Unit I

Reading comprehension

Reading comprehension, whether based on general English or legal texts, involves

several steps to effectively understand, analyze, and interpret the material. Here are
strategies for tackling both types of reading comprehension:

General English Reading Comprehension

Steps to Solve:

1. Preview the Text:

Skim through the text to get a general idea of the topic, structure, and main points.
Pay attention to headings, subheadings, and any highlighted or bolded words.

2. Read Actively:

Read the passage thoroughly. Annotate by underlining or highlighting key points,

main ideas, and important details. Take notes in the margins summarizing each
paragraph or section.

3. Identify the Main Idea:

Determine the central theme or main idea of the passage. Look for the thesis
statement, usually found in the introduction or conclusion.

4. Understand the Structure:

Identify the introduction, body, and conclusion. Note how each part contributes to
the overall message.

5. Contextual Clues:

Use context to understand unfamiliar words or phrases. Look for synonyms,

antonyms, or explanations within the text.
 6. Answering Questions

Read the questions carefully.

Refer back to the text to find evidence supporting your answers. Eliminate
incorrect answer choices by process of elimination.

7. Summarize:

After reading, write a brief summary of the passage in your own words. Ensure it
captures the main idea and key details.

Legal Texts Reading Comprehension

Steps to Solve:

1. Understand Legal Terminology:

Familiarize yourself with legal terms and phrases. Use legal dictionaries or
glossaries if needed.

2. Read Thoroughly:

Read the text slowly and carefully, as legal language can be complex. Break down
long sentences into smaller parts for better understanding.

3. Analyze the Structure:

Identify the introduction, body, and conclusion of legal documents. Note any
headings, sections, or subsections.

4. Identify Key Points:

Focus on the main arguments, issues, and conclusions. Highlight any statutes,
cases, or legal principles mentioned.

5. Look for Legal Precedents:

Pay attention to references to previous cases or legal precedents. Understand how
these precedents influence the current text.

6. Contextual Clues:

Use the context to understand complex legal jargon. Look for definitions or
explanations within the text.

7. Understand the Argument:

Identify the main argument or legal issue being discussed. Note the supporting
arguments and evidence provided.

8. Answering Questions:

Read the questions carefully, noting any specific legal issues referenced. Refer
back to the text to find evidence supporting your answers. Use logical reasoning to
eliminate incorrect choices.

General Tips for Both Types:

• Practice Regularly:

Consistent practice improves comprehension skills. Use various texts to cover a

range of topics and difficulties.

• Improve Vocabulary:

A strong vocabulary aids in understanding both general and legal texts. Learn new
words daily and use them in context.

• Develop Critical Thinking:

Question the text's arguments, assumptions, and conclusions. Engage in

discussions or debates to sharpen analytical skills.

• Stay Focused:
Minimize distractions to maintain concentration while reading. Take breaks if the
text is lengthy or complex to avoid fatigue.

By following these strategies, you can enhance your reading comprehension skills
for both general English and legal texts, leading to a better understanding and more
accurate interpretation of the material.

Chapter-II
Sentence Subject and Predicate

1. Sentence: The dog barked loudly.

Subject: The dog

Predicate: barked loudly

Sentence: She is reading a book.

Subject: She

Predicate: is reading a book

Sentence: They went to the park.

Subject: They

Predicate: went to the park

Sentence: The sun rises in the east.

Subject: The sun

Predicate: rises in the east

Sentence: John and Mary are going to the concert.

Subject: John and Mary

 Predicate: are going to the concert

Sentence: The cat slept on the mat.

Subject: The cat

Predicate: slept on the mat

Sentence: My brother plays soccer.

Subject: My brother

Predicate: plays soccer

Sentence: The teacher explained the lesson clearly.

Subject: The teacher

Predicate: explained the lesson clearly

Sentence: A loud noise startled the baby.

Subject: A loud noise

Predicate: startled the baby

Sentence: The flowers in the garden are blooming.

Subject: The flowers in the garden

Predicate: are blooming

Phrase and Clause

Phrase: in the morning

Clause: She jogs in the morning.

Phrase: under the table

Clause: The cat is hiding under the table.

Phrase: to the store

Clause: I am going to the store.

Phrase: after the movie

Clause: We went out for dinner after the movie.

Phrase: with a smile

Clause: He greeted me with a smile.

Phrase: during the meeting

Clause: She took notes during the meeting.

Phrase: by the river

Clause: They built a house by the river.

Phrase: without any help

Clause: She completed the project without any help.

Phrase: for two hours

Clause: We waited for two hours.

Phrase: at the top of the hill

Clause: There is a small cottage at the top of the hill.

