Plays in English Language

Plays are perhaps one of the most entertaining and enjoyable types of literature.
They are literary works that are not just meant to be read but also performed on
stage. Plays can be seen and heard. Hence, a play doesn't just have readers; it has
an audience. But what exactly classifies as a play in literature?

Meaning of a play

The meaning of a play or drama is a literary work written for theatrical performance,
not just reading. It is characterised by direct dialogue between characters with the
addition of stage directions.

Drama: a mode of representing fictional or non-fictional narratives through a

performance before an audience.

Most plays are divided into multiple acts, which are further divided into scenes. In
every scene, characters come on stage to speak their rehearsed lines and are
allowed to move offstage if they are not a part of the plot in certain scenes.
The writer of a play is called a playwright or a dramatist.

A play usually narrates dramatised events with elements of conflict, tension and
action, all of which are solely presented in the form of dialogue, stage directions
and acting. Even thoughts and feelings are presented in the form of conversation
and body language.

Plays have several elements, which include:

● Acts and Scenes

● Characters
● Dialogue
● Plot
● Setting
● Stage directions

The first record of plays comes from Ancient Greece, where Greek playwrights wrote
scripts to compete in national competitions. Early plays fell into the categories of
comedies, tragedies, or satires.
Types of plays in literature

There are many types of plays that exist in literature. However, most plays either fall
into one of these types or are a blend of elements taken from more than one type.

1. Tragedy
Tragedies are a type of play that has an unhappy ending, usually with the
protagonist's death. The tragic hero is a likeable character who, due to a certain
misfortune or fatal flaw, experiences a downfall that ultimately results in their death.
The downfall of a virtuous and heroic character causes the audience to feel
sympathy and empathy and serves as a means of catharsis (relief).

A tragedy is a play that revolves around a tragic hero who causes suffering to
themselves and others because of either an inner flaw or external circumstances
beyond their control. Whether the hero is fighting a human villain, a supernatural
force, or something that symbolises evil, a tragedy’s ending is never happy.
Tragedies are not stories of triumphant victories; they are stories that show us how
difficult life can be but also remind us of the strength we have. Tragedies often have
moral messages. However, some tragedies are more ambiguous and make us
question things without providing a clear answer. In both cases, a tragedy is a drama
that deals with the fundamental theme of what it means to be human.

Othello (1604) by Shakespeare (1564 –1616) is a tragic play where Othello, a noble,
honest and brave general, is exploited by his traitorous ensign Iago into murdering
his wife, Desdemona. Iago uses Othello's jealousy and insecurities against him to
make him believe that Desdemona is cheating on him.

2. Comedy
Comedies are plays that are lighthearted, absurd and humourous and are meant to b
entertaining for audiences. Comedies involve unusual characters who usually get
tangled up in unfortunate yet ridiculous situations. However, comedies are usually
resolved with a happy ending.

History of Comedy Plyas:

● Western Comedy in Classical Rome
In the Classical Roman Period in literature (200 BC–455 CE), the comedies were
adaptations of Greek comedies or Greek tales.

● Comedy in the Renaissance

Commedia dell'arte is a form of comedy that uses improvisation to portray an
ensemble of character tropes: Arlecchino (Harlequin), Innamorati (the lovers),
Pantalone (Pantaloon), Colombina, and Pierrot, among others. The stories told
through commedia dell'arte were usually based on commedia erudita (literary
drama).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_0TAXWt8hY

Comedy thrived in the Renaissance. Commedia dell'arte developed in Italy in the

16th century and it remained popular across Europe until the 18th century. Theatre in
other European countries, such as Britain, Germany and France, used elements and
characters from commedia dell'arte and adapted them into their own cultural
contexts.

● Comedy in the 19th, 20th and 21st Centuries

In the 19th century, the most popular forms of comedy were the ones that involved
the use of slapstick.
Slapstick is a type of humour which tends to be very physical in an exaggerated way.

Vaudeville emerged at the end of the 19th century in France and it soon took over
the rest of Europe and the United States. It was at the height of its popularity until the
1930s. (Vaudeville is a genre of comedy which has the purpose to entertain and
doesn't aim to send a moral message of any kind. Vaudeville performances involve
music and dance.)

Later in the 20th century, in the aftermath of the two world wars, comedy changed
from primarily being a source of entertainment to addressing more serious subjects
such as the meaning of existence. The most prevalent genre that used humour to
question the purpose of human existence is the Theatre of the absurd.

