Ancient

Egypt

.
3–1 • FUNERARY MASK OF TUTANKHAMUN
From the tomb of Tutankhamun, Valley of the Kings. Eighteenth Dynasty (Tutankhamun, r. c. 1332–1322 BCE), c. 1327 BCE. Gold inlaid
with glass and semiprecious stones, height 211⁄4! (54.5 cm), weight 24 pounds (11 kg). Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (JE 60672)
 3
CHAPTER

Art of Ancient Egypt

On February 16, 1923, The Times of London cabled the digging, on November 4, 1922, he unearthed the entrance
New York Times with dramatic news of a discovery: “This to Tutankhamun’s tomb and found unbelievable treasures in
has been, perhaps, the most extraordinary day in the whole the antechamber: jewelry, textiles, gold-covered furniture,
history of Egyptian excavation … . The entrance today was a carved and inlaid throne, four gold chariots. In February
made into the sealed chamber of [Tutankhamun’s] tomb … 1923, Carter pierced the wall separating the anteroom from
and yet another door opened beyond that. No eyes have the actual burial chamber and found the greatest treasure of
seen the King, but to practical certainty we know that he all, Tutankhamun himself.
lies there close at hand in all his original state, undisturbed.” Since ancient times, tombs have tempted looters; more
And indeed he did. A collar of dried flowers and beads cov- recently, they also have attracted archaeologists and histori-
ered the chest, and a linen shroud was draped around the ans. The first large-scale “archaeological” expedition in his-
head. A gold FUNERARY MASK (FIG. 3–1) had been placed tory landed in Egypt with the armies of Napoleon in 1798.
over the head and shoulders of his mummified body, which The French commander must have realized that he would
was enclosed in three nested coffins, the innermost made of find great wonders there, for he took French scholars with
gold (see FIG. 3–29, and page 73). The coffins were placed in him to study ancient sites. The military adventure ended in
a yellow quartzite sarcophagus (stone coffin) that was itself failure, but the scholars eventually published richly illustrated
encased within gilt wooden shrines nested inside one another. volumes of their findings, unleashing a craze for all things
The discoverer of this treasure, the English archaeolo- Egyptian that has not dimmed since. In 1976, the first block-
gist Howard Carter, had worked in Egypt for more than 20 buster museum exhibition was born when treasures from the
years before he undertook a last expedition, sponsored by tomb of Tutankhamun began a tour of the United States
the wealthy British amateur Egyptologist Lord Carnarvon. and attracted over 8 million visitors. Most recently, in 2006,
Carter was convinced that the tomb of Tutankhamun, one of Otto Schaden excavated a tomb containing seven coffins in
the last Eighteenth-Dynasty royal burial places still unidenti- the Valley of the Kings, the first tomb to be found there since
fied, lay hidden in the Valley of the Kings. After 15 years of Tutankhamun’s in 1922.

LEARN ABOUT IT
3.1 Explore the pictorial conventions for representing the 3.3 Examine the relationship of royal ancient Egyptian
human figure in ancient Egyptian art, established early art to the fortunes and aspirations of the rulers who
on and maintained for millennia. commissioned it.
3.2 Analyze how religious beliefs were reflected in the 3.4 Understand and characterize the major transformation
funerary art and architecture of ancient Egypt. of ancient Egyptian art and convention under the
revolutionary rule of Akhenaten.

Listen to the chapter audio on myartslab.com

49
THE GIFT OF THE NILE
The Greek traveler and historian Herodotus, writing in the fifth Mediterranean Sea S YR IA

century BCE, remarked, “Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” This great
Rosetta
river, the longest in the world, winds northward from equato- Alexandria
Delta
rial Africa and flows through Egypt in a relatively straight line to
LOWER EGYPT
the Mediterranean (MAP 3–1). There it forms a broad delta before
emptying into the sea. Before it was dammed in 1970 by the Heliopolis
Giza Cairo
Aswan High Dam, the lower (northern) Nile, swollen with the FAYUM Saqqara Memphis
REGION
runoff of heavy seasonal rains in the south, overflowed its banks
Hawara
for several months each year. Every time the floodwaters receded, el-Lahun / Kahun
SINAI
they left behind a new layer of rich silt, making the valley and delta

Nile
a continually fertile and attractive habitat.
By about 8000 BCE, the valley’s inhabitants had become
Beni Hasan
relatively sedentary, living off the abundant fish, game, and wild
Akhetaten
plants. Not until about 5000 BCE did they adopt the agricultural (Tell el-Amarna)
Meir
village life associated with Neolithic culture (see Chapter 1). At
UPPER EGYPT

R
that time, the climate of north Africa grew increasingly dry.

e d
To ensure adequate resources for agriculture, the farmers along EG YPT

S
the Nile began to manage flood waters in a system called basin

e a
Deir el-Bahri
irrigation. Valley of the Kings

The Predynastic period, from roughly 5000 to 2950 BCE, was Valley of the Queens Theban Area

a time of significant social and political transition that preceded Valley of the Kings
Hierakonpolis
Deir el-Bahri
the unification of Egypt under a single ruler. (After unification,

Nile
Deir el- Assasif
Medina
Egypt was ruled by a series of family dynasties and is therefore Ramesseum
characterized as “dynastic.”) Rudimentary federations emerged Valley of
the Queens Karnak
Aswan
and began conquering and absorbing weaker communities. By Luxor
THEBAN 2 km
about 3500 BCE, there were several larger states, or chiefdoms, in AREA
2 miles
the lower Nile Valley and a centralized form of leadership had
NU BI A R E G I O N A F R I C A
emerged. Rulers were expected to protect their subjects, not only
from outside aggression, but also from natural catastrophes such as 100 km
Abu Simbel Kawa
droughts and insect plagues. 100 miles

The surviving art of the Predynastic period consists chiefly of

MAP 3–1 • ANCIENT EGYPT
ceramic figurines, decorated pottery, and reliefs carved on stone
Upper Egypt is below Lower Egypt on this map because the
plaques and pieces of ivory. A few examples of wall painting—
designations “upper” and “lower” refer to the directional flow of the Nile,
lively scenes filled with small figures of people and animals—were not to our conventions for south and north in drawing maps. The two
found in a tomb at Hierakonpolis, in Upper Egypt, a Predynas- kingdoms were united c. 3000 BCE, just before the Early Dynastic period.
tic town of mud-brick houses that was once home to as many as
10,000 people.
tombs and temples—the majority of which were located in secure
places and built with the most durable materials—most of what
we now know about the ancient art of Egypt is rooted in religious
EARLY DYNASTIC EGYPT, beliefs and practices.
c. 2950–2575 BCE
Around 3000 BCE, Egypt became a consolidated state. According to THE GOD-KINGS
legend, the country had previously evolved into two major king- The Greek historian Herodotus thought the Egyptians were the
doms—the Two Lands—Upper Egypt in the south (upstream on most religious people he had ever encountered. In their world-
the Nile) and Lower Egypt in the north (downstream). But a pow- view, the movements of heavenly bodies, the workings of gods,
erful ruler from Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and unified and the humblest of human activities were all believed to be part
the two kingdoms. In the art of the subsequent Early Dynastic of a balanced and harmonious grand design. Death was to be feared
period we see the development of fundamental and enduring ideas only by those who lived in such a way as to disrupt that har-
about kingship and the cosmic order. Since the works of art and mony. Upright souls could be confident that their spirits would
architecture that survive from ancient Egypt come mainly from live on eternally.