Case (Nominative, Objective, Possessive)

Nominative: She is a teacher.

Objective: I saw her at the mall.

Possessive: Her book is on the table.

Nominative: They are friends.

Objective: I called them yesterday.

Possessive: Their car is new.

Nominative: He plays the guitar.

Objective: I met him at the party.

Possessive: His jacket is blue.

Nominative: We are going on a trip.

Objective: She gave us a gift.

Possessive: Our house is big.

Nominative: I am studying.

Objective: She helped me with my homework.

Possessive: My phone is charging.

Nominative: It is raining.

Objective: Can you see it?

Possessive: Its color is red.

Nominative: You are welcome.

Objective: I trust you.

Possessive: Your bag is here.

Nominative: John is my friend.

Objective: I invited John to the party.

Possessive: John's bike is new.

Nominative: The children are playing.

Objective: I watched the children.

Possessive: The children's toys are scattered.

Nominative: The cat is sleeping.

Objective: I petted the cat.

Possessive: The cat's fur is soft.

Number (Singular and Plural)

Singular: book

Plural: books

Singular: dog

Plural: dogs

Singular: child

Plural: children

Singular: woman

Plural: women

Singular: city

Plural: cities
Singular: mouse

Plural: mice

Singular: tooth

Plural: teeth

Singular: foot

Plural: feet

Singular: man

Plural: men

Singular: leaf

Plural: leaves

Person (First, Second, Third)

First Person Singular: I am happy.

First Person Plural: We are happy.

Second Person Singular: You are kind.

Second Person Plural: You all are kind.

Third Person Singular: She is a doctor.

Third Person Plural: They are doctors.

First Person Singular: I have a cat.

First Person Plural: We have a cat.

Second Person Singular: You need to study.

Second Person Plural: You need to study.

Third Person Singular: He likes pizza.

Third Person Plural: They like pizza.

First Person Singular: I will go.

First Person Plural: We will go.

Second Person Singular: You can come.

Second Person Plural: You all can come.

Third Person Singular: It is cold.

Third Person Plural: They are cold.

First Person Singular: I think so.

First Person Plural: We think so.

Gender (Masculine, Feminine, Common, Neuter)

Masculine: boy

Feminine: girl

Masculine: king

Feminine: queen

Masculine: man

Feminine: woman

Masculine: father

Feminine: mother

Masculine: actor
 Feminine: actress

Common: teacher

Common: student

Neuter: table

Neuter: chair

Neuter: car

Neuter: truck

Common: doctor

Common: nurse

Neuter: book

Neuter: pen

Tense (Present, Past, Future)

Present: I eat breakfast every day.

Past: I ate breakfast yesterday.

Future: I will eat breakfast tomorrow.

Present: She writes a letter.

Past: She wrote a letter.

Future: She will write a letter.

Present: They play soccer.

Past: They played soccer.

Future: They will play soccer.

Present: He drives to work.

Past: He drove to work.

Future: He will drive to work.

Present: We watch TV.

Past: We watched TV.

Future: We will watch TV.

Present: The cat sleeps.

Past: The cat slept.

Future: The cat will sleep.

Present: I read books.

Past: I read books.

Future: I will read books.

Present: She cooks dinner.

Past: She cooked dinner.

Future: She will cook dinner.

Present: They visit us.

Past: They visited us.

Future: They will visit us.

Present: He studies hard.

Past: He studied hard.

Future: He will study hard.

 Active-Passive Voice

Active: She wrote a letter.

Passive: A letter was written by her.

Active: The chef cooked the meal.

Passive: The meal was cooked by the chef.

Active: They built a house.

Passive: A house was built by them.

Active: The teacher explained the lesson.

Passive: The lesson was explained by the teacher.

Active: The dog chased the cat.

Passive: The cat was chased by the dog.

Active: I cleaned the room.

Passive: The room was cleaned by me.

Active: He repaired the car.

Passive: The car was repaired by him.

Active: The artist painted the picture.

Passive: The picture was painted by the artist.

Active: We watched the movie.

Passive: The movie was watched by us.

Active: She solved the puzzle.

Passive: The puzzle was solved by her.

 Modals

1. Can: She can swim.

2. Could: He could run fast when he was young.
3. May: May I leave the table?
4. Might: It might rain later.
5. Will: I will call you tomorrow.
6. Would: Would you like some coffee?
7. Shall: Shall we dance?
8. Should: You should see a doctor.
9. Must: You must wear a seatbelt.
10. Ought to: You ought to apologize.

