater

and inter-observer reliability, test-retest reliability
• evaluate studies based on their reliability
• apply knowledge of reliability to a given novel research
situation
• understand replicability
• apply understanding of replicability to the planning of
studies.

Data analysis • present and interpret data in tables

• understand the meaning of ‘measure of central tendency’

name, recognise and know how to find measures of central

tendency:
• mode
• median (no calculation necessary)
• mean (no calculation necessary)

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understand the meaning of ‘measure of spread’

• name, recognise and know how to find range
• recognise, interpret, and understand standard deviation

name, recognise, draw, change and interpret data from a:

• bar chart
• histogram
• scatter graph.

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Paper 3 Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and Debates and Paper 4 Specialist Options: Applications and Research
Methods
This checklist is for all four options available for A Level Psychology. Remember to only complete the checklists for the two options that you have studied at A Level.

Clinical Psychology
Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Schizophrenia Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia

• diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of schizophrenia, including
symptoms (positive and negative). A case study of
schizophrenia.
• types of delusions focusing on investigating delusions
using virtual reality

Freeman et al. (2003)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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Schizophrenia Explanations of schizophrenia

continued biological explanations:
• genetic
• biochemical (the dopamine hypothesis).

• psychological (cognitive) explanation

Treatment and management of schizophrenia

biological treatments:
• biochemical including typical and atypical
antipsychotics.
• electro-convulsive therapy.

• psychological therapy: cognitive-behavioural therapy,

including a study, e.g. Sensky et al. (2000).

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Mood (affective) disorders: Diagnostic criteria for mood (affective) disorders

depressive disorder • diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of mood disorders: depressive
(unipolar) and bipolar disorder (unipolar) and bipolar disorders including manic
disorder and depressive episodes.
• measure of depression: Beck depression inventory

Explanations of mood (affective) disorders: depressive

disorder (unipolar)
biological explanations:
• biochemical
• genetic (exemplified by the following key study).

Oruč et al. (1997)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

psychological explanations:
• Beck’s cognitive theory of depression
• learned helplessness/attributional style, including a
study, e.g. Seligman et al. (1988).

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Mood (affective) disorders: Treatment and management of mood (affective) disorders

depressive disorder • biological treatments including the use of anti-
(unipolar) and bipolar depressants (tricyclics, MAOIs and SSRIs).
disorder
continued psychological therapies:
• Beck’s cognitive restructuring
• Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).

Impulse control disorders Diagnostic criteria for impulse control disorders

diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of impulse control disorders:
• kleptomania
• pyromania
• gambling disorder.

• measure of impulse control disorders: Kleptomania

Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS).

Explanations of impulse control disorders

• biological explanation: dopamine.

psychological explanations:
• behavioural: positive reinforcement
• cognitive: Miller’s feeling-state theory.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Impulse control disorders Treatment and management of impulse control disorders

continued • biological treatments (exemplified by the following key
study).

Grant et al. (2008)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

psychological (cognitive-behavioural) therapies including:

• covert sensitisation, including a study, e.g. Glover (1985)
• imaginal desensitisation, including a study, e.g.
Blaszczynski and Nower (2003).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Anxiety disorders and fear- Diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders and fear-related
related disorders disorders
diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of anxiety disorders and fear-
related disorders:
• generalised anxiety disorder
• agoraphobia
• specific phobia (blood-injection-injury).

measures of anxiety and fear-related disorders:

• Generalised Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7).
• the blood injection phobia inventory (BIPI), including a
study, e.g. Mas et al. (2010).

Explanations of fear-related disorders

• biological explanation: genetic, including a study,
e.g. Öst (1992).

psychological explanations:
• behavioural (classical conditioning), including a study,
e.g. Watson and Rayner (1920) ‘Little Albert’
• psychodynamic, including a study, e.g. Freud (1909)
‘Little Hans’

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Anxiety disorders and fear- Treatment and management of anxiety disorders and
related disorders fear-related disorders
continued • behavioural therapy: systematic desensitisation applied
to any fear-related disorder.

psychological therapy
• cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)
• applied tension focusing on treating blood/injection/
injury phobia.

Chapman and DeLapp (2013)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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Obsessive-compulsive Diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder

disorder (OCD) diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder (ICD-11)
focusing on types of obsessions and
• compulsions, including a study, e.g. Rapoport (1989)
‘Charles’.

measures:
• Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI)
• Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS).

Explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder

biological explanations:
• biochemical
• genetic.

psychological explanations:
• cognitive (thinking error)
• behavioural (operant conditioning)
• psychodynamic.

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Obsessive-compulsive Treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive

disorder (OCD) disorder
continued • biological treatments including the use of SSRIs.

psychological therapies including:

• exposure and response prevention (ERP), including a
study, e.g. Lehmkuhl et al. (2008)
• cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)

Lovell et al. (2006)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

Issues and debates consider in relation to each of the specialist options, as

appropriate:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• cultural differences
• reductionism versus holism
• determinism versus free-will
• idiographic versus nomothetic.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Research methods (in Experiments

addition to Paper 2 • describe and evaluate the main features of randomised
content) control trials.

Questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of postal questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of rating scales; forced/
fixed choice.

Psychometric tests
• describe and evaluate psychometric tests.

Hypotheses
• write and apply knowledge of null hypotheses and
alternative directional (one-tailed) and non-directional
(two-tailed) hypotheses.

Validity
• describe and evaluate studies based on their validity,
including temporal validity.

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Consumer Psychology

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

The physical environment Retail store design

• types of store exterior design including storefront,
window displays and landscaping, including a study,
e.g. Mower et al. (2012).
• types of store interior design including grid, freeform and
racetrack layouts; use of virtual store layouts, including a
study, e.g. Vrechopoulos et al. (2004).

Sound and consumer behaviour

• music in restaurants focusing on how background music
influences the amount spent on food and drink

North et al. (2003)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.
• background noise focusing on how sound and noise
affect the perception of food taste including reasons why
sound influences taste, including a study, e.g. Woods et
al. (2011) study 1 or study 2.

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The physical environment Retail atmospherics

continued • model of effects of ambience: Mehrabian and Russell’s
pleasure-arousal-dominance (PAD) model.
• the effects of odour on shopper pleasure-arousal-
dominance, including a study, e.g. Chebat and Michon
(2003).
• the effects of crowding on shopper pleasure-arousal-
dominance, including a study, e.g. Machleit et al. (2000)
study 1 or study 2.

The psychological Environmental influences on consumers

environment • wayfinding in shopping malls; factors affecting
wayfinding such as signs and you are here maps,
including a study, e.g. Dogu and Erkip (2000).
• shopper behaviour focusing on spatial movement
patterns including types of trip (short, round, central and
wave) and the five types of spatial behaviour patterns
(specialist, native, tourist, explorer, raider); the use of
CCTV tracking, including a study, e.g. Gil et al. (2009).

Menu design psychology

• menu design focusing on the features of menu design
which have positive and negative impacts and ways to
study this, including the use of eye-tracking, e.g. Pavesic
(2005).
• the effect of primacy and recency and menu item
position on menu item choice, including a study,
e.g. Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011).
• the effect of food name on menu item choice, including a
study, e.g. Lockyer (2006).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

The psychological Consumer behaviour and personal space

environment • personal space at restaurant tables including Hall’s
continued four zones; functions such as overload, arousal, and
behaviour constraint (exemplified by the following key
study).

Robson et al. (2011)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

• defending place in a queue including nature of intrusion,

number of intrusions, social structure of a queue,
responses of people queuing, including a study, e.g.
Milgram et al. (1986).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Consumer decision- Consumer decision-making

making • models of consumer decision-making focusing on
explanations and examples of utility theory, satisficing,
prospect theory.
• strategies of consumer decision-making focusing on
explanations and examples of compensatory, non-
compensatory and partially compensatory strategies
including explanations and examples of each.
• decision-making strategies applied to internet shopping
focusing on website design, including a study, e.g.
Jedetski et al (2002).

Choice heuristics
• heuristics focusing on availability, representativeness,
recognition, take-the-best, and anchoring, including
explanations and examples of each.
• point of purchase decisions including multiple unit
pricing and suggestive selling, including a study, e.g.
Wansink et al. (1998).
• applying heuristics to decision-making styles, including a
study, e.g. del Campo et al. (2016).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Consumer decision- Mistakes in decision-making

making • thinking fast and thinking slow/system 1 and system 2
continued including explanations and examples of each,
e.g. Shleifer (2012).
• choice blindness, preferences and defending a choice

Hall et al. (2010)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

• consumer memory for advertising including how

retroactive and proactive interference affect memory,
including a study, e.g. Burke and Srull (1988).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

The product Packaging and positioning of a product

• gift-wrapping including beliefs of giver and recipient: why
gifts are wrapped, types of wrapping.
• food package design

Becker et al. (2011)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as
appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

• attention and shelf position including planograms,

central gaze cascade effect, use of eye-tracking,
including a study, e.g. Atalay et al. (2012).