50 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

ART AND ITS CONTEXTS " Egyptian Symbols
Three crowns symbolize kingship in early Egyptian art: the tall, clublike queen’s crown included the feathered skin of the vulture goddess
white crown of Upper Egypt (sometimes adorned with two plumes); the Nekhbet of Upper Egypt.
flat or scooped red cap with projecting spiral of Lower Egypt; and the The god Horus, king of the earth and a force for good, is represented
double crown representing unified Egypt. as a falcon or falcon-headed man. His eyes symbolize the sun and
A striped gold and blue linen head cloth, known as the nemes moon; the solar eye is called the wedjat. The looped cross, called the
headdress, having a cobra and a vulture at the center front, was also ankh, is symbolic of everlasting life. The scarab beetle (khepri, meaning
commonly used as royal headgear. The upright form of the cobra, “he who created himself”) was associated with creation, resurrection,
known as the uraeus, represents the goddess Wadjet of Lower Egypt and the rising sun.
and is often included in king’s crowns as well (see FIG. 3–1). The

white crown red crown double crown

of Upper Egypt of Lower Egypt of unified Egypt scepter
(the South) (the North)

ankh

wedjat falcon ankh scarab

(eye of Horus) (the god Horus) Horus

By the Early Dynastic period, Egypt’s kings were revered as of truth, order, and justice; Anubis (jackal), god of embalming and
gods in human form. A royal jubilee, the heb sed or sed festival, cemeteries; and Bastet (cat), daughter of Ra.
held in the thirtieth year of the living king’s reign, renewed and
reaffirmed his divine power, and when they died, kings rejoined ARTISTIC CONVENTIONS
their father, the sun god Ra, and rode with him in the solar boat as Conventions in art are established ways of representing things,
it made its daily journey across the sky. widely accepted by artists and patrons at a particular time and
In order to please the gods and ensure their continuing good- place. Egyptian artists followed a set of fairly strict conventions,
will toward the state, kings built splendid temples and provided often based on conceptual principles rather than on the observa-
priests to maintain them. The priests saw to it that statues of the tion of the natural world with an eye to rendering it in lifelike
gods, placed deep in the innermost rooms of the temples, were fashion. Eventually a system of mathematical formulas was devel-
never without fresh food and clothing. Egyptian gods and god- oped to determine design and proportions (see “Egyptian Picto-
desses were depicted in various forms, some as human beings, oth- rial Relief,” page 64). The underlying conventions that govern
ers as animals, and still others as humans with animal heads. For ancient Egyptian art appear early, however, and are maintained,
example, Osiris, the overseer of the realm of the dead, regularly with subtle but significant variations, over almost three millennia
appears in human form wrapped in linen as a mummy. His son, of its history.
the sky god Horus, is usually depicted as a falcon or falcon-headed
man (see “Egyptian Symbols,” above). THE NARMER PALETTE This historically and artistically
Over the course of ancient Egyptian history, Amun (chief significant work of art (see “A Closer Look,” page 52) dates
god of Thebes, represented as blue and wearing a plumed crown), from the Early Dynastic period and was found in the temple
Ra (of Heliopolis), and Ptah (of Memphis) became the primary of Horus at Hierakonpolis. It is commonly interpreted as
national gods. Other gods and their manifestations included Thoth representing the unification of Egypt and the beginning of the
(ibis), god of writing, science, and law; Ma’at (feather), goddess country’s growth as a powerful nation-state. It employs many of the

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 51

A CLOSER LOOK " The Palette of Narmer
From Hierakonpolis. Early Dynastic period, c. 2950 BCE.
Green schist, height 25! (64 cm). Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (JE 32169 = CG 14716)

This figure, named by hieroglyphic Phonetic hieroglyphs centered at the top

inscription and standing on his own of each side of the palette name the king: a
ground-line, holds the king’s sandals. horizontal fish (nar) above a vertical chisel The royal procession
Narmer is barefoot because he is standing (mer). A depiction of the royal palace—seen Narmer here wears the red crown of inspects two rows of
on sacred ground, performing sacred simultaneously from above, as a groundplan, Lower Egypt and is identified by the decapitated enemies,
acts. The same sandal-bearer, likewise and frontally, as a façade (front wall of a hieroglyph label next to his head, as their heads neatly
labeled, follows Narmer on the other side building)—surrounds Narmer’s name to well by as his larger size in relation to tucked between
of the palette. signify that he is king. the other figures (hierarchic scale). their feet.

The falcon represents a god

divided into sections each telling a different
story

Narmer attacks a figure of Next to the heads of these two A bull symbolizing the might of Palettes were tablets with circular depressions
comparable size, also identified defeated enemies are, on the the king—he wears a bull’s tail where eye makeup was ground and prepared.
by a hieroglyphic label, left, an aerial depiction of a on both sides of the palette— Although this example was undoubtedly
indicating that he is an enemy of fortified city, and on the right, a tramples another enemy in front ceremonial rather than functional, a mixing
real importance, likely the ruler of gazelle trap, perhaps emblems of of a fortified city. saucer is framed by the elongated, intertwined
Lower Egypt. Narmer’s dominion over both city necks of lions, perhaps signifying the union of
and countryside. Upper and Lower Egypt.

View the Closer Look for the Palette of Narmer on myartslab.com

representational conventions that would dominate royal Egyptian showing him overwhelmingly larger than the other human figures
art from this point on. around him. He is also boldly silhouetted against a blank ground,
On the reverse side of the palette, as in the stele of Naram-Sin just like Naram-Sin, distancing details of setting and story so they
(see FIG. 2–1), hierarchic scale signals the importance of Narmer by will not distract from his pre-eminence. He wears the white crown

52 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

TECHNIQUE " Preserving the Dead
Egyptians developed mummification techniques to ensure that the ka, sloping surface to allow liquids to drain. This preservative caused
soul or life force, could live on in the body in the afterlife. No recipes for the skin to blacken, so workers often used paint or powdered
preserving the dead have been found, but the basic process seems clear makeup to restore some color, using red ocher for a man, yellow
enough from images found in tombs, the descriptions of later Greek ocher for a woman. They then packed the body cavity with clean
writers such as Herodotus and Plutarch, scientific analysis of mummies, linen soaked in various herbs and ointments, provided by the family
and modern experiments. of the deceased. The major organs were wrapped in separate packets
By the time of the New Kingdom, the routine was roughly as follows: and stored in special containers called canopic jars, to be placed in
The body was taken to a mortuary, a special structure used exclusively the tomb chamber.
for embalming. Under the supervision of a priest, workers removed the Workers next wound the trunk and each of the limbs separately
brains, generally through the nose, and emptied the body cavity—except with cloth strips, before wrapping the whole body in additional layers of
for the heart—through an incision in the left side. They then covered cloth to produce the familiar mummy shape. The workers often inserted
the body with dry natron, a naturally occurring salt, and placed it on a charms and other smaller objects among the wrappings.

