Production Engineering

Evolution During Industrial Revolutions in Terms Production Engineering

1. First Industrial Revolution (1760-1840):
• Overview: The first Industrial Revolution marked the transition from handcraft-based economies to machine-
based manufacturing. It began in Britain with the advent of mechanized textiles, coal, and iron industries.
• Key Innovations:
• Steam Power: James Watt’s improvement of the steam engine allowed factories to operate machinery more
efficiently and was pivotal to the mechanization of production.
• Textile Machinery: Inventions like the spinning jenny and the power loom transformed the textile industry.
• Iron Production: The use of coke to fuel iron furnaces and the development of new smelting techniques (e.g.,
the puddling process) enhanced metal production.
• Impact on Production Engineering:
• Early forms of assembly lines began to appear, particularly in textiles.
• The focus shifted from manual labor to machine operation, requiring new roles such as machinists and
mechanics.
• Early production engineers were primarily concerned with optimizing machine layouts and ensuring efficient
power usage.
Evolution During Industrial Revolutions in Terms Production Engineering
2. Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914):
• Overview: This phase was characterized by the introduction of electricity, mass production techniques, and new
materials (such as steel and chemicals). It coincided with the rise of large-scale industries, including automotive
and railways.
• Key Innovations:
• Electricity: Factories became more efficient with the use of electric power, which was more reliable than steam.
• Interchangeable Parts: Standardization and interchangeable parts revolutionized industries like gun manufacturing
and automobiles (e.g., Eli Whitney's concept).
• Assembly Line Production: Henry Ford’s assembly line reduced the time to produce an automobile drastically and
introduced the concept of "mass production."
• Impact on Production Engineering:
• Production engineering became more formalized as industries sought to optimize the new methods of mass
production.
• Time and Motion Studies: Frederick Taylor’s scientific management introduced the idea of breaking tasks into
smaller parts and optimizing each movement, a precursor to modern lean manufacturing.
• New disciplines, such as industrial engineering, started to emerge, focusing on the efficiency of production
systems, material flow, and ergonomics.
Evolution During Industrial Revolutions in Terms Production Engineering
3. Third Industrial Revolution (1960s-2000s):
• Overview: Often referred to as the "Digital Revolution," the third industrial phase was marked by the rise of
electronics, computing, and automation. The introduction of programmable logic controllers (PLCs), robotics,
and computers into production systems revolutionized how products were designed, managed, and
manufactured.
• Key Innovations:
• Automation: The use of robots and automated systems in manufacturing processes reduced the reliance on
human labor for repetitive tasks.
• Computers and IT Systems: The integration of computers into production enabled precise control over
manufacturing processes and data analysis, which facilitated quality control and just-in-time (JIT) production.
• Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS): The ability to reconfigure production lines to produce different
products quickly became a reality, enhancing customization.
• Impact on Production Engineering:
• CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Machines: These machines revolutionized precision engineering, allowing
for greater accuracy and consistency in manufacturing parts.
• ERP Systems (Enterprise Resource Planning): Production engineers increasingly relied on software to manage
inventory, supply chains, and scheduling.
• The rise of total quality management (TQM) and lean manufacturing, focusing on continuous improvement and
waste reduction, shaped modern production engineering practices.
Evolution During Industrial Revolutions in Terms Production Engineering
4. Fourth Industrial Revolution (2000s-present):
• Overview: The Fourth Industrial Revolution, or Industry 4.0, is defined by the fusion of physical, digital,
and biological systems. The integration of smart technologies, data analytics, and artificial intelligence
into manufacturing systems is transforming the field.
• Key Innovations:
• Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS): These systems integrate physical machinery with software, allowing real-
time data exchange and monitoring.
• Internet of Things (IoT): Sensors and connected devices enable machines to communicate and optimize
processes autonomously.
• Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing): 3D printing allows for rapid prototyping, customization, and on-
demand production.
• AI and Machine Learning: These technologies are enabling predictive maintenance, real-time process
optimization, and autonomous decision-making in production.
• Big Data and Analytics: Data-driven decision-making has become a core element in optimizing
production processes, quality control, and supply chain management.
Evolution During Industrial Revolutions in Terms Production Engineering
4. Fourth Industrial Revolution (2000s-present):
• Impact on Production Engineering:
• The role of production engineers has expanded to include the integration of smart technologies, data
analytics, and cybersecurity measures.
• Smart Factories: These are highly digitized factories where systems and processes are connected and can
be controlled through AI and machine learning algorithms.
• Sustainability: The focus on reducing energy consumption, waste, and carbon footprints has led
production engineers to adopt sustainable practices like green manufacturing.
 Subtractive Manufacturing Process