Prepositions

1. The cat is on the table.

2. She is sitting in the chair.
3. The book is under the bed.
4. He walked through the park.
5. They are at the bus stop.
6. The picture is above the fireplace.
7. We drove to the beach.
8. She put the keys in her bag.
9. He is with his friends.
10. The car is parked next to the house.

Infinitives

1. I want to eat pizza.

2. She likes to read books.
3. They need to finish their homework.
4. He decided to go to the gym.
5. We plan to travel next year.
6. She loves to dance.
7. He forgot to call his mom.
8. I hope to see you soon.
9. She promised to help me.
10. They agreed to meet at 5 PM.
 Articles

1. A dog barked loudly.

2. She has a car.
3. The sun rises in the east.
4. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
5. He bought a new book.
6. The children are playing outside.
7. She is reading an interesting novel.
8. A bird is singing in the tree.
9. The movie was great.
10. He gave her an orange.

Gerunds

1. Swimming is fun.
2. She enjoys reading.
3. They avoid talking to strangers.
4. He suggested going for a walk.
5. I love cooking.
6. Running is good exercise.
7. She is interested in learning Spanish.
8. They are busy preparing for the exam.
9. He admitted stealing the money.
10. We discussed visiting the museum.

Degrees of Comparison

Positive: She is tall.

Comparative: She is taller than him.

Superlative: She is the tallest in the class.

Positive: This car is fast.

Comparative: This car is faster than that one.

Superlative: This is the fastest car here.

Positive: He is strong.

Comparative: He is stronger than me.

Superlative: He is the strongest of all.

Positive: She is intelligent.

Comparative: She is more intelligent than her brother.

Superlative: She is the most intelligent student.

Positive: This book is good.

Comparative: This book is better than that one.

Superlative: This is the best book I’ve read.

Positive: It is hot.

Comparative: It is hotter today.

Superlative: This is the hottest day of the year.

Positive: She is kind.

Comparative: She is kinder than her sister.

Superlative: She is the kindest person I know.

Positive: The cake is sweet.

Comparative: The cake is sweeter than the pie.

Superlative: This is the sweetest cake I’ve ever tasted.

Positive: He is happy.

Comparative: He is happier now.

Superlative: He is the happiest person here.

 Positive: The exam was easy.

Comparative: The exam was easier than I expected.

Superlative: That was the easiest exam of all.

15. Editing and Omission

1. Incorrect: She don’t like apples.

Correct: She doesn’t like apples.

Incorrect: They was late for the meeting.

Correct: They were late for the meeting.

Incorrect: I has finished my homework.

Correct: I have finished my homework.

Incorrect: He is taller then his brother.

Correct: He is taller than his brother.

Incorrect: She can speaks English fluently.

Correct: She can speak English fluently.

Incorrect: The dog chased it’s tail.

Correct: The dog chased its tail.

Incorrect: There going to the park.

Correct: They’re going to the park.

Incorrect: She like to read books.

Correct: She likes to read books.

Incorrect: He don’t know the answer.

 Correct: He doesn’t know the answer.

Incorrect: We was happy to see them.

Correct: We were happy to see them.

Chapter III
Essay/Story Writing

Essay and story writing are creative processes that involve presenting ideas,
arguments, or narratives in a structured format. Essays generally follow a formal
structure, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, focusing
on a specific topic or argument. Story writing involves creating a narrative with a
plot, characters, setting, and a clear sequence of events.

Examples:

1. Essay: The Importance of Education

Introduction: Education is the foundation upon which individuals build their

futures. It empowers people with knowledge, skills, and values necessary to
navigate life's challenges.

Body Paragraphs:

Paragraph 1: Education broadens our perspectives and helps us

understand the world better. It teaches critical thinking and problem-
solving skills, which are essential for personal and professional success.

Paragraph 2: Access to quality education reduces poverty and promotes

economic growth. Educated individuals are more likely to secure well-
paying jobs, contributing to the overall development of society.

Paragraph 3: Education promotes equality and social justice. It provides

opportunities for all individuals, regardless of their background, to
achieve their full potential.
 Conclusion: In conclusion, education is crucial for personal growth,
economic development, and social equality. Investing in education benefits
individuals and society as a whole.

Story: The Lost Treasure

Introduction: Once upon a time in a small village, there was a legend of a

hidden treasure buried deep in the forest.

Body Paragraphs:

Paragraph 1: A young boy named Jack, fascinated by the legend, decided

to embark on a quest to find the treasure. He packed some supplies and
set off into the forest.

Paragraph 2: After days of searching, Jack encountered various

challenges, including wild animals and treacherous paths. He did not give
up and continued his journey with determination.

Paragraph 3: Finally, Jack found a hidden cave. Inside, he discovered a

chest filled with gold coins and precious gems. He returned to the village
as a hero, sharing the treasure with everyone.

