Communication skills handouts

INTRODUCTION

Communication is used throughout our life. All human beings and even animals communicate through various forms
that they are enabled by nature. Sometimes we think that communication is performed by human being only, this is
erroneous assumption. Animals, insects, birds and other organisms also communicate in their forms they have. It is
also thought that communication is performed by using sounds or language. This is not; communication for human
being is performed by symbols, actions, sounds, words, pictures and figures. For animals and other organisms
mentioned above use fewer forms' including actions, sounds and other forms which may not be known by human
beings.

If we try to trace the origin of communication we come to notice that from when human societies were emerging in
ancient time communication was there. There were for instance ancient societies like Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks,
Romans, Arabs, Anglo-Saxons, Aztecs, Red Indians and many more that in their daily activities they were
communicating. In that case we can say communication is as old as human history. It has developed depending on
the culture of the exiting society that was concerned. Communication then is a cultural aspect of any society. Many
literatures and even scriptures stipulate that it is communication that enabled human to civilize rapidly compared to
other creatures. Researches prove that effective communication is the road map to enhance civilization and
development. This component intends to explore communication as performed by human being and specifically in
the organization focusing their practice for development.

DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION

The word Communication has been derived from the Latin word ‘Communis "which means to make Common.
Wilbur Schramm conceptualizes it as sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness while Mc Quail said
communication is the process which increases commonality. Others conceptualize communication as an exchange of
facts, ideas, or opinions by two or more persons (Newman & Summer). It is the exchange of information and
transmission of meaning (Katz & Khan). Scholars like Aristotle and Plato have termed the process of
communication as Rhetoric. From the very beginning communication was seen as a process in which the speaker
constructed messages to be transmitted to the receiver to bring about a desired response in his or her receiver.

Communications is all about the giving, receiving, processing and interpretation of information. It is a process of
transmitting ideas, information and attitudes by use of symbols, action, words, pictures, figures from the source to a
receiver for the purpose of influencing with objective.

History/Evolution of Communication
All animal species have perfected a system of communication, but humans are the only species capable of spoken
language. Effective communication is essential for a variety of reasons. It serves to inform, motivate, establish
authority and control, and allows for emotive expression. For humans in particular, communication is also vital for
creating a sense of social cohesion. Just as mankind has evolved over the centuries, our means of communication
have followed suit. What began as primitive cave paintings and signed language has morphed into an endless variety
of ways to express oneself to other humans.

Early Communication Methods

Communication has existed in various forms since man appeared on Earth. The methods, however, consisted of a
disorganized set of signs that could have different meanings to each human using them. It wasn't until three million
years after man's debut, around the year 30,000 B.C.E that communication began to take on an intentional,
manufactured format. The most well-known form of primitive communication is cave paintings. The artistic

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endeavors were created by a species of man that appeared around 130,000 B.C.E, the homo sapiens. The method
involved creating pigments made from the juice of fruits and berries, colored minerals, or animal blood. These
pigments were then used to create depictions of primitive life on the cave walls. The purpose of the paintings has
been questioned by scholars for years, but the most popular theory states that the depictions were used as a manual
for instructing others what animals were safe to eat.

Other forms of early communication existed, although they were less popular for a variety of reasons. Story telling
was used to pass on important information in the days before the existence of the written word. However, since man
still lived in separate tribes, this information could not be applied outside one's own tribal community. Drums and
smoke signals were also used by primitive man, but were not the most practical means of communicating. Both
methods could attract unwanted attention from enemy tribes and predatory animals. These methods were also
difficult to standardize.

Early Handwritten Documents/Books

Those with the proper education to do so were handwriting books and documents for well over 1,000 years before
the invention of the printing press. The word "manuscript" is derived from the Latin term "libri manu scripti" which
translates to "book written by hand". Most handwritten manuscripts were written on vellum as paper was not widely
available. The majority of books and documents written were of a religious nature. This was due to the fact that
writing a religious piece was viewed as a form of worship, and also that most books were written by monks in
monasteries. Literacy rates were incredibly low during the time of handwritten books, and few citizens had time for
pleasure reading. Only the monks and the very wealthy were given the opportunity to become literate. Two
important periods stand out when one is investigating early books. The time between the 7th and 13th centuries was
considered the age of the religious manuscript. The 13th century, however, brought about exciting change in the
realm of the written word. For the first time, secular books were produced for the sake of spreading knowledge not
relating to religion. The catalyst for this change was the rise of universities in Italy, and the return of the crusaders
from Byzantium. The Renaissance had begun.

Printing Press

In 1448, a man named Johann Gutenberg revolutionized the way books were made forever. An inventor born in
Germany, Gutenberg had a vision of a device that would utilized movable type using blocks with pre-printed text.
This method, combined with the use of paper, ink and a printing press allowed for books to be mass-produced, and
greatly reduced the price. Gutenberg made his first device by adapting a wine press to remove the water from paper
after printing. Gutenberg's initial project with his new invention was a reprint of a Latin speech book. When this was
a success, he embarked on his most famous printing project- the printing of the Gutenberg bibles. His were the first
bibles printed in Europe. Gutenberg's invention took awhile to catch on as the bourgeoisie of the day still wanted to
keep the peasants uneducated.

Letter Writing and the Postman

Letter writing has been a means of communication for centuries. However, it was an inefficient means of
communicating as one had to wait until another person was travelling before their letter could be sent. In addition,
there was no guarantee when, or if, the letter would ever reach its destination. Given that most people never travelled
more than 50 miles from the place of their birth until fairly recently, the need for an organized postal system was not
a top priority for any country. As with all things, a project will not be funded if it is not deemed necessary. Enter the
United States circa 1775. Ours was a nation with a rapidly expanding population and territory. The first United
States Post Office was created in 1775, and Benjamin Franklin was named the first Postmaster General. The system
caught on quickly and rapidly expanded.

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Telegraph

Evolution of all things, communication included, involves the desire to perform tasks more quickly and efficiently.
This desire was realized with the invention of the telegraph. The logistics of telegraphic communication involve the
sending of electrostatically-generated signals through a wire. The system involves three main components- a battery
to supply the electricity, a key used to complete or break the circuit, and an electromagnet at the receiving end which
consists of a wire that pulls on a piece of metal when electricity passes through it. Attributing the invention to a
specific person is a subject of hot debate. In America, the telegraph is attributed to Samuel F.B. Morse, but his 1837
version was far from original. An Englishman by the name of William Watson had devised a way to send messages
via telegraph in 1747.