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The product Selling the product

continued • sales techniques focusing on customer-focused,
competitor-focused, product-focused techniques
including effect of each on buyer–seller relationship.
• interpersonal influence techniques; focusing on disrupt-
then-reframe including the need for cognitive closure
and factors affecting the need for cognitive closure,
including a study, e.g. Kardes et al. (2007).
• Cialdini’s six ways to close a sale.

Buying the product

• the Engel Kollat Blackwell model of buyer decision-
making.
• deciding where to buy including reasons for store choice
and demographics such as age and gender, including a
study, e.g. Sinha et al. (2002).
• post-purchase cognitive dissonance including factors
that can increase dissonance and ways to reduce
dissonance, including a study, e.g. Nordvall (2014).

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Advertising Types of advertising and advertising techniques

• the Yale model of communication including five features.
• advertising media including types of advertising media:
printed, television, internet, and smartphone; use of
eye-tracking and EEG, including a study, e.g. Ciceri et al.
(2020).
• Lauterborn’s 4 Cs marketing mix model.

Advertising – consumer interaction

• advertising and consumer personality including self-
monitoring

Snyder and DeBono (1985)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

• how product placement in films affects choice including

examples and explanations for choice, such as mere
exposure and reminders, including a study, e.g. Auty and
Lewis (2004).

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Advertising Brand awareness and recognition

continued • brand recognition in children including how children
acquire an understanding of advertising via logo
recognition, including a study, e.g. Fischer et al. (1991).
• brand awareness, brand image and effective slogans
including types and function of slogans; guidelines for
creating effective slogans, e.g. Kohli et al. (2007).

Issues and debates consider in relation to each of the specialist options, as

appropriate:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• cultural differences
• reductionism versus holism
• determinism versus free-will
• idiographic versus nomothetic.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Research methods (in Experiments

addition to Paper 2 • describe and evaluate the main features of randomised
content) control trials.

Questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of postal questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of rating scales; forced/
fixed choice.

Psychometric tests
• describe and evaluate psychometric tests.

Hypotheses
• write and apply knowledge of null hypotheses and
alternative directional (one-tailed) and non-directional
(two-tailed) hypotheses.

Validity
• describe and evaluate studies based on their validity,
including temporal validity.

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Health Psychology

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

The patient–practitioner Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills

relationship • non-verbal communications with a focus on practitioner
clothing, including a study, e.g. McKinstry and Wang
(1991).
• verbal communications with a focus on understanding
medical terminology, including a study, e.g. McKinlay
(1975).

Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style

• practitioner diagnosis focusing on making a diagnosis
(disclosure of information, false positive and false
negative diagnosis) and presenting a diagnosis.
• practitioner style: doctor-centred (directed) and patient-
centred (sharing) consultation

Savage and Armstrong (1990)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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The patient–practitioner Misusing health services

relationship delay in seeking treatment:
continued • reasons for delay, including a study, e.g. Safer et al. (1979)
• alternative explanations for delay, e.g. the health belief
model

• Munchausen syndrome versus malingering. Diagnostic

features of Munchausen (essential and supporting
features), including a study, e.g. Aleem and Ajarim (1995).

Adherence to medical Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients do not

advice adhere
• types of non-adherence (failure to follow treatments and
failure to attend appointments) and problems caused by
non-adherence.

explanations of why patients do not adhere:

• rational non-adherence, including a study, e.g. Laba et al.
(2012)
• Health Belief Model.

Measuring non-adherence
• subjective measures including clinical interviews and
semi-structured interviews, including a study,
e.g. Riekert and Drotar (1999).
• objective measures focusing on pill counting and
medication dispensers, including a study, e.g. Chung and
Naya (2000).
• biological measures including blood and urine samples.

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Adherence to medical Improving adherence

advice • improving adherence in children including a study,
continued e.g. Chaney et al. (2004).
• individual behavioural techniques: contracts, prompts,
customising treatment.
• community interventions

Yokley and Glenwick (1984)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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Pain Types and theories of pain

• functions of pain; types of pain: acute and chronic pain.
Focus on phantom limb pain and mirror treatment to
include a case study, e.g. MacLachlan et al. (2004).
• theories of pain: specificity theory, gate control theory.