Conclusion: Jack's adventure taught the villagers the importance of courage,

perseverance, and generosity. The treasure was not just a reward but a
symbol of the values they cherished.

Essay: The Benefits of a Healthy Lifestyle

Introduction: Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is essential for overall well-

being and longevity. It involves a balanced diet, regular exercise, and
positive mental health practices.

Body Paragraphs:

Paragraph 1: A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrients,

supporting physical and mental health. Consuming a variety of fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins is crucial for maintaining
energy levels and preventing diseases.
 Paragraph 2: Regular exercise strengthens the body, improves
cardiovascular health, and reduces the risk of chronic illnesses. Activities
like walking, swimming, and cycling also boost mood and reduce stress.

Paragraph 3: Mental health practices such as mindfulness, meditation,

and adequate sleep are vital for emotional stability and cognitive
function. They help manage stress, anxiety, and depression.

Conclusion: In conclusion, a healthy lifestyle enhances the quality of life by

promoting physical, mental, and emotional well-being. Making healthy
choices every day leads to a happier and more fulfilling life.

Paragraph Writing

Explanation:

Paragraph writing involves expressing a single idea or topic in a concise and

coherent manner. A well-structured paragraph includes a topic sentence,
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. It should be focused and
organized to convey the intended message effectively.

Examples:

1. The Importance of Reading

Reading is a fundamental skill that has numerous benefits. It enhances

vocabulary, improves comprehension, and stimulates mental activity.
Reading exposes individuals to new ideas and perspectives, fostering
creativity and critical thinking. Additionally, it provides a form of
entertainment and relaxation, reducing stress levels. By making reading a
regular habit, one can continually expand their knowledge and develop a
deeper understanding of the world.

2. The Impact of Technology on Communication

Technology has revolutionized the way we communicate. With the advent of

smart phones and the internet, people can connect instantly with others
across the globe. Social media platforms and messaging apps have made it
easier to maintain relationships and share information. However, this
convenience also comes with drawbacks, such as reduced face-to-face
interactions and the potential for miscommunication. Balancing the use of
 technology with personal interactions is essential for maintaining healthy
relationships.

3. The Benefits of Exercise

Regular exercise is crucial for maintaining good health. It helps control

weight, improves cardiovascular health, and strengthens muscles and bones.
Exercise also boosts mental health by releasing endorphins, which reduce
stress and anxiety. Additionally, it enhances sleep quality and increases
energy levels. Incorporating physical activity into daily routines can lead to
a healthier, happier life.

Précis Writing

Explanation:

Précis writing involves summarizing a passage or text in a concise manner,

retaining the essential points and main ideas. The goal is to provide a clear and
accurate representation of the original text without any unnecessary details or
personal interpretations. A précis should be about one-third the length of the
original passage.

Examples:

1. Original Passage: The advent of technology has greatly impacted the way
people communicate. In the past, communication was limited to face-to-face
interactions, letters, and telephone calls. However, with the introduction of
the internet and mobile devices, people can now connect instantly through
social media, email, and messaging apps. This has made it easier to stay in
touch with friends and family, regardless of geographical distance. Despite
these advancements, there are concerns about the decline in face-to-face
communication and the potential for digital communication to be less
personal.

Précis: Technology has transformed communication from face-to-face

interactions and letters to instant connections via social media, email, and
messaging apps. While it facilitates staying in touch regardless of distance,
concerns about the decline in personal interactions remain.

2. Original Passage: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing
the world today. It is caused by the increase in greenhouse gases such as
 carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere, primarily due to human
activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation. The effects of climate
change include rising global temperatures, melting ice caps, and more
frequent extreme weather events. Addressing climate change requires a
collective effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transition to renewable
energy sources, and implement sustainable practices.

Précis: Climate change, driven by human activities like fossil fuel burning
and deforestation, leads to rising temperatures and extreme weather.
Combating it requires reducing emissions, adopting renewable energy, and
sustainable practices.

3. Original Passage: Education plays a pivotal role in the development of

individuals and societies. It provides people with the knowledge and skills
necessary to navigate the world and contributes to personal and professional
growth. Furthermore, education promotes critical thinking, creativity, and
problem-solving abilities. Societies with higher levels of education tend to
have lower crime rates, better health outcomes, and greater economic
stability. Investing in education is essential for fostering innovation and
building a prosperous future.

Précis: Education is crucial for individual and societal development, offering

knowledge and skills for personal growth and professional success. It fosters
critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving, leading to lower crime
rates, better health, and economic stability. Investing in education is key to
innovation and prosperity.