The revolution of the telegraph allowed for instant communication across long distances, something that had
previously been unheard of. The technology was particularly useful during wartime to transmit pertinent
information, and the first telegraph stations were set up along railroads as the necessary poles were already erected.
The telegraph was also popular among the Victorian set. Those of the upper class used the telegraph for personal
communications, but those of lower economic status were excluded from the technology due to the cost involved in
sending a telegraph.

Telephone

Today we take the ability to use a telephone for granted, but in 1876, Alexander Bell was busy realizing a dream that
he hoped would once again revolutionize communication. Like all inventors, Bell was perpetually curious and
always on the lookout for empirical evidence of the new and interesting. Bell observed that sound vibrations could
be transmitted through the air, and received at the same pitch in another room. Bell wanted to transfer sound and
pitch across a wire, and ascertained that this would be possible by reproducing sound waves in a continuous,
undulating current. Once proving this theory, Bell realized the same concept could be applied to human speech as it
is composed of many complex sound vibrations. A few trial and errors later, and the modern telephone was born.
Given our reliance on telephones today, it is surprising to know that Bell's invention was initially quite unpopular.
The telephone did not generate nearly as much excitement as the telegraph had a few decades earlier. This may have
been due to the fact that Americans love novelty and Bell's concept was not entirely new. The telegraph had
cornered the long-distance contact market. The lack of popularity may also be attributed to the cost of telephone
service. Most original telephone service subscribers were corporations as a year of service cost $72. Residential
service cost a family approximately $60 per year. In the 1800's, this was a substantial sum of money to be spent on
an unnecessary device.

Radio

During the early 1900's, a new form of communication and entertainment took the world by storm. What began as
short-wave communication used during WWI blossomed into the hottest communication technology of the era once
the war had ended. Amateur broadcasting began around 1914, commercial broadcasting didn't hit the air waves until
1920. Radio was unregulated until 1925 when the Federal Communications Commission stepped in. At this point,
approximately 2 million homes had radios and there were several hundred stations broadcasting thousands of
programs. The technology advanced so fast that new radios were obsolete withing 3-6 months.
Radios were incredibly popular during the late 1920's and early 1930's due to the Great Depression and also the
"flapper" movement. The American people loved to dance, and most other forms of entertainment were too
expensive. The technology really took off in 1933 when Edwin Armstrong, "the father of FM radio", invented
frequency-modulated radio. By the 1940's, the number of radios in American homes had doubled, and 800,000 FM
receivers were produced in 1947.

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Photography

A picture is worth 1,000 words, or so the saying goes. Unlike other forms of communication photography is a more
subjective form of art. A picture can be interpreted a million different ways by a million different individuals,
whereas other forms of communication tend to be intent on conveying one message. Most people love to be
photographed and man's vain desire to depict himself has been apparent since the discovery of the first cave
paintings. Capturing an image of the self guarantees a place a in history for that individual. They are sure to be
remembered even after they have passed away. The first attempts at photography began in the early 1800's but had
poor results. The discovery of using reverse colors, what we today call a "negative", greatly advanced the art of
photography.

The process of how a photo was taken and developed remained largely unchanged for 150 years until digital
technology caught up. These days a piece of equipment that was once used only by professional photographers is
accessible to everyone. There are several varieties of cameras to choose from at any electronics stores, and even cell
phones have cameras! Regardless of how much the technology of communication continues to advance over the
years, the photo will always hold a special place in history as the pioneer of capturing the human image for eternity.

Television

Television made its official debut at the 1939 New York World's Fair. It was seen as an amusing, but unnecessary,
appliance and the radio continued to be the favored form of communication. Radio's popularity sky rocketed at the
start of WWII as televisions were not yet equipped to provide accurate and timely news. All that began to change in
the late1940's. Four million TV sets were produced that year, but a 10-inch screen set cost over $200 making it an
unattainable luxury for many families. As the years passed, prices for televisions dropped and now the majority of
homes have at least one television. It is safe to theorize that few forms have communication have had as large an
impact on society as television. What was once a luxury item, is now an essential. Ours is a global society obsessed
with television. Humans are reliant on their televisions for constant entertainment. Even the news, which was once
taken very seriously, has been turned into cheap entertainment by many networks. The repercussions of this reliance
on television may not be realized for many years, but they will eventually surface.

Cell Phone

It may be hard to believe but the first cell phone research began in 1843 when Michael Faraday conducted research
to see if space could conduct electricity. Fast forward to1973, and Dr. Martin Cooper is credited with inventing the
first portable handset. Four years later, cell phones go public. In the 37 years the cellular phone industry has existed,
the market has grown from $3 million annually to an industry that commands $30 billion annually. The customer
base has also expanded from an initial trial population of 2000 to more than 60 million cellular phone owners in the
United States.
Who uses cell phones? Everyone! Cell phones can be found everywhere in modern America. Landlines are slowly
becoming obsolete as everyone from senior citizens to elementary school students acquire their own cell phones.
The convenience of having a phone at the ready is a concept that is very easy to market, but the fact that higher
stress rates have been linked to this phenomenon of constant contact is a commercial you won't be seeing anytime
soon.

Internet

The original Internet was invented in 1967 for military purposes. An Internet in its most basic form is simply a group
of computers able to connect to each other and share information. This included electronic mail (email) and the use
of sites containing vital information (websites). Once the Internet started to catch on it was used primarily by
corporations for collaboration purposes. Today the Internet is available everywhere and to everyone. It is used for a
variety of reasons including socializing, conducting research, and advertising. It has even surpassed the television as
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a source of communication because you can receive any information you want instantaneously. One click of a button
and a website will load with whatever information you have requested.

Social Media and Blogging

Social media defined is a special class of websites designed to meet three specific criteria. These criteria include-the
majority of the content on the site is user generated, there is a high level of interaction between social media website
users, and the websites are easily integrated with other websites. One of the most popular social media platforms is
blogging. A weblog or "blog" was first developed in 1997. A blog makes it possible for any person with Internet
access to create a type of website without having to be familiar with any form of HTML coding that is generally
necessary to create a website. Blogs are replacing journals as a form of self expression for many young people
today. Social media and blogging have had a significant impact on personal and professional relationships.
Reputations have been made and destroyed with a few keystrokes. Yet, having a web presence is vital in today's
society and economy. Does your company want to market a product to young adults? You can find them on the
Internet. Do you want to increase your popularity, and see and be seen? Create a social media site devoted
exclusively to you. The social lives of many young people today revolve around social media and blogging, and this
isn't necessarily healthy. You lose a sense of reality when all of your communication is conducted electronically.