of Upper Egypt while striking the enemy who kneels before him and furnishings the ka might require throughout eternity (see “Pre-
with a mace. Above this foe, the god Horus—depicted as a fal- serving the Dead,” above).
con with a human hand—holds a rope tied around the neck of
a man whose head is attached to a block sprouting stylized papy- MASTABA AND NECROPOLIS In Early Dynastic Egypt, the
rus, a plant that grew in profusion along the Nile and symbolized most common tomb structure—used by the upper level of soci-
Lower Egypt. This combination of symbols made the central mes- ety, the king’s family and relatives—was the mastaba, a flat-
sage clear: Narmer, as ruler of Upper Egypt, is in firm control of topped, one-story building with slanted walls erected above an
Lower Egypt. underground burial chamber (see “Mastaba to Pyramid,” page 55).
Many of the figures on the palette are shown in composite Mastabas were at first constructed of mud brick, but toward the
poses, so that each part of the body is portrayed from its most char- end of the Third Dynasty (c. 2650–2575 BCE), many incorporated
acteristic viewpoint. Heads are shown in profile, to capture most cut stone, at least as an exterior facing.
clearly the nose, forehead, and chin, while eyes are rendered fron- In its simplest form, the mastaba contained a serdab, a small,
tally, from their most recognizable and expressive viewpoint. Hips, sealed room housing the ka statue of the deceased, and a chapel
legs, and feet are drawn in profile, and the figure is usually strid- designed to receive mourning relatives and offerings. A vertical
ing, to reveal both legs. The torso, however, is fully frontal. This shaft dropped from the top of the mastaba down to the actual
artistic convention for representing the human figure as a concep- burial chamber, where the remains of the deceased reposed in a
tualized composite of multiple viewpoints was to be followed for coffin—at times placed within a larger stone sarcophagus—sur-
millennia in Egypt when depicting royalty and other dignitaries. rounded by appropriate grave goods. This chamber was sealed off
Persons of lesser social rank engaged in active tasks (compare the after interment. Mastabas might have numerous underground bur-
figure of Narmer with those of his standard-bearers) tend to be ial chambers to accommodate whole families, and mastaba burial
represented in ways that seem to us more lifelike. remained the standard for Egyptian elites for centuries.
Mastabas tended to be grouped together in a necropolis—
FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE literally, a “city of the dead”—at the edge of the desert on the
Ancient Egyptians believed that an essential part of every human west bank of the Nile, for the land of the dead was believed to
personality is its life force, or soul, called the ka, which lived on be in the direction of the setting sun. Two of the most extensive
after the death of the body, forever engaged in the activities it had of these early necropolises are at Saqqara and Giza, just outside
enjoyed in its former existence. But the ka needed a body to live modern Cairo.
in, either the mummified body of the deceased or, as a substitute, a
sculpted likeness in the form of a statue. The Egyptians developed DJOSER’S COMPLEX AT SAQQARA For his tomb complex
elaborate funerary practices to ensure that their deceased moved at Saqqara, the Third-Dynasty King Djoser (c. 2650–2631 BCE)
safely and effectively into the afterlife. commissioned the earliest-known monumental architecture in
It was especially important to provide a comfortable home for Egypt (FIG. 3–2). The designer of the complex was Imhotep, who
the ka of a departed king, so that even in the afterlife he would served as Djoser’s prime minister. Imhotep is the first architect
continue to ensure the well-being of Egypt. Egyptians preserved in history to be identified; his name is inscribed together with
the bodies of the royal dead with care and placed them in burial Djoser’s on the base of a statue of the king found near the
chambers filled with sculpted body substitutes and all the supplies Step Pyramid.

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 53

 step pyramid

mortuary temple

sed-festival complex

enclosure wall

south tomb

entrance complex

3–2 • RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF DJOSER’S It appears that Imhotep first planned Djoser’s tomb as a single-
FUNERARY COMPLEX, SAQQARA story mastaba, only later deciding to enlarge upon the concept.
Third Dynasty, c. 2630–2575 BCE. Situated on a level terrace, this huge
The final structure is a step pyramid formed by six mastaba-like
commemorative complex—some 1,800# (544 m) long by 900# (277 m)
wide—was designed as a replica in stone of the wood, brick, and reed elements of decreasing size stacked on top of each other (FIG. 3–3).
buildings used in rituals associated with kingship. Inside the wall, the Although the step pyramid resembles the ziggurats of Mesopota-
step pyramid dominated the complex. mia, it differs in both meaning (signifying a stairway to the sun god

3–3 • THE STEP PYRAMID AND SHAM BUILDINGS, FUNERARY COMPLEX OF DJOSER
Limestone, height of pyramid 204# (62 m).

54 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE " Mastaba to Pyramid
As the gateway to the afterlife for Egyptian kings and members of size were stacked over an underground burial chamber to form the step
the royal court, the Egyptian burial structure began as a low, solid, pyramid. The culmination of this development is the pyramid, in which
rectangular mastaba with an external niche that served as the focus of the actual burial site may be within the pyramid—not below ground—with
offerings. Later mastabas had either an internal serdab (the room where false chambers, false doors, and confusing passageways to foil potential
the ka statue was placed) and chapel (as in the drawing) or an attached tomb robbers.
chapel and serdab (not shown). Eventually, mastaba forms of decreasing

mastaba stepped pyramid

chapel
offering table

serdab with original mastaba

statue of ka shaft
underground burial
chambers
shaft

blockage burial chamber

blockage

pyramid
Step Pyramid of Djoser,
Saqqara, c. 2630–2575 BCE
weight-
relieving
chamber

air shaft?
air shaft?
burial gallery to chambers
chamber
ascending
abandoned corridor
burial chamber
air shaft?
escape descending
route? corridor

Pyramid of Khafre,
Giza, c. 2600 BCE

Watch an architectural simulation about the development from mastaba to pyramid on myartslab.com

Ra) and purpose (protecting a tomb). A 92-foot shaft descended for continuing worship of the dead king. In the form of his ka
from the original mastaba enclosed within the pyramid. A descend- statue, Djoser intended to observe these devotions through two
ing corridor at the base of the step pyramid provided an entrance peepholes in the wall between the serdab and the funerary chapel.
from outside to a granite-lined burial vault. To the east of the pyramid, buildings filled with debris represent
The adjacent funerary temple, where priests performed rituals actual structures in which the spirit of the dead king could con-
before placing the king’s mummified body in its tomb, was used tinue to observe the sed rituals that had ensured his long reign.

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 55

THE OLD KINGDOM, 2472 BCE). The oldest and largest pyramid at Giza is that of Khufu,
c. 2575–2150 BCE which covers 13 acres at its base. It was originally finished with
The Old Kingdom was a time of social and political stability, a thick veneer of polished limestone that lifted its apex to almost
despite increasingly common military excursions to defend the 481 feet, some 30 feet above the present summit. The pyramid of
borders. The growing wealth of ruling families of the period is Khafre is slightly smaller than Khufu’s, and Menkaure’s is consider-
reflected in the enormous and elaborate tomb complexes they ably smaller.
commissioned for themselves. Kings were not the only patrons The site was carefully planned to follow the sun’s east–west
of the arts, however. Upper-level government officials also could path. Next to each of the pyramids was a funerary temple con-
afford tombs decorated with elaborate carvings. nected by a causeway—an elevated and enclosed pathway or cor-
ridor—to a valley temple on the bank of the Nile (see FIG. 3–5).
THE GREAT PYRAMIDS AT GIZA When a king died, his body was embalmed and ferried west across
The architectural form most closely identified with Egypt is the the Nile from the royal palace to his valley temple, where it was
true pyramid with a square base and four sloping triangular faces, received with elaborate ceremonies. It was then carried up the
first erected in the Fourth Dynasty (2575–2450 BCE). The angled causeway to his funerary temple and placed in its chapel, where
sides may have been meant to represent the slanting rays of the family members presented offerings of food and drink, and priests
sun, for inscriptions on the walls of pyramid tombs built in the performed rites in which the deceased’s spirit consumed a meal.
Fifth and Sixth Dynasties tell of deceased kings climbing up the These rites were to be performed at the chapel in perpetuity.
rays to join the sun god Ra. Finally, the body was entombed in a vault deep within the pyra-
Although not the first pyramids, the most famous are the mid, at the end of a long, narrow, and steeply rising passageway.
three great pyramid tombs at Giza (FIGS. 3–4, 3–5). These were This tomb chamber was sealed off after the burial with a 50-ton
built by three successive Fourth-Dynasty kings: Khufu (r. c. 2551– stone block. To further protect the king from intruders, three false
2528 BCE), Khafre (r. 2520–2494 BCE), and Menkaure (r. c. 2490– passageways obscured the location of the tomb.

