UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO

THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
Emergence of States
- state refers to an autonomous political unit/entity having population, defined
territory, sovereignty and government
Factor emergence
- the beginning of sedentary agriculture
- live together forming larger communities for better security & work together
- growth of trade facilitated the development of states
- religion-initially priests served as chiefs
3.1. Ancient States

3.1.1. North and Northeast/Pre-Axumite state

A. Punt

- Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn
- around 3rd millennium
- the evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings
- exact location, territory and founding time of Punt unknown
- some said north and northeastern Somalia and some said northern Ethiopia
- eco-agri and trade with Egypt
- items include gold, gold dust, silver), animal products (e.g. feathers, ostrich eggs,
oxen, rhinoceros horn), and wood products (e.g. myrrh, ebony, incense)
Damat
- found a little to the south of Aksum around 5thcBC
- kings used South Arabian politico-religious title known as Mukarib.
- Various gods and goddesses/polytheist/ like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr
(Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god)
- Eco-trade and agri
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Yeha
- located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum
- the oldest of these centers. It probably emerged around 1,000 BC
- remains of wall still standing
- Eco-agri, trade with south Arabia
- Hawulti, Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni also found very near km from Aksum
Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara, Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda
A. The Aksumite State/

- exact founding time unknown

- formed around 200-100 B.C
- according to Periplus of Erithrean Sea Adulis major port of Aksum
- eco-agri, trade
- export items ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger,
cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and
some curiosity animals like apes
- import items garments and textiles, glassware and jewelry, metallic sheets, oil
and wine
- have contact with Egypt, Rome, India, Turkey, Srilanka, South Arabia
- king Zoscales /76-89/ was its king acc to the Periplus
- the Christian Topography talks about the trade activity in the red sea and the
internal LDT trade with eg benishangul
- one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time
-Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories
- Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-548) who built a church at Zur
Amba in Gayint
- it was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church
liturgical songs and hymns
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Decline of the Kingdom
- since the late seventh century because of internal and external challenges
- ental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and plague
- rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
- destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702 damaged the international
commercial and diplomatic ties
- all this led to lose of eco, military and poli power
Achievements
- religion-xty introduced during Ezana, surviving indigenous script and calendar
- dped EOC hymns and chants, built churches, palaces and monasteries
- paintings, handicraft techno, mint coins, writing system,
- dped lang- Greek, Sabean, Geez
diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated
building traditions ( built palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches)
- developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system
including irrigation
A. Zagwe Dynasty/1150 to 1270

- After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted to Agaw

- the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the
last Aksumite king Dil Na'od
- Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela
(1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe
- center Adafa near Roha (now Lalibela)
- Zeila and Dahlak the main outlet used
- best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches
- translation of some religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez
- with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel
Semi-hewn

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- with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside
not totally separated from the surrounding rock
1. Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete
Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and
Bete Abba Libanos
Monolithic
2. with detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete
Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
- among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and
Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
- Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid
difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy
Lands built modeling Israel
Downfall
- internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from groups claiming descent
from the ancient rulers of Aksum (by Amhara and Tigriay clergyies
- considered “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba
- Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) stood against Yitbarek defeated him at the battle of
in 1270AD
East, Central, Southern, and Western States
- Bizamo was founded in the eighth century Gojjam
- Damot prominent king Motalami thirteenth century
Enarya in gibe sw eth, Gafat in south of abay
Muslim Sultanates
- found ff the spread of Islam
- since the beginning of the eighth century along the main trade routes from Zeila
Shewa
- founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid claimed decent from Mecca
- set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D 283 A.H
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Ifat
- set up 1285AD by Umar Walasma, strong and defeated Shewa
- was fertile and well watered
- chat introduced and consumed for the first time here
- others include Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali, Arababani, Dera
- their eco trade
External Contacts
- the r/n b/n eth and Aksum since 3000BC
- following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship
with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire
- in the seven century
- the rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle East, North
Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping
lines
- Europeans heard about Aksums religious strength including the pilgrims to
Jerusalem and territorial extent
- so began consider Aksum as powerful and seeks r/n with it to have ally in their
struggle against the Muslims in eth e holy land/crusade war
- around the middle of the 12th century, a myth/legend about a very rich and powerful
Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe
- by this legend began find the location of the Prester John of the Indies and associate
it with eth
Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

- Eco activities of the ancient states plough agriculture, irrigation

- systems to increase productivity include
soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring, compost and spreading residues’
ashes as well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing. In times
of peak harvest seasons, farmers also organized teamwork
land Tenure system
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- communal land-is group right
- Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of
communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors
had settled and lived in the area over long periods- is inherited from generation to
generation
- the rist owners were known as bale-rist
- Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce
- the tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest
were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste
Gult as prominent well- placed officials used to transfer their position to their
offspring
B. Handicraft
- indigenous/domestic handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period
- including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry,
basketry
- carved doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls,
beams, yoke
- the ruling classes spent their wealth on importing luxurious items
A. Trade

Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture

- stele around the third century AD

- there were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum
- local tradition said it engraved specifically at Gobodara from which they were
transported and planted in Aksum
- the longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world)
- it is highly decorated in all of its four sides
- it represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the
bottom

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- it also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half-moon) at
the top
- some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying
to erect it
- the second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected
and represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the
bottom. The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied
building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back
of its side with no decoration.
- the Zagwe churches/rock hewn/ registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978
two years before that of the Aksumite stele
B. Writing System
- the Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is
paleographical writing from left to right and right to left alternatively
- Sabean has no vowels only use consonants eg Damat as dmt
C. Calendar
The Oromo depend on moon observation
The Sidama ff movt of stars
- Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4
years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years
between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in
determining date of Annunciation. Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem
/Enkutatash is usually Sep 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years
before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become
the official calendar of the country.
- the Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year
of 354 or 355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and
his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim
community (ummah). Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the
year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
- other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have
their own dating system.
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 D. Numerals
- numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals,
but it lacks individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and
underlined in proper

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typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot
render this and show separate bars above and below each character.

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