Functions of Communication
Communication serves four vital functions in society. Roy summarized these functions as follows: i)

Information function:

The basic requirement of adapting and adjusting oneself to the environment is information. There must be some
information about what is going on in the environment which concerns the people. The receiving or giving of
information underlines all communication functions, either directly or indirectly. ii) Command or instructive
function:

Those who are hierarchically superior in the family, society or organization, often initiate communication either for
the purpose of informing their subordinates or for the purpose of telling them, what to do, how to do when to do etc.

The command and instructive functions of communication are more observable in formal organizations than in
informal organizations. iii) Influence or persuasive function:

According to Berlo (1960), the sole purpose of communication is to influence people. Persuasive function of
communication i.e. to induce people is extremely important for extension in changing their behaviour in the
desirable direction.

iv) Integrative function: exercise

A major function of communication is integration or of continuously offsetting any disintegration at the

interpersonal or at the organizational level. This helps in maintaining individual, societal or organizational stability
and identity.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

 Intrapersonal communication
 Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

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 Interpersonal Group Mass
Communication

Written Audio Audio/

Visual

A B
M

Communication can be broadly divided into two categories. These are:

• Verbal Communication
• Non-verbal Communication

Verbal Communication

It is when words are used as tools of interaction between two or more individuals. It can be oral or written.
Researchers have found that, on an average, a person spends 10 to 11 hours every day in verbal communication i.e.
speaking, listening, reading or writing. Some common forms of verbal communication are conversations, speeches,
letters, newspapers, magazines, cassettes both audio and video, telephonic conversation etc.

Advantages of Verbal/oral Communication

 There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal.

 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions
previously taken.
 The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any
delay.
 Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences
can be put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees. 
Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.

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Disadvantages/Limitations of Verbal/oral Communication

 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very
organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized as
written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long
speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work.

Non-Verbal Communication

When the alarm clock rings in the morning, it communicates to you the message that it is time to wake up.
Communication can also occur without words. Our senses, ears, eyes, touch and smell work as codes of
communication. You look out of the window, your eyes tell you about the weather outside. When you hold your cup
of tea in your hands, the touch tells you whether the tea is warm or not. The smell tells you what is cooking for
breakfast. Pictures, images, models, gestures are also nonverbal means of communication. A simple nod of head can
convey your ‘yes' or ‘no' with a wave of hand you can show your disinterestedness. Eyes can transmit feelings like
love, hate, anger, sorrow etc. Artists use their art as a means of communication. A painting is a painter's medium, a
photograph is a photographer's and dance performance is a dancer's non-verbal medium of communication. Silent
thinking is also non-verbal interaction with oneself. Communication between man and animal is mostly non-verbal.
A dog wags his tail and licks his master's hand; a cat cuddles up to its master to show their love. Non verbal
communication between man and his environment is a phenomenon you come across every day but after you don't
notice it. In the summer season, a hot sun and warm wind pass on a feeling of discomfort to you, whereas a sky
overcast with clouds transmits a mood of joy. This is communication between you and your environment in a
nonverbal way.

Non Verbal Communication - Actions Speak Louder than Words

 Scenario 1 – You are sitting in front of an interview panel with arms crossed. So far you have not been asked a
single question; however, your crossed arms have spoken louder than the words.
 Tip 1 – Never keep your arms crossed especially during formal one-on-one meetings. It suggests you are not
open to feedback and could also suggest that you are trying to dominate the situation.
 Scenario 2 – You are giving a presentation to a group of 20 people. You keep your gaze fixed at the centre of
the class / room through the presentation – your gaze has spoken louder than your words.
 Tip 2 – Your gaze at one person should not be more than 4 - 5 seconds while delivering a presentation /
communicating with a large group unless you are addressing an individual.

Scenario 1 and 2 clearly demonstrate the importance of Non Verbal Communication

THEORIES AND MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

In the years before World War II mass communication was hardly investigated. Scholars from different academic
disciplines like history, sociology, looked into the specific role of the mass medium bringing about changes in
society relevant to their discipline. Some basic studies were conducted but it lacked focus and direction. Decade’s
later communication was studied in North American Universities where degree programs were offered in mass
communication studies.

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The entire subject of communication can be studied through two schools of thought:

 The Semiotics
School  The
Process School

The Semiotics School

The foundations for semiotics were laid by Morris in 1946, for the theory of languages or symbols. The semiotics
school approaches communication as generation of meaning, a mixture of signs, symbols and messages, which the
sender wants to convey and expects a specific reaction from the receiver of the messages and the sign itself. This
study covers the ways the variety of codes has developed in order to meet the needs of society and culture. The focus
of the semiotics school is on the text. He divided it into three areas of general study: syntactic, semantics and
pragmatics.

SYNTACTIC: The study of how symbols relate to each other

SEMANTICS: A study of symbol to referent relationship
PRAGMATICS: A study of how symbols relate to the people

The Process school

This school of thought looks at communication as a process, a simple transmission of messages and meanings which
the sender wants to convey irrespective of the reaction of the receiver or his interaction. Examples: Works of art,
culture and music fall under this category, because messages are not created with any motive, but as an expression
of the sender's feelings or emotions. The receiver is free to interpret the message in his own way. The process school
of thought is also called as linear school.

Source Receiver
M

Pre-Conditions for effective communication Process Areas of communication

Language

Culture

Environmen
t
A
B

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The difference between the two schools of thought

• The linear process schools and their models give the text no more attention than other stages in the process;
while the semiotics school of thought attaches primary importance to the text.
• The status of the receiver or reader who in semiotics is seen performing a very important role. The reader
ascertains meanings to texts.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

The simplest definition of a Model is that is an analogue. Models represent system or processes. They are a symbolic
way at looking at systems to help us to think about them more lucidly. Models give us an idea of complicated
objects or events in a general way. The most important purpose of model building is to assist in the development of
more precise theories. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between them is that the theory
is an explanation and a model is a representation. A model can be constructed to describe a particular form of
behavior of which no theory exists or is inadequate.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle's Model

Speaker Speech Audience Effect

Occasion

This model was developed some 2000 years ago. Aristotle includes in this model the 5 essential elements of
communication: Speaker, Speech or message, Audience, Effect and Occasion. Because Aristotle remark that
communication is rhetoric, he advises the speaker to construct a speech for different audiences and on different
occasion to different effects in order to make it effective and of mutual understanding. Due to this advice the model
is most applicable for public speaking.