Measuring pain
• subjective measures including clinical interview.

psychometric measures and visual rating scales:

• McGill pain questionnaire
• visual analogue scale

Brudvik et al. (2016)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

Managing and controlling pain

• biological treatment: biochemical.
• psychological treatments: cognitive strategies (attention
diversion, non-pain imagery and cognitive redefinition).
• alternative treatments: acupuncture; stimulation
therapy/TENS.

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Stress Sources of stress

• physiology of stress: the GAS Model and effects of stress
on health.
• causes of stress: Holmes and Rahe’s life events, work
including a study, e.g. Chandola et al. (2008) and
Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A personality

Measures of stress
biological measures:
• recording devices for heart rate and brain function (fMRI),
including a study, e.g. Wang et al. (2005)
• sample tests for salivary cortisol, including a study,
e.g. Evans and Wener (2007).

• psychological measures: self-report questionnaires,

including tests of Friedman and Rosenman’s Type
A personality and Holmes and Rahe’s life events
questionnaire.

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Stress Managing stress

continued • psychological therapy: biofeedback, including a study,
e.g., Budzynski et al. (1969).
• use of imagery to reduce stress

Bridge et al. (1988)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

• preventing stress: three phases of stress inoculation

training.

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Health promotion Strategies for promoting health

• fear arousal: use of fear to improve health, including a
study, e.g. Janis and Feshbach (1953).
• providing information: giving information so people
know how to improve their health, including a study,
e.g. Lewin et al. (1992).

Health promotion in schools and worksites

• schools with a focus on healthy eating, including a study,
e.g. Tapper et al. (2003).
• worksites with a focus on health and safety, including a
study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987).

Individual factors in changing health beliefs

• unrealistic optimism: reason for disregarding positive
health advice, including a study, e.g. Weinstein (1980).
• positive psychology: defining positive psychology Three
focuses: pleasant life, good life, meaningful life, including
a study, e.g. Seligman (2004).
• application of positive psychology

Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Issues and debates consider in relation to each of the specialist options, as

appropriate:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• cultural differences
• reductionism versus holism
• determinism versus free-will
• idiographic versus nomothetic.

Research methods (in Experiments

addition to Paper 2 • describe and evaluate the main features of randomised
content) control trials.

Questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of postal questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of rating scales; forced/
fixed choice.

Psychometric tests
• describe and evaluate psychometric tests.

Hypotheses
• write and apply knowledge of null hypotheses and
alternative directional (one-tailed) and non-directional
(two-tailed) hypotheses.

Validity
• describe and evaluate studies based on their validity,
including temporal validity.

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 Learner Guide

Organisational Psychology

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Motivation to work Need theories

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs including five needs,
including a study, e.g. Saeednia (2011).
• McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation including
need for achievement, affiliation, and power.

Cognitive theories
• Latham and Locke’s goal-setting theory including goal-
setting principles and SMART goals.
• Vroom’s VIE (expectancy) theory.

Motivators at work
• extrinsic motivators at work: types of reward systems
including pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance-
related pay.
• intrinsic motivators at work: non-monetary rewards
including praise, respect, recognition, empowerment,
and a sense of belonging.
• Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory including
competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Landry et al. (2019) key study:

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as
appropriate, such as the research method(s) used, sample
size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique
[if known], procedure, technique for data collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Leadership and Traditional and modern theories of leadership

management • universalist theories including great person, charismatic,
and transformational leaders.
• behavioural theories including Ohio University and
Michigan University behavioural explanations.
• Heifetz’s six principles in meeting adaptive challenges;
responsibilities of an adaptive leader.

Leadership style
• Muczyk and Reimann’s four styles of leader behaviour.
• Scouller’s levels of leadership including public, private,
and personal levels
• leadership style and gender

Cuadrado et al. (2008)

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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 Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Leadership and Leaders and followers

management • Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory
continued including five practices.
• Kelley’s (1988) followership including definition of
followership, two dimensions and five followership
styles.

Group behaviour in Group development and decision-making

organisations • stages of group development, e.g. Tuckman and Jensen
(2010).
• Belbin’s nine team roles.

faulty decision-making, explanations, and strategies to

avoid it:
• groupthink including features with examples
• Forsyth’s cognitive limitations and errors including types
and subtypes.