 Subtractive manufacturing is a process that involves removing material from a solid

block or sheet to create a desired shape. The material is typically a metal or plastic, and
the final product has a smooth finish and tight dimensional tolerances.

 Subtractive manufacturing processes include:

 Turning, Milling, Drilling, Grinding, Cutting, Boring, Selective etching, Micromachining,

and Patterning.
 Subtractive Manufacturing Process

 Subtractive manufacturing is often used for prototyping, manufacturing tooling, and end-
use parts. It's ideal for applications that require tight tolerances and geometries that are
difficult to mold, cast, or produce with other traditional manufacturing methods.

 Subtractive manufacturing processes can be performed manually or driven by computer

numerical control (CNC). CNC machines use a virtual model designed in CAD software to
generate toolpaths that guide the cutting tool through the part geometry.

 Subtractive manufacturing processes have high material wastage, and in some cases, the
removed material is non-recyclable
 Additive Manufacturing Process

 Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used
to build up a component in layers by depositing material.
Additive Manufacturing Process
 Advantages of Additive Manufacturing Process

 Complex Geometries

 Material Efficiency:

 Customization:

 Rapid Prototyping:

 Cost-Effective for Small Batches:

 On-Demand Production:

 Reduced Assembly:

 Tool-Free Production:
 Advantages of Additive Manufacturing Process

 Complex Geometries

 Material Efficiency:

 Customization:

 Rapid Prototyping:

 Cost-Effective for Small Batches:

 On-Demand Production:

 Reduced Assembly:

 Tool-Free Production:
 Limitations of Additive Manufacturing Process
 Limited Material Options:
 Slower Production Speeds:
 Surface Finish and Post-Processing:
 Size Limitations:
 Material Properties:
 Higher Material Costs:
 Layer-by-Layer Weakness:
 Energy Consumption:
 Accuracy and Tolerances:
 Metal Castings - Introduction

 Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods.

 Casting means pouring molten metal into a mould with a cavity of the shape to be made
and allowing it to solidify.

 When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mould and the solidified
object is called the casting.

 By this process, intricate parts can be obtained with strength and rigidity frequently not
obtainable by any other manufacturing process.
Advantages
The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made. As a
result, many other operations, such as machining, forging and welding can be minimized or
eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be
achieved.
4. The tools required for casting moulds are very simple & inexpensive. As a result, for
production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.
6. Size & weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process
Limitations
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes
are a limitation to this technique.
{Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting
process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process and shell moulding
process}
2. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process
1 Sand-casting

Mould
2 Sand-casting
3 Sand-casting
4 Sand-casting
5 Sand-casting

Sprue
Pins
6 Sand-casting
7 Sand-casting
8 Sand-casting
9 Sand-casting
10 Sand-casting
11 Sand-casting
12 Sand-casting
13 Sand-casting
 Metal Forming
Metal Forming Processes :
 Forming can be defined as the process in which the desired size and shape of
the objects are obtained through plastic deformation of material
 The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield strength but
should be less than the fracture strength
Different types of loading may be used depending on the process
 Tensile
 Compressive
 Shear
 Bending
 Metal Forming
Classification of Metal Forming Process:
Metal forming process may be classified on the basis of type of forces applied to the
work piece as it is formed into shape
 Direct compression type process (e.g.-Forging, Rolling)
 Indirect compression process (e.g.-Extrusion, Wire Drawing)
 Tension type process (e.g.-Stretch forming)
 Bending process
 Shearing process
Metal Forming
 Welding
 Welding process can be defined as the process of metallurgically joining two
pieces of metals by fusing to produce essentially a single piece of the metal.
 The welding process joins two pieces of metal by applying intense heat or
pressure or both to melt the edges of the metal so that they fuse permanently.
 In welding filler material may also be used.
 The heat required for the process of welding can be obtained by using an
electric arc, electric current, gas flame or chemical reaction.
 Depending upon the source of heat employed for welding process, welding
processes are classified in to two main categories:
 1. ARC Welding
 2. GAS Welding
 Machine Tool
• Machine Tool is a device in which energy is expended in removing excess material (in the
form of chips) producing finished surfaces of desired shape, size and finish with the aid of a
special device called cutting tool.

• Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high precision and accuracy.
 Classification of Machine Tools
• Based on Production capability and application
• General Purpose Machine Tools
• Production Machine Tools
• Special Purpose Machine Tools
• Single Purpose Machine Tools
• Based on type cutting tools used
• Those using single point tools
• Those using multipoint tools
• Those using abrasive wheels
General Purpose Machine Tools
 Lathe
 Drilling Machine
 Milling Machine
 Shaper
 Planer
 Grinding Machine
 Lathe Machine
• Working Principle: The lathe operates by rotating the workpiece on its axis while a cutting
tool, fixed in place, moves along or across the workpiece to remove material and shape it.
The cutting action is done primarily by shearing the material, resulting in a smooth
cylindrical, conical, or threaded surface.
• Key Components: Headstock, tailstock, bed, carriage, and spindle.
 Lathe Machine
• Main Operations: Turning, facing, threading, knurling, and boring.
 Milling Machine
• Working Principle: In a milling machine, the workpiece is fed into a rotating multi-point
cutting tool. The material is removed as the tool cuts through the surface, typically moving
in a linear or helical path. The cutter's rotation speed and feed rate control the quality of the
cut.
• Key Components: Milling head, spindle, work table, arbor, and cutters.

Fig: Horizontal Milling Machine Fig: Vertical Milling Machine

 Drilling Machine
• Working Principle: The drill bit rotates at high speed, and the axial force applied to the
workpiece causes the material to be removed, forming a cylindrical hole. The cutting action
is due to the relative motion between the rotating drill and the stationary workpiece.
• Key Components: Drill head, spindle, drill chuck, and work table.

Fig: Drilling Machine

 Shaping Machine
• Working Principle: A shaper machine uses a single-point cutting tool that moves back and
forth in a linear motion across the workpiece. Material is removed during the forward stroke,
while the return stroke is idle. This action produces flat or contoured surfaces.
• Key Components: Ram, tool head, work table, clapper box.

Fig: Shaping Machine

 Grinding Machine
• Working Principle: Grinding machines use an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool to remove
material from the workpiece surface. The rotating abrasive wheel grinds the surface,
achieving precision in dimension and surface finish.
• Key Components: Grinding wheel, work table, wheel head, and tailstock (in cylindrical
grinders).

Fig: Grinding Machine

 Surface finishing processes
• Surface finishing is a crucial process in manufacturing that focuses on enhancing the appearance,
durability, and functionality of a material’s surface. It involves various techniques and methods
to improve the surface quality, texture, and overall aesthetics of a product.

• Surface finishing processes can include cleaning, polishing, deburring, buffing, grinding,
sanding, painting, plating, coating, and many others.

• These processes aim to remove imperfections, such as rough edges, burrs, or irregularities, and
create a smooth, uniform, and visually appealing surface. Surface finishing not only enhances the
product’s appearance but also provides important functional benefits such as corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, and improved cleanliness.

• It plays a vital role in industries such as automotive, aerospace, electronics, and consumer goods,
where high-quality surface finishes are essential for product performance, customer satisfaction,
and overall product value.
 Surface finishing processes
• Grinding
• Process: Grinding uses abrasive wheels to remove material and smooth the surface of a
workpiece. It can achieve very high precision and fine surface finishes.
• Application: Typically used for metals to improve dimensional accuracy and surface finish,
and to remove burrs and sharp edges.
• Advantages: High accuracy, good surface finish.
• Limitations: Time-consuming and may require post-processing.
 Surface finishing processes
• Buffing:
• Process: Buffing uses a soft cloth wheel and a polishing compound to smooth the surface. It
is similar to polishing but typically results in a higher gloss finish.
• Application: Used for decorative finishes on metals, plastics, and other materials.
• Advantages: Creates a mirror-like finish.
• Limitations: Provides less material removal than grinding or polishing.