Lasswell's Model-1948

Who What Effect

Speak Messag
Lasswell states that in order to understand the process of mass communication one has to understand each of the
stages. This model stresses on the effect rather than the message itself. Effect means observable or measurable
change in the receiver. It also suggests that any change in the elements will change the effect. Until the 1960's
Lasswell's questions dominated the scene of Mass Media research who (speaker) -» what message –» channel –»
medium –» whom -» audience effect = Communication.

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Shannon and Weaver's Model-1949

Signal Received Message

Message Signal

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destinatio

n

Noise
Sourc

This model is also called as the engineering model of communication. It is a clear example of the process school of
thought. It is also referred to as the mathematical theory of communication because it provided an approach to the
problem in how to send maximum information in a given channel. It introduced the concept of noise for the first
time. As engineers during World War II, Shannon and Weaver's primary concern was to find out the most effective
means of human communication.

Newcomb's Model-1953

A B

This is the first of the models to introduce the role of communication in a society or a social relationship. The
primary role according to Newcomb is to maintain equilibrium in a social relationship.

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Charles E. Osgood & Apos's Model- 1954

Encoder M Decoder
Interpreter Interpreter
Decoder Encoder
M

Here communication is seen as a dynamic process where there is healthy interactive relationship between the source
and the receiver.
Wilbur Schramm's Model

Source Signal Decoder

Receiver
Encod

Model I

E S De R
S

Model II

Schramm's first model proceeded from a simple human communication model to a more complicated model that
accounted for the accumulated experiences of two individuals trying to communicate and then to a model that
considered human communication with interaction between two individuals. In his second model Schramm
introduces the notion that only what is shared in the fields of experience of both source and destination is actually
communicated, because only that proportion of the signal is common to both of them. The Third model sees
communication as an interactive process with both the receiver and the sender acting as encoder, interpreter,
transmitter and receiver of signals.

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David Berlo’s Model S-M-R-C- 1960

Channel

Berlo’s three meanings for channel:

• Can refer to the material that is physically carrying a message, such as air when the message is spoken – the
“vehicle carrier”
• The form of energy that carries that message, such as sound waves for spoken messages “the message
vehicle” the entity that carries the message
• The mechanism for encoding and decoding a message, such as the vocal chords and speech system of a
speaker or the ears and other sensory systems of a listener. The “modes of encoding and decoding
messages.

COMMUNICATION THEORIES

Since the World War II several studies have been conducted in the field of communication. Most of such studies are
based on the impact of communication and media on the human society. One of the earliest studies in this category
is the Hypodermic / Bullet Theory.

Hypodermic/ Bullet Theory

This theory was based on the principle that media is all powerful and its consumers are passive and naïve. It further
stated messages channelized through media are like magic bullets which not only strikes the audience immediately
but also influences them to take up the desired action immediately. i.e. Media X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5.

Two Step Flow of Information

The main authors of this theory were: Paul Lazaefleld, Elihu Katz, Berelson and Hazelduadet. This theory was the
first to state that perhaps mass media did not exert the kind of influence on the audience as was generally believed.
The audience arrived at decisions not directly under the influence of mass media but more by means of interaction
among themselves. This was the finding of a study conducted way back in the 1940's during U.S presidential
elections.

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Communication Theory Framework

Communication theories are examined through the following viewpoints:

 Mechanistic - The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply the transmission of information
from the first party to the second party. The first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver.
 Psychological - According to the psychological view point, communication is simply not the flow of
information from the sender to the receiver but actually the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to
share with the recipients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he decodes the information.
 Social - The social view point considers communication as a result of interaction between the sender and the
receiver. It simply says that communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. “How one
communicates” is the basis of the social view point.
 Systemic - The systemic view point says that communication is actually a new and a different message which is
created when various individuals interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own
conclusion.
 Critical - The critical view point says that communication is simply a way with the help of which an individual
expresses his power and authority among other individuals.

COMMUNICATION USES AND EFFECT THEORIES

Agenda Setting Theory

The 1st systematic study of Agenda Setting was conducted by Malcom McComb and Donald Shaw during the
American Presidential Campaign of 1968; the duo focused on the 100 undecided voters of Chappell Hill who were
susceptible to the media's agenda. They made a content analysis of all the media channels used by residents of
Chappell Hill; and found an inter-link between the priorities of issues identified by the media and those identified by
the group of respondents.

In another study conducted by G. Rayfunkhouse in the 1960s, an attempt was made to study the relationship between
public rating of important issues and media content. He also studied the relationship between media coverage and
reality. Rayfunkhouse found that the issues to which the public gave a high ranking were also issues which media
gave coverage. Similarly he attributed that media coverage did not correspond to reality.

Reinforcement Theory

This is also called the limited effects model. Klapper who propounded this theory stated that mass media has limited
effects on its audience. It merely reinforces existing values and attitudes. Lazarsfeld and Merton further stated that
the Mass media cannot be relied upon to work for changes.

Catharisis and Narcosis Theory

• Narcosis Theory:

This theory was propounded by Lazarsfeld, Merton and Winn. They argue that the media have a "Narcotising
dysfunction". They state that the audiences are so occupied or nullified during their exposure to mass media
particularly audio video media, that it becomes difficult for them to make logical reactions. It engrosses the audience
attention to the extent that it prevents them from taking any logical decisions.

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 • Catharsis Theory:

This theory was propounded by Semyour Feshbatch. Feshbatch's experiments in the lab showed that media content
particularly non-violence helps to vent out frustration. He studied the same by setting up two groups of respondents
in control and experimental setup. Students of both groups were exposed to verbal abuse; later the experimental
group was shown a violent film while the other group was not shown the same. Findings indicated that the
experimental group respondents had feelings of less hostility then that of the control group.