3–4 • GREAT PYRAMIDS, GIZA

Fourth Dynasty, c. 2575–2450 BCE. Erected by (from the left) Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu.
Limestone and granite, height of pyramid of Khufu, 450# (137 m).

56 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

3–5 • MODEL OF THE GIZA PLATEAU
From left to right: the temples and pyramids of Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu.

CONSTRUCTING THE PYRAMIDS Building a pyramid was the slanting sides had to remain constant so that the stones would
a formidable undertaking. A large workers’ burial ground dis- meet precisely in the center at the top.
covered at Giza attests to the huge labor force that had to be
assembled, housed, and fed. Most of the cut stone blocks—each KHAFRE’S COMPLEX Khafre’s funerary complex is the best
weighing an average of 2.5 tons—used in building the Giza com- preserved. Its pyramid is the only one of the three to have main-
plex were quarried either on the site or nearby. Teams of workers tained some of its veneer facing at the top. But the complex
transported them by sheer muscle power, employing small logs as is most famous for the GREAT SPHINX that sits just behind
rollers or pouring water on mud to create a slippery surface over Khafre’s valley temple. This colossal portrait of the king—65 feet
which they could drag the blocks on sleds. tall—combines his head with the long body of a crouching lion,
Scholars and engineers have various theories about how the seemingly merging notions of human intelligence with animal
pyramids were raised. Some ideas have been tested in computer- strength (FIG. 3–6).
ized projections and a few models on a small but representative In the adjacent VALLEY TEMPLE, massive blocks of red
scale have been constructed. The most efficient means of getting granite form walls and piers supporting a flat roof (FIG. 3–7). (See
the stones into position might have been to build a temporary, “Early Construction Methods,” page 19.) A clerestory (a row of
gently sloping ramp around the body of the pyramid as it grew tall, narrow windows in the upper walls, not visible in the figure),
higher. The ramp could then be dismantled as the stones were lets in light that reflects off the polished Egyptian alabaster floor.
smoothed out or slabs of veneer were laid. Within the temple were a series of over-life-size statues, portray-
The designers who oversaw the building of such massive ing KHAFRE as an enthroned king (FIG. 3–8). The falcon god
structures were capable of the most sophisticated mathematical cal- Horus perches on the back of the throne, protectively enfolding
culations. They oriented the pyramids to the points of the compass the king’s head with his wings. Lions—symbols of regal author-
and may have incorporated other symbolic astronomical calcula- ity—form the throne’s legs, and the intertwined lotus and papyrus
tions as well. There was no room for trial and error. The huge plants beneath the seat symbolize the king’s power over Upper
foundation layer had to be absolutely level and the angle of each of (lotus) and Lower (papyrus) Egypt.

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 57

3–6 • GREAT SPHINX, FUNERARY COMPLEX OF KHAFRE
Giza. Old Kingdom, c. 2520–2494 BCE. Limestone, height approx. 65#
(19.8 m).

Khafre wears the traditional royal costume—a short, pleated

kilt, a linen headdress, and a false beard symbolic of royalty. He
exudes a strong sense of dignity, calm, and above all permanence.
In his right hand, he holds a cylinder, probably a rolled piece of
cloth. His arms are pressed tightly within the contours of his body,
which is firmly anchored in the confines of the stone block from
which it was carved. The statue was created from an unusual stone,
a type of gneiss (related to diorite), imported from Nubia, that pro-
duces a rare optical effect. When illuminated by sunlight entering
through the temple’s clerestory, it glows a deep blue, the celestial
color of Horus, filling the space with a blue radiance.

SCULPTURE
As the surviving statues of Khafre’s valley temple demonstrate,
Egyptian sculptors were adept at creating lifelike three-dimensional
figures that also express a feeling of strength and permanence con-
sistent with the unusually hard stones from which they were carved.

3–7 • VALLEY TEMPLE OF KHAFRE

Giza. Old Kingdom, c. 2520–2494 BCE. Limestone and red granite.

58 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

3–8 • KHAFRE
youthful queen, taking a smaller step forward, echoes his striding
Giza, valley temple of
Khafre. Fourth Dynasty,
pose. Her sheer, close-fitting garment reveals the soft curves of her
c. 2520–2494 BCE. gently swelling body, a foil for the tight muscularity of the king.
Diorite-gabbro gneiss, The time-consuming task of polishing this double statue was never
height 5#61⁄8! (1.68 m). completed, suggesting that the work may have been undertaken
Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
only a few years before Menkaure’s death in about 2472 BCE.
(JE 10062 = CG 14)
Traces of red paint remain on the king’s face, ears, and neck (male
figures were traditionally painted red), as do traces of black on the
queen’s hair.

MENKAURE AND A QUEEN Dignity, calm, and permanence

also characterize a sleek double portrait of Khafre’s heir King
Menkaure and a queen, probably Khamerernebty II, discovered
in Menkaure’s valley temple (FIG. 3–9). The couple’s separate
figures, close in size, are joined by the stone from which they
emerge, forming a single unit. They are further united by the
queen’s symbolic gesture of embrace. Her right hand comes from
behind to clasp his torso, and her left hand rests gently, if stiffly,
over his upper arm.
The king—depicted in accordance with Egyptian ideals as
3–9 • MENKAURE AND A QUEEN, PROBABLY
an athletic, youthful figure, nude to the waist and wearing the
KHAMERERNEBTY II
royal kilt and headcloth—stands in a conventional, balanced
From Giza. Fourth Dynasty, 2490–2472 BCE. Graywacke with traces
pose, striding with the left foot forward, his arms straight at his of red and black paint, height 541⁄2! (142.3 cm). Museum of Fine Arts,
sides, and his fists clenched over cylindrical objects. His equally Boston. Harvard University—Museum of Fine Arts Expedition. (11.1738)

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 59

 3–11 • BUTCHER
Perhaps from the tomb of the official Ni-kau-inpu and his wife Hemet-re,
3–10 • SEATED SCRIBE Giza? Fifth Dynasty, c. 2450–2325 BCE. Painted limestone (knife
Found near the tomb of Kai, Saqqara. Fifth Dynasty, c. 2450–2325 BCE. restored), height 145⁄8! (37 cm). The Oriental Institute Museum, University
Painted limestone with inlaid eyes of rock crystal, calcite, and magnesite of Chicago. (10626)
mounted in copper, height 21! (53 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris. (N 2290
Although statues such as this have been assumed to represent the
= E 3023)
deceased’s servants, it has recently been proposed that instead they
High-ranking scribes could hope to be appointed to one of several depict relatives and friends of the deceased in the role of servants,
“houses of life,” where they would copy, compile, study, and repair allowing these loved ones to accompany the deceased into the next life.
valuable sacred and scientific texts.