Fig: Buffing Machine

 Surface finishing processes
• Honing:
• Process: Honing is performed using a honing tool that contains several
abrasive stones mounted on a mandrel. The tool is rotated and moved up
and down inside the bore of the workpiece. Abrasive stones are pressed
against the surface, and as the tool rotates and reciprocates, it removes
very fine material in a controlled manner.
• The process creates a cross-hatch pattern, which helps in retaining
lubricants, making it ideal for applications like engine cylinders.
• Application: Used for Automotive Industry, Hydraulic Cylinders, Gear
Manufacturing.
• Advantages: High Dimensional Accuracy, Corrects Geometric Errors.
• Limitations: Provides less material removal, Setup Complexity, Not for
External Surfaces.
Fig: Honing Machine
 Surface finishing processes
• Lapping:
• Process: Lapping involves rubbing two surfaces together with an abrasive compound
between them to remove minute amounts of material for a smooth finish.
• Application: Used in precision industries, such as optics and mechanical sealing
components, where a very fine surface finish and precise flatness are required.
• Advantages: Provides excellent flatness and a very smooth finish.
• Limitations: Slow and labor-intensive.

Fig: Lapping Machine

 Introduction to CAM
• Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) refers to the use of computer systems and software to plan,
manage, and control the manufacturing process.
• CAM automates the production process by translating digital designs (often created using Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) systems) into instructions for machinery and equipment in factories.
• These systems are essential in modern manufacturing, providing improved accuracy, speed, and
efficiency.
• Key Concepts in CAM:
• Integration with CAD:
• CAM often works alongside Computer-Aided Design (CAD). A designer uses CAD software to
create a 3D model or blueprint of a part. This model is then transferred to CAM software, which
converts it into machine-readable instructions for manufacturing. The integration of CAD and CAM
ensures seamless transition from design to production, eliminating manual setup, and reducing errors.
• G-Code: CAM systems generate G-code, a standardized programming language used to control
automated machine tools like CNC machines (Computer Numerical Control). G-code instructs the
machine on how to move, what speed to use, when to cut, drill, or mill, and other necessary
parameters for precise machining.
 Introduction to CAM
• Key Concepts in CAM:
• CNC Machines: CAM is frequently used in conjunction with CNC machines, which include lathes,
milling machines, routers, and grinders. These machines are driven by software commands, providing
a high degree of accuracy, speed, and repeatability in manufacturing processes.
• Automation of Manufacturing: CAM automates many aspects of manufacturing, including:
• Tool path generation: The software automatically determines the best path for cutting tools based on
the CAD design, optimizing for material removal, surface finish, and efficiency.
• Simulation: CAM software often includes simulation tools to test the toolpaths before actual
machining, reducing the risk of errors, collisions, or waste.
• Optimization: CAM can optimize machining processes for speed, energy consumption, and material
usage, helping companies minimize costs and maximize output.
 Introduction to CAM
• Advantages of CAM:
• Precision and Accuracy:
• Increased Efficiency:
• Reduction in Human Error:
• Faster Prototyping:
• Improved Consistency:
• Flexibility in Manufacturing:

• Limitations of CAM:
• High Initial Cost:
• Skilled Workforce:
• Complex Setup for Custom Parts:
• Maintenance and Downtime:
 Introduction to CAM
• Applications of CAM:
• Aerospace and Defense: CAM is used to manufacture high-precision parts for aircraft, spacecraft,
and defense systems, where exact tolerances and material properties are crucial for safety and
performance.
• Automotive: CAM systems are employed to produce engine components, transmission parts, and
bodywork with great accuracy and speed.
• Medical Devices: CAM helps in the production of medical implants, surgical instruments, and
prosthetics, where precise, customized manufacturing is essential.
• Electronics: CAM is used to produce complex components such as printed circuit boards (PCBs) and
microchips, where high levels of precision are required.
• Tooling and Molds: The production of custom tooling and molds for plastic injection molding and
metal casting is a major application of CAM, as it allows for the creation of complex shapes with
tight tolerances.
 Introduction to CAM

Figure: Dental CAD/CAM assessment workflow.