Individual and group performance

• individual and group performance focusing on social
facilitation and social loafing including definitions, drive
theory and evaluation apprehension, social impact
theory.
• group performance across cultures focusing on social
loafing in individualistic and collectivist cultures,
including a study, e.g. Earley (1993).
• performance monitoring of employee productivity

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Group behaviour in Claypoole and Szalma (2019)

organisations • the context of the study and relationship to other studies
continued • the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

Conflict at work
• levels of group conflict (intra-individual, inter-individual,
intra-group, and inter-group). Causes of organisational
and interpersonal group conflict.
• Thomas–Kilmann’s five conflict-handling modes.
• bullying at work; types, phases, and causes, including a
study, e.g. Einarsen (1999).

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 Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Organisational work Physical work conditions

conditions • impact of physical work conditions on productivity and
the Hawthorne effect, e.g. Kompier (2006).
• impact of the design of the work environment focusing
on open plan offices, including a study, e.g. Oldham and
Brass (1979).

Temporal conditions of work environments

• design of work: shiftwork: rapid rotation and slow
rotation, on-call and flexitime including definitions and
examples of each.
• effects of shiftwork on health and accidents, including a
study, e.g. Gold et al. (1992).

Health and safety

• accidents at work focusing on human errors (errors of
omission, commission, sequencing, and timing) and
system errors in operator–machine systems (machine
controls and displays).
• reducing accidents at work: token economy, including a
study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987).
• monitoring accidents

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Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Organisational work Swat (1997)

conditions • the context of the study and relationship to other studies
continued • the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

Satisfaction at work Theories of job satisfaction

• theories of job satisfaction: Herzberg’s two factor theory
including hygiene and motivational factors.
• Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics theory
including job characteristics and psychological states.
• techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation, and
enlargement, e.g. Belias and Sklikas, (2013).

Measuring job-satisfaction
• job satisfaction rating scales and questionnaires focusing
on the job descriptive index (JDI).
• Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) including eight
conditions and QWL evaluation scale.

Attitudes to work
• workplace sabotage including methods and reasons for
sabotage
• Blau and Boal’s absenteeism and organisational
commitment model including types of absence,
categories of commitment.

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 Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Satisfaction at work Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987)

continued • the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology
as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling
technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings, and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

lssues and debates consider in relation to each of the specialist options, as

appropriate:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• cultural differences
• reductionism versus holism
• determinism versus free-will
• idiographic versus nomothetic.

65
Learner Guide

Topic You should be able to R A G Comments

Research methods (in Experiments

addition to Paper 2 • describe and evaluate the main features of randomised
content) control trials.

Questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of postal questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of rating scales; forced/
fixed choice.

Psychometric tests
• describe and evaluate psychometric tests.

Hypotheses
• write and apply knowledge of null hypotheses and
alternative directional (one-tailed) and non-directional
(two-tailed) hypotheses.

Validity
• describe and evaluate studies based on their validity,
including temporal validity.

66
 Learner Guide

6. Useful resources

The endorsed textbook is a useful resource to help you study for your Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology
9990 course.

Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology Coursebook

Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Author: Julia Russell, Lizzie Gauntlett, Amy Papaconstantinou
ISBN: 9781009152488
Published: 2022
Website: www.cambridge.org/education
This accessible print and digital coursebook has been developed from extensive
research with practising teachers. There are multiple opportunities to engage in
active learning such as group work, research projects and discussion questions.
Activities develop learners’ essential skills of analysis, interpretation, application
and evaluation. Exam-style questions build learner confidence. English as a
second language learners are supported with command words, accessible
language and glossary definitions. Regular self-assessment and peer-assessment
features provide reflection opportunities, to develop confident, independent
learners.

Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology Workbook

Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Author: Julia Russell, Lizzie Gauntlett, Amy Papaconstantinou
ISBN: 9781009152433
Published: 2022
Website: www.cambridge.org/education
This workbook with digital access is the perfect companion to the coursebook,
providing learners with valuable practice opportunities. Exercises and questions
help consolidate understanding and knowledge. Learners practice essential
skills of analysis, interpretation, application and evaluation. Novel scenarios
are provided to develop learners’ understanding, as they apply this learning to
new situations. The resource is written in accessible language for English as a
second language learners, with ‘Key words’ and ‘Command words’ features. Key
psychology vocabulary, words and definitions are provided in context.

67
Cambridge Assessment International Education
The Triangle Building, Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge, CB28EA, United Kingdom
t: +44 1223 553554
e: info@cambridgeinternational.org www.cambridgeinternational.org

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