SEATED SCRIBE Old Kingdom sculptors also produced stat- pupils are slightly off-center in the irises, the eyes give the illu-
ues of less prominent people, rendered in a more relaxed, life- sion of being in motion, as if they were seeking contact, and the
like fashion. A more lively and less formal mode is employed in reflective quality of the polished crystal inlay reproduces with eerie
the statue of a SEATED SCRIBE from early in the Fifth Dynasty fidelity the contrast between the moist surface of eyes and the sur-
(FIG. 3–10)—with round head, alert expression, and cap of close- rounding soft flesh in a living human face.
cropped hair—that was discovered near the tomb of a government
official named Kai. It could be a portrait of Kai himself. The irreg- STATUETTES OF SERVANTS Even more lifelike than the
ular contours of his engaging face project a sense of individual scribe were smaller figures of servants at work that were made
likeness and human presence. for inclusion in Old Kingdom tombs so that the deceased could
The scribe’s sedentary vocation has made his sagging body be provided for in the next world. Poses are neither formal nor
slightly flabby, his condition advertising a life free from hard physi- reflective, but rooted directly in the labor these figures were
cal labor. As an ancient Egyptian inscription advises—“Become a expected to perform throughout eternity. A painted limestone
scribe so that your limbs remain smooth and your hands soft and statuette from the Fifth Dynasty (FIG. 3–11) captures a butcher,
you can wear white and walk like a man of standing whom [even] raised up on the balls of his feet to bend down and lean for-
courtiers will greet” (cited in Strouhal, p. 216). This scribe sits ward, poised, knife in hand, over the throat of an ox that he has
holding a papyrus scroll partially unrolled on his lap, his right hand just slaughtered. Having accomplished his work, he looks up to
clasping a now-lost reed brush used in writing. The alert expres- acknowledge us, an action that only enhances his sense of lifelike
sion on his face reveals more than a lively intelligence. Because the presence. The emphasis on involved poses and engagement with

60 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 3–12 • TI WATCHING A
HIPPOPOTAMUS HUNT
Tomb of Ti, Saqqara. Fifth Dynasty, c. 2450–
2325 BCE. Painted limestone relief, height
approx. 45! (114.3 cm).

decoration carried religious meaning, but

it could also evoke the deceased’s everyday
life or depict ceremonial events that pro-
claimed the deceased’s importance. Tombs
therefore provide a wealth of information
about ancient Egyptian culture.

THE TOMB OF TI On the walls of the

large mastaba of a wealthy Fifth-Dynasty
government official named Ti, a painted
relief shows him watching a hippopotamus
hunt—an official duty of royal courtiers
(FIG. 3–12). It was believed that Seth, the
god of chaos, disguised himself as a hippo.
Hippos were also destructive since they
wandered into fields, damaging crops.
Tomb depictions of such hunts therefore
proclaimed the valor of the deceased and
the triumph of good over evil, or at least
order over destructiveness.
The artists who created this picture in
painted limestone relief used a number of
established Egyptian representational con-
ventions. The river is conceived as if seen
from above, rendered as a band of parallel
wavy lines below the boats. The creatures
in this river, however—fish, a crocodile,
and hippopotamuses—are shown in profile
for easy identification. The shallow boats
carrying Ti and his men by skimming
along the surface of the water are shown
straight on in relation to the viewers’
vantage point, and the papyrus stalks that
choke the marshy edges of the river are disciplined into a regular
the viewer may have been an attempt to underscore the abil- pattern of projecting, linear, parallel, vertical forms that highlight
ity of such figures to perform their assigned tasks, or perhaps it the contrastingly crisp and smooth contour of Ti’s stylized body.
was meant to indicate their lower social status by showing them At the top of the papyrus grove, however, this patterning relaxes
involved in physical labor. Both may be signified here. The con- while enthusiastic animals of prey—perhaps foxes—stalk birds
trast between the detached stylization of upper-class figures and among the leaves and flowers. The hierarchically scaled and sleekly
the engaging lifelikeness of laborers can be seen in Old Kingdom stylized figure of Ti, rendered in the conventional composite pose,
pictorial relief works as well. looms over all. In a separate boat ahead of him, the actual hunters,
being of lesser rank and engaged in more strenuous activities, are
PICTORIAL RELIEF IN TOMBS rendered in a more lifelike and lively fashion than their master.
To provide the ka with the most pleasant possible living quar- They are captured at the charged moment of closing in on the
ters for eternity, wealthy families often had the interior walls and hunted prey, spears positioned at the ready, legs extended for the
ceilings of their tombs decorated with paintings and reliefs. This critical lunge forward.

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 61

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM,
c. 1975–c. 1640 BCE
The collapse of the Old Kingdom, with its long succession of
powerful kings, was followed by roughly 150 years of political
turmoil, fragmentation, and warfare, traditionally referred to as the
First Intermediate period (c. 2125–1975 bce). About 2010 bce, a
series of kings named Mentuhotep (Eleventh Dynasty, c. 2010–
c. 1938 bce) gained power in Thebes, and the country was reu-
nited under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep, who reasserted royal power
and founded the Middle Kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom was another high point in Egyptian
history. Arts and writing flourished in the Twelfth Dynasty (1938–
1756 bce), while reflecting a burgeoning awareness of the politi-
cal upheaval from which the country had just emerged. Using
a strengthened military, Middle Kingdom rulers expanded and
patrolled the borders, especially in lower Nubia, south of present-
day Aswan (see MAP 3–1, page 50). By the Thirteenth Dynasty
(c. 1755–1630 bce), however, central control by the government
was weakened by a series of short-lived kings and an influx of
foreigners, especially in the delta.

3–13 • HEAD OF SENUSRET III

PORTRAITS OF SENUSRET III
Twelfth Dynasty, c. 1836–1818 BCE. Yellow quartzite, height 173⁄4! $
Some royal portraits from the Middle Kingdom appear to express 131⁄2! $ 17! (45.1 $ 34.3 $ 43.2 cm). The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,
an unexpected awareness of the hardship and fragility of human Kansas City, Missouri. Purchase: William Rockhill Nelson Trust (62-11)
existence. Statues of Senusret III, a king of the Twelfth Dynasty,
who ruled from c. 1836 to 1818 bce, reflects this new sensibil-
ity. Old Kingdom rulers such as Khafre (see FIG. 3–8) gaze into as well as their ornamental columns, lintels, false doors, and niches,
eternity confident and serene, toned and unflinching, whereas were all carved into the solid rock. An impressive necropolis was
the portrait of SENUSRET III seems to capture a monarch preoc- created in the cliffs at BENI HASAN on the east bank of the Nile
cupied and emotionally drained (FIG. 3–13). Creases line his sag- (FIG. 3–14). Painted scenes cover the interior walls of many tombs.
ging cheeks, his eyes are sunken, his eyelids droop, his forehead is Among the best preserved are those in the Twelfth-Dynasty tomb
flexed, and his jaw is sternly set—a bold image of a resolute ruler,
tested but unbowed.
Senusret was a dynamic king and successful general who led
four military expeditions into Nubia, overhauled the Egyptian
central administration, and was effective in regaining control over
the country’s increasingly independent nobles. To modern view-
ers, his portrait raises questions of interpretation. Are we looking
at the face of a man wise in the ways of the world but lonely,
saddened, and burdened by the weight of his responsibilities? Or
are we looking at a reassuring statement that in spite of troubled
times—that have clearly left their mark on the face of the ruler
himself—royal rule endures in Egypt? Given what we know about
Egyptian history at this time, it is difficult to be sure.

ROCK-CUT TOMBS
During the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, members of the nobil-
ity and high-level officials commissioned tombs hollowed out of
the face of a cliff. A typical rock-cut tomb included an entrance
3–14 • ROCK-CUT TOMBS, BENI HASAN
portico (projecting porch), a main hall, and a shrine with a burial Twelfth Dynasty, 1938–1756 BCE. At the left is the entrance to the tomb
chamber under the offering chapel. The chambers of these tombs, of a provincial governor and the commander-in-chief Amenemhat.

62 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 for a fig to add to the ordered stack in his basket, while his com-
panion carefully arranges the harvest in a larger box for transport.
Like the energetic hunters on the much earlier painted relief in the
tomb of Ti (see FIG. 3–12), the upper torsos of these farm workers
take a more lifelike profile posture, deviating from the strict fron-
tality of the royal composite pose.