The Theatre of the Absurd is a genre of drama that was started by European
playwrights in the 1950s. Plays in this genre are 'absurd' and seemingly illogical. The
purpose of the plot is not the classic conflict and resolution but an expression of
existentialism that asks questions about the meaning (or lack thereof) of human
existence. Plays categorised within the Theatre of the Absurd usually have a round
narrative structure, meaning that they end in the same way they started.

Nowadays, comedy continues to be a beloved genre for theatre-goers in the West.

When writing a comedy, a contemporary playwright can choose to incorporate
elements from different types of comedy, depending on what is suitable in the
context of their work.

A Midsummer Night's Dream (1600) by Shakespeare is one of the most famous

comedy plays to exist. The play consists of several subplots that are all
interconnected by one event: the marriage of Duke Theseus and Hippolyta. One
subplot involves the chaotic and confusing romantic endeavours of four Athenians
after they flee the Duke's court. Another subplot features a group of men struggling
to put together a play to perform on the wedding day.
 3. Farce
Farces are a subtype of comedies with foolish or absurd characters, exaggerated
circumstances and a nonsensical plotline.

Farce is a comic theatrical work that presents unlikely circumstances, stereotypical

characters, and taboo subjects, along with violence and buffoonery (behaviour that is
ridiculous but amusing) in performance. The term also stands for the category of
dramatic works written or performed in this style.
The chief purpose of a farce is to create laughter and entertain the audience.
Playwrights use different techniques of comedy and performance to achieve this,
often using fast-paced and humorous physical movement, dilemmas, harmless
violence, lies, and deception.

Farce, Satire, Dark comedy: Difference

The key difference between farce and other comic styles like satire and dark or black
comedy is that farce usually lacks the sharp critique and commentary the other
formats are famous for. Black comedy uses humour to present heavy and serious
themes in a humorous manner. Satire uses humour to point out social drawbacks or
flaws in people.

Farce emerged as a vital art form during the Middle Ages in Europe. Farce was a
popular genre during the fifteenth century and the Renaissance, which counters the
common perception of farce as 'low' comedy. It was a crowd-pleaser and also
profited from the advent of the printing press. William Shakespeare (1564–1616) and
the French playwright Molière (1622–1673) relied on elements of farce in their
comedies.

4. Satire
Satires are works of comedy that use sarcasm, irony, imitation and exaggeration to
ridicule or shame an individual, company, government or even society itself. It is a
form of social commentary that makes use of humour to draw attention towards a
certain subject.

Satire is the use of humor, irony, sarcasm, or ridicule to criticize something or

someone. Public figures, such as politicians, are often the subject of satire, but
satirists can take aim at other targets as well—from societal conventions to
government policies. Satire is an entertaining form of social commentary, and it
occurs in many forms: there are satirical novels, poems, and essays, as well as
satirical films, shows, and cartoons. Alec Baldwin's impersonation of Donald Trump
on Saturday Night Live is an example of satire.
Some additional key details about satire:
● Satire is a bit unusual as a literary term because it can be used to describe
both a literary device and the specific genre of literature that makes use of the
device. Just like a comedy is comedic because it uses comedy, a satire is
satirical because it uses satire.
● Satire often coincides with the use of other literary devices, such as irony,
overstatement, understatement, juxtaposition, or parody.
● Though most satires seek to draw laughter, there are many unfunny or even
dark examples of satire, such as George Orwell's Animal Farm or Bret Easton
Ellis's American Psycho, which criticize communist societies and capitalist
societies, respectively.

5. Tragicomedy
As the name suggests, tragicomedy is a literary genre that blends the elements of
both tragedies and comedies. Usually, the term is used to refer to dramas, although
there are a few novels and poems that classify within the tragicomedy genre.

A tragicomedy takes various forms. It could be a twist on the traditional tragedy by

adding comic relief to lighten the mood of a work containing dark and serious subject
matter. Or, it could be a tragedy that just does not have enough death and ends on a
happier note than a classic tragedy.

Tragicomedy allows works of literature to explore depths and paradoxes of human

nature unavailable to traditional comedies and tragedies. People experience
moments of seriousness as well as moments of absurdity, and they both coexist
simultaneously in real life. A tragicomedy touches on this duality. It also explores the
grotesque fascination of human nature, where people are able to find humour in the
downfall of another person, even though it is only in fiction.

Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) by Edmond Rostand (1868-1918) is a tragicomedy play

where the protagonist Cyrano is an accomplished poet, philosopher, scientist and
soldier with great swordsmanship. He is also depicted as being brave, versatile and
loving. However, his tragic flaw is that he is in love with his distant cousin Roxane
and is extremely insecure about his abnormally large nose.

6. Melodrama
A melodrama is a type of play that is sensational, overly dramatic and appeals to the
audience's emotions. The characters in melodramas undergo unrealistic
circumstances and experience strong emotions that are exaggerated.

Melodramas are most recognisable in theatre, and in modern times, on television

and in films. However, some do appear as novels, short stories and even poems.
Elements of melodrama have been incorporated into narratives throughout literary
history. However, the genre of melodrama as we recognise it today emerged in the
late 18th century and early 19th century.

Initially, the pairing of live music and dramatic performance remained popular with
audiences and magnified emotional responses.

Soon, however, writers began creating longer and more dramatic works which
incorporated melodramatic elements like dramatic language, exaggerated situations
and stereotypical characters. These inclusions led to the eventual elimination of
music but still managed to achieve similar powerful reactions from audiences.

By this point, the genre of melodrama was established as its own form of
entertainment. The first English melodrama, Thomas Holcroft's A Tale of Mystery,
was performed in 1802 to major success, cementing the genre's popularity.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's (1712-1778) Pygmalion (1770) is considered to be the

first-ever melodrama to exist. It features the protagonist named Pygmalion, a
sculptor who falls in love with his own sculpture, which later comes to life.

7. Domestic play
Unlike tragedies, comedies and tragicomedies, domestic plays do not deal with the
unrealistic problems of noble and heroic characters from exotic settings. Instead,
they feature the everyday relationships and issues of lower-class and middle-class
characters in a language that mirrors everyday English.

Domestic drama is a theatrical genre of literature that focuses on the relationships

and conflicts within a family or household. These dramas explore the lives of
"ordinary people" in the middle and lower classes. It is a form of drama that delves
into the private lives of characters, exploring their innermost thoughts and emotions.

In literature, domestic drama often features realistic and relatable characters, who
grapple with everyday issues such as love, loss, marriage, and parenting. Its themes
often revolve around the tensions and power struggles that arise from living in close
proximity with others, making it a genre that can be both intimate and explosive.

Death of a Salesman (1949) by Arthur Miller is an example of a domestic play as it is

based on the life of Willy Loman, a middle-class salesman, and the problems around
his job, dreams, family and his own mental state.

8. Historical
Otherwise also known as documentary theatre, historical plays focus on dramatising
real-life historical events. Hence, these types of plays are fact-based.
A history play is a dramatic work where the events of the plot are either partially or
entirely drawn from people and events of the past. It is also considered a theatrical
genre. William Shakespeare wrote ten of these plays, each loosely based on an
English monarch and the period in which he reigned. A history play consists usually
of loosely connected episodes chronologically arranged. But, these plays remain
works of fiction, whether based on a historical figure or not.

The historical drama is almost as old as theatre itself and continues to play a viable
role in contemporary theatre. For the oldest surviving play, The Persians in 472 BC,
Aeschylus drew on events from the Greco-Persian War in which he had fought eight
years earlier. Using historical characters and events, he imagined dialogue,
compressed episodes for dramatic effect, and dramatised material to make points
relevant to his contemporary audience, all strategies that remain part of the genre. In
The Poetics almost 140 years later, Aristotle advised that tragedies based on history
increased an audience’s belief in the probability of events and thus heightened the
emotional impact of the play.

Shakespeare's King John (1623) is a historical play that dramatises the life of King
John (1199–1216) and traces his war against the French, his dispute with the Church
and then his death by poisoning.

Functions of a play

The foremost function of a play is to entertain its audience. Then, depending on the
type of play, each play has a different aim. For instance, the function of a comedy is
to make its audience laugh. Tragedies aim to evoke catharsis, sympathy and
empathy.

Plays are character-driven narratives. Through the use of dialogue and characters,
humanity's thoughts and feelings are put out in the open for the audience to interpret.
By doing so, plays shed light on human nature. By giving a voice to human
emotions, plays inspire the audience to think in about human nature in new ways.

Since plays are way more immersive and engaging than text, they allow the
audience to connect much more deeply with the meaning behind the play and its
moral.