Theory of Incidental Effects

This theory was formulated by Aldous Huxley. He stated that media effects were limited to copying of style,
mannerism etc. Huxley stated that television could be an effective agent of incidental learning among children.

Cultivation Theory / Cultural Indicators Theory

This theory was formulated by George Gebner. Heavy television viewing tends to induce audiences to adopt
perception and values which were constantly portrayed in different programs. This phenomenon was more dominant
among heavy TV watchers than those who watched less. E.g. Soaps on television inculcate a picture of affluence all
around.

Spiral of Silence Theory

This theory was formulated by Noel Neumann. This theory postulates that individuals have a quasi- statistical sense
organ by which they determine their opinion represent the minority point of view. In such a case they remain silent.
In her analysis of German elections, Neumann states that individuals hate to be isolated from their fellow beings and
thus tend to follow the dominant opinion. Thus mass media shapes: as to which opinion is dominant which
impressions are increasing which opinions one can utter in public without fear of being isolated.

The Third Person effect

The theory is propounded by W. Phillips Davison. The hypothesis suggests that people tend to overestimate the
impact of mass media on others rather than themselves. Mass communication messages will have greater impact on
others than on themselves; due to this perception they take action. Thus people are more influenced by media than
they really think they are.

Social Learning Theory

The theory is propounded by Albert Bandura. Many effects of mass media can happen through the process of social
learning. Human Beings learn things by observation and model behaviors.

Uses and Gratification Theory

The theory is propounded by Elihu Katz; Denis Mcquail and Michale Gurewitch. This theory studied how the
audience utilized the media. Based on audience study a set of gratifications were determined. Cognitive needs
(acquiring information), affective needs (emotions, pleasure and aesthetic experience), personal integrative needs
(strengthening credibility, confidence, status), social integrative need strengthening (contacts with family) and;
tension release needs (escape and diversion).

14
Normative Theories of Press Authoritarian Theory:

The term was first coined by Sibert which refers to an arrangement in which the press is subordinate to state power.
This theory is more relevant to repressive or dictatorial regime where there is press suppression.

Free Press Theory:

It is also known as the Libertarian theory. It is based on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of
expression. The same is seen in the 1st amendment to the American constitution. However, Milton, Stuart and Mill
states that Press Freedom cannot be provided unrestrained.

Social Responsibility Theory:

The term was first originated in the Hutchins committee report-1947 that was appointed in the U.S. According to it
the press had not fulfilled the informational, social and moral needs of the society. It led to the establishment of
regulatory bodies like ‘Press Councils'.

Communist Media Theory:

Also known as the Soviet Media theory is based on the basic tenets and Marx and Engels. It envisages that media
should be under the control of the working class. There was no private ownership of the media and was required to
serve positive functions in the society relating to information, education, motivation and mobilization. According to
this theory media must work under the control of the state.

COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATION

Communication in the organization is the way information gets across from the source (sender) to the destination
(receiver) in the organization itself. In the organization communication may or may not need feedback
(acknowledgement). In the organization communication is as important as the blood in the body of an organism.
There are two categories of communication in the organization. These are one-way and two-way communication.

One-way Communication

One-way communication denies the facility to make clarification. Once the information is sent there is no required
response or feedback. Transmission of messages and meanings is conveyed irrespective of the reaction. These
include for instance information on the notice boards, news bulletin, advertisements, lecture method of teaching,
work of art, music, culture etc.

The advantage of one-way communication is that it is simple, saves time and money. Also it does not create a room
for direct objection, criticism or compromise. The disadvantage of this type is very dissatisfied to the sender and the
receiver has no means to send feedback.

Two-way Communication

This category is built in the two way means of communication. Basically it ensures that the information has received
after having feedback. The sender conveys message and expects a specific reaction from the receiver of the
messages itself. This communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative
commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender.

In this category we have telephone call, meetings, panel discussions, etc. The advantage of this is that it needs
feedback hence it is democratic. The only disadvantage is time consuming and expensive.
15
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is classified in to two ways according to its nature in the organization. It may be formal or
informal.

Formal Communication

Formal communication is common and widely used in the organization and to large extent it is in the written form;
to some extent in verbal form. It follows the proper channels of communication in the organization such as
Organization Structure or channel chart. The lines of authority are presented into administration chart. It is found
also in the organization constitution on power exercise. Meetings, job description, working schedule and
performance appraisal are some typical examples of this communication in the organization.

The advantage of formal communication is; it prefers and refers uniformity. The disadvantage is the delay of
information because it is strictly adhere to regulations.

Informal Communication

Is the communication that cut across the organizational structure and it is everywhere in the organization. Employers
mostly use this widely and very powerful. Sometimes propaganda in one side and gossips, rumor and hearsay in the
other side are forms of informal communication. Informal communication can precede information which is formal
but due to its nature of delay to follow proper channels; it leaks as rumor or gossip. That is why informal
communication is very powerful and preferred mostly in the organization.

Propaganda

Propaganda has been practiced since the earliest days to spread religious or social doctrines. The advancement of
mass media like radio, television, newspaper etc. has made it much easier to spread propaganda. Propaganda can be
used to spread both truth and untruth. Political propaganda is in widespread use these days. Political parties use it as
a weapon of verbal assaults on rival parties. Propaganda can also be used to stir positive response in pubic for a
socially beneficial cause. For example national propaganda against illiteracy or medical propaganda against polio or
AIDS etc. Propaganda has a mass base which helps it to spread quickly and since it is a planned effort, it works as a
strong means of shaping people's opinion. Propaganda is also put to commercial use. Information is spread about the
advantages of buying credit cards or taking loans from banks. You must have seen in the newspapers or watched on
television propaganda about various schemes launched by various companies. Whether propaganda is used to spread
truth or untruth, it is a masterly weapon of changing people's opinion. It is characteristically, a planned spread of
information and works on the principle of mass-psychology.

Rumor

Rumor, too, like propaganda is a mass-spread of information. It may be planned in some cases but it generally takes
wings on its own. The dictionary meaning of rumor is "common talk, a current story or statement passing from one
person to another without any known authority for truth of it." Rumor spreads through gossip. Therefore, the
information spread around is not controlled as it is in propaganda. As the story passes from one mouth to another, it
picks up new details which make it more spicy and colorful. Rumor is a rapid means of spreading information
because people are willing receivers. Since rumor is an individualized projection of information, it rules out careful
monitoring. Hence it often gets out of hand and rolls on mischievously.