FUNERARY STELAI
Only the wealthiest and noblest of ancient Egyptians could afford
elaborately decorated mastabas or rock-cut tombs. Prosperous
people, however, could still commission funerary stelai depicting
themselves, their family, and offerings of food. These personal
monuments—meant to preserve the memory of the deceased and
3–15 • PICKING FIGS inspire the living to make offerings to them—contain compelling
Wall painting from the tomb of Khnumhotep, Beni Hasan. Twelfth works of ancient Egyptian pictorial art. An unfinished stele made
Dynasty, c. 1890 BCE. Tempera facsimile by Nina de Garis.
for the tomb of the SCULPTOR USERWER (FIG. 3–16) presents
three levels of decoration: one large upper block with five bands
of hieroglyphs, beneath which are two registers with figures, each
of local noble Khnumhotep, some of which portray vivid vignettes identified by inscription.
of farm work on his estates. In one painting two men harvest figs, The text is addressed to the living, imploring them to make
rushing to compete with three baboons who relish the ripe fruit offerings to Userwer: “O living ones who are on the earth who
from their perches within the trees (FIG. 3–15). One man reaches pass by this tomb, as your deities love and favor you, may you say:

3–16 • STELE OF THE SCULPTOR

USERWER
Twelfth Dynasty, c. 1850 BCE. Limestone, red
and black ink, 201⁄2! $ 19! (52 $ 48 cm). British
Museum London. (EA 579)

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 63

TECHNIQUE " Egyptian Pictorial Relief
Painting usually relies on color and line for its effect, while relief sculpture these drawings, and it may have been another person who
usually depends on the play of light and shadow alone, but in Egypt, smoothed the carved surfaces of the relief and eventually covered
relief sculpture was also painted (see FIG. 3–17). The walls and closely them with paint.
spaced columns of Egyptian tombs and temples were almost completely The lower left corner of the unfinished Twelfth-Dynasty stele of
covered with colorful scenes and hieroglyphic texts. Until the Eighteenth Userwer shown here still maintains its preliminary underdrawings.
Dynasty (c. 1539–1292 BCE), the only colors used were black, white, red, In some figures there are also the tentative beginnings of the relief
yellow, blue, and green. Modeling might be indicated by overpainting carving. The figures are delineated with black ink and the grid lines are
lines in a contrasting color, although the sense of three-dimensionality rendered in red. Every body part had its designated place on the grid.
was conveyed primarily by the carved forms and incised inscriptions For example, figures are designed 18 squares tall, measuring from the
underneath the paint. The crisp outlines created by such carving assured soles of their feet to their hairline; the tops of their knees conform with
the primacy of line in Egyptian pictorial relief. the sixth square up from the ground-line. Their shoulders align with the
With very few exceptions, figures, scenes, and texts were top of square 16 and are six squares wide. Slight deviations exist within
composed in bands, or registers. The scenes were first laid out with this structured design format, but this canon of proportions represents
inked lines, using a squared grid to guide the designer in proportioning an ideal system that was standard in pictorial relief throughout the
the human figures. The sculptor who executed the carving followed Middle Kingdom.

DETAIL OF THE
STELE OF THE
SCULPTOR
USERWER
IN FIG. 3–16

‘A thousand of bread and beer, a thousand of cattle and birds, a on the other side of their offering table is his son, Sneferuweser.
thousand of alabaster [vessels] and clothes, a thousand of offerings In the lowest register are representations of other family members
and provisions that go forth before Osiris’” (Robins, p. 103). (probably Userwer’s children) and his grandparents.
At left, on the register immediately below this inscription, One of the most striking features of the lowest register of
Userwer sits before a table piled with offerings of food. Behind this stele is its unfinished state. The two leftmost figures were left
him is his wife Satdepetnetjer, and facing him on the other side of uncarved, but the stone surface still maintains the preparatory ink
the offering table is Satameni, a standing woman also identified as drawing meant to guide the sculptor, preserving striking evidence
his wife. Userwer could have had more than one wife, but one of of a system of canonical figure proportions that was established
these women might also be the sculptor’s deceased first wife. At in the Middle Kingdom (see “Egyptian Pictorial Relief,” above).
the other side of the stele on this same register but facing in the The unfinished state of this stele has led to the suggestion that
opposite direction sits another couple before another table heaped Userwer might have been in the process of carving it for himself
with food. They are identified as Userwer’s parents, and the figure when his sudden death left it incomplete.

64 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 has provided us with detailed information about the
lives of the people who created the royal tombs.
Workers lived together here under the rule of the
king’s chief minister. During a ten-day week, they
worked for eight days and had two days off, and also
participated in many religious festivals. They lived a
good life with their families, were given clothing,
sandals, grain, and firewood by the king, and had
permission to raise livestock and birds as well as tend
a garden. The residents had a council, and the many
written records that survive suggest a literate and liti-
gious society that required many scribes. Because the
men were away for most of the week working on the
tombs, women had a prominent role in the town.
3–17 • STELE OF AMENEMHAT
From Assasif. Late Eleventh Dynasty, c. 2000 BCE. Painted limestone, 11! $ 15!
(30 $ 50 cm). Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (JE 45626) THE NEW KINGDOM,
c. 1539–1075 BCE
During the Second Intermediate period (1630–
A more modest stele for a man named AMENEMHAT was 1520 BCE)—another turbulent interruption in the succession of
brought to completion as a vibrantly painted relief (FIG. 3–17). dynasties ruling a unified Egypt—an eastern Mediterranean people
Underneath an inscription inviting food offerings for the deceased called the Hyksos invaded Egypt’s northernmost regions. Finally,
Amenemhat is a portrait of his family. Amenemhat sits on a lion- the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1539–1292 BCE) regained
legged bench between his wife Iyi and their son Antef, embraced control of the entire Nile region, extending from Nubia in the
by both. Next to the trio is an offering table, heaped with meat, south to the Mediterranean Sea in the north, and restored political
topped with onions, and sheltering two loaves of bread standing and economic strength. Roughly a century later, one of the same
under the table on the floor. On the far right is Amenemhat and dynasty’s most dynamic kings, Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 BCE),
Iyi’s daughter, Hapy, completing this touching tableau of family extended Egypt’s influence along the eastern Mediterranean coast
unity, presumably projected into their life after death. The painter as far as the region of present-day Syria. His accomplishment was
of this relief follows an established Egyptian convention of dif- the result of 15 or more military campaigns and his own skill at
ferentiating gender by skin tonality: dark red-brown for men and diplomacy. The heartland of ancient Egypt was now surrounded by
lighter yellow-ocher for women. a buffer of empire.
Thutmose III was the first ruler to refer to himself as “phar-
TOWN PLANNING aoh,” a term that literally meant “great house.” Egyptians used it in
Although Egyptians used durable materials in the construction of the same way that Americans say “the White House” to mean the
tombs, they built their own dwellings with simple mud bricks, current U.S. president and his staff. The successors of Thutmose
which have either disintegrated over time or been carried away III continued to call themselves pharaohs, and the term ultimately
for fertilizer by farmers. Only the foundations of these dwellings found its way into the Hebrew Bible—and modern usage—as the
now remain. title for the kings of Egypt.
Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of Kahun, a town
built by Senusret II (ruled c. 1842–1837 BCE) for the many officials, THE GREAT TEMPLE COMPLEXES
priests, and workers who built and maintained his pyramid com- At the height of the New Kingdom, rulers undertook extensive
plex. Parallel streets were laid out on a grid, forming rectangular building programs along the entire length of the Nile. Their pal-
blocks divided into lots for homes and other buildings. The houses aces, forts, and administrative centers disappeared long ago, but
of priests, court officials, and their families were large and comfort- remnants of temples and tombs of this great age have endured.
able, with private living quarters and public rooms grouped around Thebes was Egypt’s religious center throughout most of the New
central courtyards. The largest had as many as 70 rooms spread out Kingdom, and worship of the Theban triad of deities—Amun,
over half an acre. Workers and their families made do with small, his wife Mut, and their son Khons—had spread throughout the
five-room row-houses built back to back along narrow streets. country. Temples to these and other gods were a major focus of
A New Kingdom workers’ village, discovered at Deir el- royal patronage, as were tombs and temples erected to glorify the
Medina on the west bank of the Nile near the Valley of the Kings, kings themselves.