Intro of the Play (Hamlet)

On a dark winter night, a ghost walks the ramparts of Elsinore Castle in Denmark.
Discovered first by a pair of watchmen, then by the scholar Horatio, the ghost resembles the
recently deceased King Hamlet, whose brother Claudius has inherited the throne and
married the king’s widow, Queen Gertrude. When Horatio and the watchmen bring Prince
Hamlet, the son of Gertrude and the dead king, to see the ghost, it speaks to him, declaring
ominously that it is indeed his father’s spirit, and that he was murdered by none other than
Claudius. Ordering Hamlet to seek revenge on the man who usurped his throne and married
his wife, the ghost disappears with the dawn.

Prince Hamlet devotes himself to avenging his father’s death, but, because he is
contemplative and thoughtful by nature, he delays, entering into a deep melancholy and
even apparent madness. Claudius and Gertrude worry about the prince’s erratic behavior
and attempt to discover its cause. They employ a pair of Hamlet’s friends, Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern, to watch him. When Polonius, the pompous Lord Chamberlain, suggests that
Hamlet may be mad with love for his daughter, Ophelia, Claudius agrees to spy on Hamlet in
conversation with the girl. But though Hamlet certainly seems mad, he does not seem to love
Ophelia: he orders her to enter a nunnery and declares that he wishes to ban marriages.

A group of traveling actors comes to Elsinore, and Hamlet seizes upon an idea to test his
uncle’s guilt. He will have the players perform a scene closely resembling the sequence by
which Hamlet imagines his uncle to have murdered his father, so that if Claudius is guilty, he
will surely react. When the moment of the murder arrives in the theater, Claudius leaps up
and leaves the room. Hamlet and Horatio agree that this proves his guilt. Hamlet goes to kill
Claudius but finds him praying. Since he believes that killing Claudius while in prayer would
send Claudius’s soul to heaven, Hamlet considers that it would be an inadequate revenge
and decides to wait. Claudius, now frightened of Hamlet’s madness and fearing for his own
safety, orders that Hamlet be sent to England at once.

Hamlet goes to confront his mother, in whose bedchamber Polonius has hidden behind a
tapestry. Hearing a noise from behind the tapestry, Hamlet believes the king is hiding there.
He draws his sword and stabs through the fabric, killing Polonius. For this crime, he is
immediately dispatched to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. However, Claudius’s
plan for Hamlet includes more than banishment, as he has given Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern sealed orders for the King of England demanding that Hamlet be put to death.

In the aftermath of her father’s death, Ophelia goes mad with grief and drowns in the river.
Polonius’s son, Laertes, who has been staying in France, returns to Denmark in a rage.
Claudius convinces him that Hamlet is to blame for his father’s and sister’s deaths. When
Horatio and the king receive letters from Hamlet indicating that the prince has returned to
Denmark after pirates attacked his ship en route to England, Claudius concocts a plan to use
Laertes’ desire for revenge to secure Hamlet’s death. Laertes will fence with Hamlet in
innocent sport, but Claudius will poison Laertes’ blade so that if he draws blood, Hamlet will
die. As a backup plan, the king decides to poison a goblet, which he will give Hamlet to drink
should Hamlet score the first or second hits of the match. Hamlet returns to the vicinity of
Elsinore just as Ophelia’s funeral is taking place. Stricken with grief, he attacks Laertes and
declares that he had in fact always loved Ophelia. Back at the castle, he tells Horatio that he
believes one must be prepared to die, since death can come at any moment. A foolish
courtier named Osric arrives on Claudius’s orders to arrange the fencing match between
Hamlet and Laertes.

The sword-fighting begins. Hamlet scores the first hit, but declines to drink from the king’s
proffered goblet. Instead, Gertrude takes a drink from it and is swiftly killed by the poison.
Laertes succeeds in wounding Hamlet, though Hamlet does not die of the poison
immediately. First, Laertes is cut by his own sword’s blade, and, after revealing to Hamlet
that Claudius is responsible for the queen’s death, he dies from the blade’s poison. Hamlet
then stabs Claudius through with the poisoned sword and forces him to drink down the rest
of the poisoned wine. Claudius dies, and Hamlet dies immediately after achieving his
revenge.

At this moment, a Norwegian prince named Fortinbras, who has led an army to Denmark
and attacked Poland earlier in the play, enters with ambassadors from England, who report
that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. Fortinbras is stunned by the gruesome sight of
the entire royal family lying sprawled on the floor dead. He moves to take power of the
kingdom. Horatio, fulfilling Hamlet’s last request, tells him Hamlet’s tragic story. Fortinbras
orders that Hamlet be carried away in a manner befitting a fallen soldier.

Intro of the Play (Rosencrantz and

Guildenstern Are Dead)