The merit of informal communication is that is the quickest and the cheapest method of transmitting and getting
information. The demerit of it is the distort of the information as it goes downward. Sometimes it is difficult to
manage it especially when it is spread as rumor and can cause misunderstanding.

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Channels of Information

This refers how the information is transmitted from the source to the destination. In the organization is the way
information is transmitted from one person/management/worker/entity to another. There are three channels of
information which are downward, upward and hybrid/mixed channels.

Downward Channels

Here information originates from the top to downward the organization. It is effective and used to transmit
organization goals and policies through memos and directives, posters and notice boards and annual reports. It also
include employees handbook that gives organization regulations and policies.

Upward Channels

The organization gives employees chance to send their views, suggestions/problems upward through suggestion box,
research, exist interviews etc. Other organizations have open door policy that workers are invited to give their views
opinion to the organization. Here channels of communication are followed strictly that is why its nature is branded
as autocratic method of communication.

Hybrid/mixed Channels

This is the movement of information that can go downward, upward or across. It is the communication that does not
adhere to which side the information must go first but in makes sure once the information is released can go in any
side of the member in the organization. This channel is subdivided into two channels also; Wheel Communication
Method and Cycle communication method.

In wheel communication method, communication passes from the source to the either side of the member in the
organization. Information flows from the centre to different part around as wheel movement. Cycle method of
communication happens when information pass from and through any side of the member in the organization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD COMMUNICATION

In the context that communication is taking place, or when we talk to people in person or on telephone, or when we
write a letter or send an e-mail or when we read a book or listen to radio or watch a program on television we are
communicating with the world in which we live. Thus communication is an integral part of our life. Sometimes
when communication is performed the information sent is either misunderstood or understood incompletely. In both
the cases the purpose of communication is defeated. If the case we assume that the communication is not effective.
This means there are some qualities or characteristics which enable communication to be effective as some them are
discussed below.

Clarity
One of the most essential characteristics of an impressive communication is Clarity. Communication must be in
simple and sound words, so that listeners can grasp it easily. It must be clear thoughts, disorderly and confused mind
cannot deliver good and clear information. Sometimes technical terms may be difficult to some people, so it is
suggested to use simple language. Uses of examples to explain and support complex scenarios clarify the message to
be understood. To ensure effective communication, information needs to be presented in such a manner that it may
be easily received by the receiver.

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Common frame of reference and environment

The sender and the receiver should interact at a common level of understanding. This is for instance an agricultural
scientist, who speaks to the farmers about new techniques of farming in a science loaded language, may not be
understood due to the absence of common level of understanding. Common environment promotes successful
communication. People with a similar background receive the intended message without any hassles.

Aim or Goal

At every stage of talk or communication, we are advised to put in mind the Aim or Goal. We must make sure to
deduce an acceptable stuff by judging pros and cons impartially. Always we must try to communicate with a broad
and practical mind.

Correctness

The information sent must be correct and exact in its approach. Message should be straight forward clear and not
contain ambiguity or mistakes. Neither too long nor too short, should some good facts be included in
acknowledging the topic.

Mutual Interest

Contents of Communication should be of mutual interest to the sender and the receiver. Communication is likely to
breakdown with an unwilling receiver because the receiver's efforts to receive the information will be minimum. For
example, if we discuss Indian Stock market with a farmer who is worried about lack of rain in his village, we will
fail to make any headway. The farmer, who is the receiver in this case, has no interest in the ups and downs of the
stock market. He will make no effort to receive the information. The communication, therefore, will collapse.
Common interests, on the other hand, create common understanding. For example when you see your teacher
coming towards the class, you simply shout to your class-mates "Teacher" and the class gets the message that you
want to tell them that the teacher is coming and they should stop making a noise.

Linkage
Information intended to be delivered must maintain a logic link to the sender. It shouldn't put two opposite faces of
coin at a same time. It must be delivered in a structured and planned way.

Style of Expressing

If information is delivered orally (by speech) various speech parameters like pitch, tone, intensity must be controlled
according to the environment. It must not be too fast or too slow. Light humor at the right time is always accepted.
The deliverer must look straight forward and keep a light smile on the face. In avoidance of using words that show
arrogance, feel what you say. It is advised to avoid being too formal instead to be natural and practical.

Personality

It is believed that 25% confidence and 25% respect is the product of remarkable personality. If you are delivering
information through speech, respect from audiences comes automatically, if you have dressed up well. Be neat,
clean, ironed and polished irrespective of the fact that you have dressed up formally or informally. Avoid any casual
or unethical looks. These habits are hard to develop but once developed, they become hard to give up. Live your life
lively because life is very short.

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Common language

Language is the strongest means of verbal communication. Verbal interaction between the sender and the receiver is
easy and effective if they speak a common language. The possibilities of incomplete communication are minimized
because words, phrases, idioms, proverbs and their nuances are easily understood.

Other characteristics of effective communication include consensus, concreteness, and completeness.

The Following are the main communication barriers:

Understanding in details what the barriers to an effective communication are and how they lead to an ineffective
communication.

 Unorganized Thought - Unorganized and haphazard thoughts also are instrumental in poor communication and
a very important barrier to effective communication.

Kayitare to Mico -“Please come at 2 pm, okay not 2 come at 2.30 pm instead, fine let us freeze it for 3 pm”Mico
is bound to get confused as Kayitare himself is not clear about the timings. The sender must pass on crystal
clear information to the receiver. The sender must first be himself very clear what he wants to communicate and
then only begin the conversation. Abstract ideas, haphazard thoughts lead to ineffective communication. First
know what you have to communicate and then only speak.