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 65

 sanctuary

hypostyle hall

pylon

3–18 • RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF

THE GREAT TEMPLE OF AMUN AT KARNAK
New Kingdom, c. 1579–1075 BCE.

THE NEW KINGDOM TEMPLE PLAN As the home of the god, reconstruction drawing) through a principal courtyard, a hypostyle
an Egyptian temple originally took the form of a house—a simple, hall, and a number of smaller halls and courts. Pylons set off each of
rectangular, flat-roofed building preceded by a courtyard and gate- these separate elements. Between the reigns of Thutmose I (Eight-
way. The builders of the New Kingdom enlarged and multiplied eenth Dynasty, r. c. 1493–1482 bce), and Ramses II (Nineteenth
these elements. The gateway became a massive pylon with taper- Dynasty, r. c. 1279–1213 bce), this area of the complex underwent
ing walls; the semipublic courtyard was surrounded by columns a great deal of construction and renewal. The greater part of the
(a peristyle court); the temple itself included an outer hypostyle pylons leading to the sanctuary and the halls and courts behind
hall (a vast hall filled with columns) and an inner offering hall and them were renovated or newly built and embellished with color-
sanctuary. The design was symmetrical and axial—that is, all its ful pictorial wall reliefs. A sacred lake was also added to the south
separate elements are symmetrically arranged along a dominant of the complex, where the king and priests might undergo ritual
center line, creating a processional path from the outside straight purification before entering the temple. Thutmose III erected a
into the sanctuary. The rooms became smaller, darker, and more court and festival temple to his own glory behind the sanctuary
exclusive as they neared the sanctuary, where the cult image of of Amun. His great-grandson Amenhotep III (r. 1390–1353 bce)
the god was housed. Only the pharaoh and the priests entered placed a large stone statue of the god Khepri, the scarab (beetle)
these inner rooms. symbolic of the rising sun, rebirth, and everlasting life, next to the
Two temple districts consecrated primarily to the worship of sacred lake.
Amun, Mut, and Khons arose within the area of Thebes—a huge In the sanctuary of Amun, priests washed the god’s statue
complex at Karnak to the north and, joined to it by an avenue of every morning and clothed it in a new garment. Because the god
sphinxes, a more compact temple at Luxor to the south. was thought to derive nourishment from the spirit of food, his
statue was provided with tempting meals twice a day, which the
KARNAK Karnak was a long-standing sacred site, where temples priests then removed and ate themselves. Ordinary people entered
were built and rebuilt for over 1,500 years. During the nearly the temple precinct only as far as the forecourts of the hypostyle
500 years of the New Kingdom, successive kings renovated and halls, where they found themselves surrounded by inscriptions and
expanded the complex of the GREAT TEMPLE OF AMUN until images of kings and the god on columns and walls. During reli-
it covered about 60 acres, an area as large as a dozen football fields gious festivals, they lined the waterways, along which statues of
(FIG. 3–18). the gods were carried in ceremonial boats, and were permitted to
Access to the heart of the temple, a sanctuary containing submit petitions to the priests for requests they wished the gods
the statue of Amun, was from the west (on the left side of the to grant.

66 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 clerestory
papyrus capitals THE GREAT HALL AT KARNAK One of the
most prominent features of the complex at Kar-
nak is the enormous hypostyle hall set between
two pylons at the end of the main forecourt.
Erected in the reigns of the Nineteenth-Dynasty
rulers Sety I (r. c. 1290–1279 bce) and his son
Ramses II (r. c. 1279–1213 bce), and called the
“Temple of the Spirit of Sety, Beloved of Ptah
in the House of Amun,” it may have been used
for royal coronation ceremonies. Ramses II
referred to it as “the place where the common
people extol the name of his majesty.” The hall
was 340 feet wide and 170 feet long. Its 134
closely spaced columns supported a roof of flat
stones, the center section of which rose some
bud capitals 30 feet higher than the broad sides (FIGS. 3–19,
3–20). The columns supporting this higher
3–19 • RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL, part of the roof are 69 feet tall and 12 feet in
GREAT TEMPLE OF AMUN AT KARNAK diameter, with massive papyrus capitals. On
Nineteenth Dynasty, c. 1292–1190 BCE.
each side, smaller columns with bud capitals
seem to march off forever into the darkness. In
each of the side walls of the higher center sec-
tion, a long row of window openings created a clerestory. These
openings were filled with stone grillwork, so they cannot have
provided much light, but they did permit a cooling flow of air
through the hall. Despite the dimness of the interior, artists cov-
ered nearly every inch of the columns, walls, and cross-beams with
painted pictorial reliefs and inscriptions.

HATSHEPSUT
Across the Nile from Karnak and Luxor lay Deir el-Bahri and the
Valleys of the Kings and Queens. These valleys on the west bank of
the Nile held the royal necropolis, including the tomb of the phar-
aoh Hatshepsut. The dynamic Hatshepsut (Eighteenth Dynasty, r.
c. 1473–1458 bce) is a notable figure in a period otherwise domi-
nated by male warrior-kings. Besides Hatshepsut, very few women
ruled Egypt—they included the little-known Sobekneferu and
Tausret, and much later, the well-known Cleopatra VII.
The daughter of Thutmose I, Hatshepsut married her half-
brother, who then reigned for 14 years as Thutmose II. When
he died in c. 1473, she became regent for his underage son—
Thutmose III—born to one of his concubines. Within a few
years, Hatshepsut had herself declared “king” by the priests of
Amun, a maneuver that made her co-ruler with Thutmose III for
20 years.
There was no artistic formula for a female pharaoh in Egyptian
art, yet Hatshepsut had to be portrayed in her new role. What hap-
pened reveals something fundamentally important about the art
of ancient Egypt. She was represented as a male king (FIG. 3–21),
wearing a kilt and linen headdress, occasionally even a king’s false
3–20 • COLUMNS WITH PAPYRIFORM AND BUD
CAPITALS, HYPOSTYLE HALL, GREAT TEMPLE OF AMUN beard. The formula for portraying kings was not adapted to suit
AT KARNAK one individual; she was adapted to conform to convention. There

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 67

 3–21 • HATSHEPSUT KNEELING
From Deir el-Bahri. Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1473–1458 BCE. Red granite, height 8#6! (2.59 m).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

could hardly be a more powerful manifestation of the premium on tradition in

Egyptian royal art.
At the height of the New Kingdom, rulers undertook extensive personal
building programs, and Hatshepsut is responsible for one of the most spectacular:
her FUNERARY TEMPLE located at Deir el-Bahri, about a mile away from her
actual tomb in the Valley of the Kings (FIG. 3–22). This imposing complex was
designed for funeral rites and commemorative ceremonies and is much larger
and more prominent than the tomb itself, reversing the scale relationship we saw
in the Old Kingdom pyramid complexes.

3–22 • FUNERARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT, DEIR EL-BAHRI

Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1473–1458 BCE. (At the far left, ramp and base of the funerary
temple of Mentuhotep III. Eleventh Dynasty, r. c. 2009–1997 BCE.)

View the Closer Look for the funerary temple of Hatshepsut

on myartslab.com

68 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 Temple of Thutmose III Chapel of Hathor

Temple of
Hatshepsut

Temple of
Mentuhotep II

Avenue of Sphinxes
leading to Karnak

3–23 • SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF THE FUNERARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT

Deir el-Bahri.