 Wrong interpretations - Wrong interpretations again play a very important role in miscommunication.
Information can be wrongly interpreted by the receiver leading to a complete mess. “Tom went for a bash
yesterday night”. The word bash can be decoded as beating as well as a party. The sender might convey his
message to the recipient in order to provide some necessary information but the receiver might misinterpret it. It
is the responsibility of the receiver to give proper feedback to the speaker and clear all the doubts before ending
the conversation. Don’t keep things within yourself; ask if you are not clear with anything.
 Not Understanding the receiver - The boss once wanted to address his young team. He quoted examples from
the year 1950 - the year when his team members were not even born. Don’t you think, all the young chaps will
lose interest after sometime? That’s the importance of understanding the recipient. Don’t just prepare a speech,
learn more about the culture, habits, thought process of your listeners. The sender must understand the receiver
first and then pass on the information. If a sender is sad and you want to give him some exciting news, he will
neither respond nor understand and hence the effect will for sure get nullified. Not understanding the receiver
again is a barrier to effective communication.
 Ignoring the content - One should lay emphasis on the content of his speech. The content has to be clear,
crisp and above all interesting. Don’t just speak; take some time to find out what you are speaking. Find out
whether the content is relevant or not? During presentations, the speaker must use interesting words, funny one
liner to capture the attention of the listeners. Don’t make your speech monotonous otherwise the listeners after
sometime will definitely fall asleep. One should be smart enough to understand when to crack a slight joke in
mid of a conversation. It really works. Don’t just speak for the heck of it, understand what you are speaking and
try to make it more interesting, crisp and above all relevant.
 Avoiding the Listener - Imagine yourself attending a seminar where the speaker is simply reading from his
notes and for once has not made any eye contact with you. You will never be able to relate with the speaker and
hence never bother to find out what he wants to convey. Don’t just go on. Create a friendly atmosphere and then
start communicating. Don’t just come to the point, one can ask questions from the listeners like what’s new?,
Lovely weather or even use compliments like wonderful crowd, enthusiastic group. Don’t avoid your listeners;
make an eye contact with them to effectively communicate.
 Not confirming with the recipient - Always cross check with the listeners, whether they have received the
correct information or not. For instance, if you are sharing some important contact no, do make it a habit to
verify the number with the receiver whether the receiver has noted it correctly or not. Use words like “Did you
19
 get it? “Am I Audible?” in between the conversation. Try to find out whether the listener is getting your
message or not. Take pauses in between, simply don’t rush. Make a habit to spell out words. If you want to

pass on your email id to your team, it is better to spell out each word of the email account. Another effective
way is to break each word into alphabets, like ant can be communicated as a as in alpha, n as in Netherlands, t
as in tango. The error rate will definitely go down and the communication will be more effective.
 Not understanding the mood of the recipient - Try to understand the interest or the mood of the second party
and read the mind of the other person. Don’t just start speaking, understand the mood of the other person first
and then share the information. If you think, the receiver is in the pink of his moods, don’t give him sad news,
he will never bother to listen. Wait for the correct time and then communicate if you want your communication
to create an impact.
 Low pitch and tone - Sometimes even the pitch and tone can play a communication barrier. Your content
might be accurate, crisp and even related, but if your pitch is low your information will never reach the listeners
bang on. The tone has to be crystal clear and loud for passing on correct information. Remember to give the
correct pause after each sentence and don’t forget the punctuation marks. Remember you are communicating
not only for the first benchers but the people on the last bench are also a part of the communication. Be loud and
clear but don’t shout.
 Impatient Listener - The listener also has to be patient enough to absorb the complete information and then
respond accordingly. Always jot down your points and start off with your queries once the sender is through
with the communication. Don’t just jump in between the conversation as it leads to unnecessary confusions,
misunderstandings and conflict and the communication never reaches any conclusion.
 Different cultural level - In any organization, an individual can never think on the same line as his boss does.
There is always a difference in their thought process. The work pressure, lack of transparency between the team
members are also the barriers which lead to an ineffective communication. These barriers are called internal
barriers.
 Perceptual and Language Differences: Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world
around him. All generally want to receive messages which are significant to them. But any message which is
against their values is not accepted. A same event may be taken differently by different individuals. For
example: A person is on leave for a month due to personal reasons (family member being critical). The HR
Manager might be in confusion whether to retain that employee or not, the immediate manager might think of
replacement because his team’s productivity is being hampered, the family members might take him as an
emotional support.

The linguistic differences also lead to communication breakdown. Same word may mean different to
different individuals. For example: consider a word “value”.

a. What is the value of this Car?

b. I value our relation?
c. What is the value of learning technical skills?

“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown occurs if there is wrong
perception by the receiver.

 Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to control this
information flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result
communication is less effective.
 Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveler may pay attention to one
“NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive
messages should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior is engrossed in his paper
work and his subordinate explains him his problem, the superior may not get what he is saying and it leads
to disappointment of subordinate.

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 Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be achieved within a specified time period, the
failure of which has adverse consequences. In a haste to meet deadlines, the formal channels of communication
are shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not completely transferred. Thus sufficient time should be
given for effective communication.

 Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical distractions are also
there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also affects communication in a meeting.
Similarly use of loud speakers interferes with communication.
 Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication. If the receiver feels that
communicator is angry he interprets that the information being sent is very bad. While he takes it differently if
the communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message is interpreted to be good and interesting).

 Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the hierarchy in an organization (i.e. more the number of
managerial levels), more is the chances of communication getting destroyed. Only the people at the top level
can see the overall picture while the people at low level just have knowledge about their own area and a little
knowledge about other areas.
 Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One can’t always retain what is being told
specially if he is not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication breakdown.

Thus to conclude, any obstacle which comes in between an effective communication are called communication
barriers. They result in distortion of the message and the goal is never accomplished. External barriers arise from the
external environment and external factors where as internal barriers are present within the individual like tensions,
work pressure, high expectations, peer rivalry etc. It is of prime importance to get rid of the above barriers for an
effective communication and the proper flow of information between the sender and the receiver.

Communication is a process beginning with a sender who encodes the message and passes it through some channel
to the receiver who decodes the message. Communication is fruitful if and only if the messages sent by the sender
are interpreted with same meaning by the receiver. If any kind of disturbance blocks any step of communication, the
message will be destroyed. Due to such disturbances, managers in an organization face severe problems. Thus the
managers must locate such barriers and take steps to get rid of them.

There are several barriers that affect the flow of communication in an organization. These barriers interrupt the flow
of communication from the sender to the receiver, thus making communication ineffective. It is essential for
managers to overcome these barriers. The main barriers of communication are summarized below.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

There is a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message intended by the sender is not
understood by the receiver in the same terms and sense and thus communication breakdown occurs. It is essential to
deal and cope up with these communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective communication.

As, in the previous section we have discussed the major barriers of communication. Let’s talk about how to
overcome these barriers of communication.

1. Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is recruiting right individuals on
the job. It’s the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the interviewee has command over the written
and spoken language. There should be proper Induction program so that the policies of the company are clear to
all the employees. There should be proper trainings conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice and
Accent training).
2. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and
jargons should be avoided.

21
 3. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome
on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.
4. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between “listening” and “hearing”.
Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions the
speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended
by the speaker.

5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language. He/she should not
show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For
example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information
being delivered is not good.
6. Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex. The number of
hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control within the organization. Simpler
the organizational structure, more effective will be the communication.
7. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work. They should not
overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with their subordinates and should listen to
their problems and feedbacks actively.
8. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback might be
negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication
between the superior and subordinate.
9. Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of communication. Simple
messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of
communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can
be given by using written means of communication such as: Memos, Notices etc.
10. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the managers should ensure
that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping the formal channels of communication.
There should not be much pressure on employees to meet their targets.

Channel of communication and their Characteristics

Channel Reach Type of Message Adaptability Cost Possibility for
Type (simple/ complex) interactive use
Can reach very Because of broad Caters to Production facilities Quite high.
large audiences scope primarily commonality of expensive to install, Documentaries,
simultaneously if used to provide wide ranging operate. Production costs Community based
Television electricity and sets general dispersed can be high. Buying air programmes, live call-
are available and information/ audiences. Difficult time to place contents can in shows, discussions
news/ to adapt to smaller
reception is be prohibitive. At users' participated by cross
entertainment to and specific
adequate. Reach end, buying and running sector of audiences
nation-wide cultures, languages
differ between audiences. Simple etc. Immediate TV sets is costly in low are some of the
government and message audience feedback income societies but possibilities
private channels, preferable for not available watching often is free.
terrestrial and spots, except phone-in
satellite channels. PSAs. Relatively shows, quizzes,
Availability of more letters, etc
electricity key complex messages
factor. can
be sent through
drama,
infotainment and
talk show formats.
Radio Can reach very Primarily general Same as TV Prices for radio sets are Quite high.

22
 large audiences information / news/ except regional low but still considered an Through phone in
simultaneously if entertainment as radio broadcast investment beyond programmes,
sets and batteries above. may cater to native everyday necessities for community based
are available. Also Information can be issues in local poor rural population. participatory
depend on more focused language. Buying batteries is a programmes,
electricity. Radio is where multiple Audience problem. Listeners' Club discussion
cheaper than TV. bands, local FM feedback available can lower costs. programmes, reading
Availability of band and regional only through and answering
electricity key or community phone in listeners letters etc.

factor. radio stations exist. programmes,

letters etc.

Film Can reach Can be used/made Once produced, not Lengthy, costly Variable. Generate
mediumsized for general or adaptable. Delayed production process. discussion following
audiences depending specialized audience feedback Viewing is reasonably screening. Q&A may
on audiences. can priced through buying be
availability of General or very be available. But tickets to movie halls. built into the
projection specific topics. with technological DVDs relatively cheaper programme
facilities (cinema advancement,
Complex for middle, upper class
halls, changing, editing,
audio-visual mobile messages and audiences.
scenarios can be adaptation is
vans) easier.
Availability depicted
of electricity
key factor.
Video/DVD Can be used for Can be used/made Once produced, not Initial outlay variable Quite high. Generate
broadcast or “home” for general or adaptable. But with according to quality of discussion after
viewing. specialized Technological production desired. screening. Organize
Appropriate for both audiences. advancement, Copies of videos cheap to informal community
small and large General or very changing, editing, reproduce. viewing with
audiences. dialogue. Q&A may
specific topics. adaptation is easier.
be built into the
Complex
programme.
messages and
scenarios can be
depicted.
Slides Can be used General or specific Audience and Relatively inexpensive to Quite high. Use of
effectively in topics with small feedback produce with access to slides can make
interactive scale reach. Good available in small computer and discussion points
situation advocacy tool for group settings. accessories. visible.
discussion groups, Focused messages. Easy to adapt.
etc. Not suitable
for rural and
remote settings.
Newspaper Can reach broad Specific technical Once printed, not High publishing cost. Medium. Discussion
literate audiences information/news/ adaptable. But Advertisements of
rapidly. information. changes daily and expensive. But big news stories
web editions Information/news naturally takes
update constantly materials may be placed place in the
and are read by free. market places
etc.
large numbers.
Readers' forum.
23
Magazine Can specifically Can explain more Once printed, not Similar as newspaper. Similar as newspaper.
target literate complex health adaptable.
segments of public.
issues,
behaviours.
Poster Can have a good Suitable for short Once printed, not Good design and graphic May be used to
reach depending and focused adaptable. may be expensive. generate discussion
on numbers messages. Do not Usually reasonable prices on a topic.
disseminated convey complex for printing. Distribution
and placement. messages may be costly.
effectively.
Leaflet, flyer, Depends on number Can explain more Once printed, not Similar as poster. May be used to
brochure and distribution. complex health adaptable. generate discussion
issues, on a topic.
behaviours.

Billboard, Depends on Cannot convey Once printed, not Inexpensive. Could be Limited.
wall painting placement. complex messages adaptable. expensive if billboard
effectively. needs to be installed
Interperso Groups or other Good for specific, Generally Cost factors include Highly interactive if
nal individuals. complex intimate interactive with training, equipment, not made top down.
Communic information Immediate transportation, etc.
ation (IPC) exchange. feedback.
Folk media Small to medium Simple, easily Adaptable when Inexpensive. Cost factors Quite high.
including scale reach. With understood interactive. Form include scripts, rehearsal, Discussion with
Interactive mobile units, the messages with local may be too flexible props and performance audience during
Popular reach can be higher. flavour and with and risk slipping etc. or at the end of
Theatre Good for areas hard entertainment. from main performance.
(IPT) toreach for general messages. Generate community
media. dialogue.

'Miking' and Depends on mobility Simple, easily Easily adaptable. Inexpensive. If accompanied by
other mobile and regularity. Can understood leaflets, more
media reach people in messages. information and
inaccessible areas. can answer
questions.

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Baltran, L.R. (1974). 'Rural Development and Social Communication: Relationships and Strategies'. In
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Dubhashi, PR. (1970). Rural Development Administration in India, Bombay: Popular Prakashan pp. 67—74. Farace,
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Frey F.W. (1966). The Mass Media and Rural Development in Turkey Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of
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