Magnificently sited and sensitively reflecting the natural three- began construction of an elaborate Theban tomb comprised of
part layering in the rise of the landscape—from flat desert, through four rooms, including an imposing hypostyle hall 82 feet wide.
a sloping hillside, to the crescendo of sheer stone cliffs—Hatshep- Walls were covered with paintings or with shallow pictorial relief
sut’s temple was constructed on an axial plan (FIG. 3–23). A cause- carvings, celebrating the accomplishments, affiliations, and lineage
way lined with sphinxes once ran from a valley temple on the Nile of Ramose and his wife Merytptah, or visualizing the funeral rites
to the huge open space of the first court, where rare myrrh trees that would take place after their death. But the tomb was not used
were planted in the temple’s garden terraces. From there, visitors by Ramose. Work on it ceased in the fourth year of Amenho-
ascended a long, straight ramp to a second court where shrines to tep IV’s reign, when, renamed Akhenaten, he relocated the court
Anubis and Hathor occupy the ends of the columned porticos. from Thebes to the new city of Akhetaten. Presumably Ramose
On the temple’s uppermost court, colossal royal statues fronted moved with the court to the new capital, but neither his name nor
another colonnade (a row of columns supporting a lintel or a a new tomb has been discovered there.
series of arches), and behind this lay a large hypostyle hall with The tomb was abandoned in various stages of completion.
chapels dedicated to Hatshepsut, her father, and the gods Amun The reliefs were never painted, and some walls preserve only the
and Ra-Horakhty—a powerful form of the sun god Ra combined preliminary sketches that would have guided sculptors. But the
with Horus. Centered in the hall’s back wall was the entrance to works that were executed are among the most sophisticated relief
the innermost sanctuary, a small chamber cut deep into the cliff. carvings in the history of art. On one wall, Ramose and his wife
Merytptah appear, hosting a banquet for their family. All are por-
THE TOMB OF RAMOSE trayed at the same moment of youthful perfection, even though
The traditional art of pictorial relief, employing a representational they represent two successive generations. Sophisticated carvers
system that had dominated Egyptian figural art since the time of lavished their considerable technical virtuosity on the portrayal of
Narmer, reached a high degree of aesthetic refinement and techni- these untroubled and majestic couples, creating clear textural dif-
cal sophistication during the reign of Amenhotep III (Eighteenth ferentiation of skin, hair, clothes, and jewelry. The easy elegance
Dynasty, r. c. 1390–1353 bce), especially in the reliefs carved for of linear fluidity is not easy to obtain in this medium, and the con-
the unfinished tomb of Ramose near Thebes (FIG. 3–24). vincing sense of three-dimensionality in forms and their placement
As mayor of Thebes and vizier (principal royal advisor or is managed within an extraordinarily shallow depth of relief. In the
minister) to both Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (r. 1353– detail of Ramose’s brother May and sister-in-law Werener in FIG.
c. 1336 bce), Ramose was second only to the pharaoh in power 3–24, the traditional ancient Egyptian marital embrace (see FIGS.
and prestige. Soon after his ascent to political prominence, he 3–9, 3–17) takes on a new tenderness, recalling—especially within

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 69

 3–24 • RAMOSE’S BROTHER MAY
AND HIS WIFE WERENER
Tomb of Ramose, Thebes. Eighteenth
Dynasty, c. 1375–1365 BCE.

the eternal stillness of a tomb—the words of a New Kingdom love

poem:
While unhurried days come and go,
Let us turn to each other in quiet affection,
Walk in peace to the edge of old age.
And I shall be with you each unhurried day,
A woman given her one wish: to see
For a lifetime the face of her lord.
(Love Songs of the New Kingdom, trans. Foster, p. 18)
The conceptual conventions of Egyptian royal art are rendered in
these carvings with such warmth and refinement that they become
almost believable. Our rational awareness of their artificiality is
momentarily eclipsed by their sheer beauty. But within this refined
world of stable convention, something very jarring took place dur-
ing the reign of Amenhotep III’s successor, Amenhotep IV.

AKHENATEN AND THE ART OF THE AMARNA

PERIOD
Amenhotep IV was surely the most unusual ruler in the history of
ancient Egypt. During his 17-year reign (c. 1353–1336 BCE), he
radically transformed the political, spiritual, and cultural life of the
country. He founded a new religion honoring a single supreme 3–25 • COLOSSAL FIGURE OF AKHENATEN
god, the life-giving sun deity Aten (represented by the sun’s disk), From the temple known as the Gempaaten, built early in Akhenaten’s
and changed his own name in about 1348 BCE to Akhenaten reign just southeast of the Temple of Karnak. Sandstone with traces of
polychromy, height of remaining portion about 13# (4 m).
(“One Who Is Effective on Behalf of the Aten”). Abandoning
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (JE 49528)
Thebes, the capital of Egypt since the beginning of his dynasty and
a city firmly in the grip of the priests of Amun, Akhenaten built a Read the document related to Akhenaten
on myartslab.com
new capital much farther north, calling it Akhetaten (“Horizon of

70 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

the Aten”). Using the modern name for this site, Tell el-Amarna, neck, on which sits a strikingly stylized head. Facial features are
historians refer to Akhenaten’s reign as the Amarna period. exaggerated, often distorted. Slit-like eyes turn slightly downward,
and the bulbous, sensuous lips are flanked by dimples that evoke the
THE NEW AMARNA STYLE Akhenaten’s reign not only expression of ephemeral human emotion. Such stark deviations
saw the creation of a new capital and the rise of a new religious from convention are disquieting, especially since Akhenaten holds
focus; it also led to radical changes in royal artistic conventions. In the flail and shepherd’s crook, traditional symbols of the pharoah’s
portraits of the king, artists subjected his representation to startling super-human sovereignty.
stylizations, even physical distortions. This new royal figure style The new Amarna style characterizes not only official royal
can be seen in a colossal statue of Akhenaten, about 16 feet tall, portraits, but also pictorial relief sculpture portraying the family
created for a new temple to the Aten that he built near the temple life of Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti. In one panel the king and
complex of Karnak, openly challenging the state gods (FIG. 3–25). queen sit on cushioned stools playing with their nude daughters
This portrait was placed in one of the porticos of a huge courtyard (FIG. 3–26), whose elongated shaved heads conform to the newly
(c. 426 by 394 feet), oriented to the movement of the sun. minted figure type. The royal couple receive the blessings of the
The sculpture’s strange, softly swelling forms suggest androg- Aten, whose rays end in hands that penetrate the open pavilion to
yny to modern viewers. The sagging stomach and inflated thighs offer ankhs before their nostrils, giving them the “breath of life.”
contrast with spindly arms, protruding clavicles, and an attenuated The king holds one child and lovingly pats her head, while she

3–26 • AKHENATEN AND HIS FAMILY

From Akhetaten (present-day Tell el-Amarna). Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1353–1336 BCE. Painted limestone
relief, 121⁄4! $ 151⁄4! (31.1 $ 38.7 cm). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches
Museum. (14145)

Egyptian relief sculptors often employed the sunken relief technique seen here. In ordinary reliefs, the
background is carved back so that the figures project out from the finished surface. In sunken relief, the
original flat surface of the stone is reserved as background, and the outlines of the figures are deeply
incised, permitting the development of three-dimensional forms within them.

View the Closer Look for Akhenaten and his Family on myartslab.com

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 71

pulls herself forward to kiss him. The youngest of the three perches
on Nefertiti’s shoulder, trying to attract her mother’s attention by
stroking her cheek, while the oldest sits on the queen’s lap, tugging
at her mother’s hand and pointing to her father. What a striking
contrast with the relief from Ramose’s tomb! Rather than com-
posed serenity, this artist has conveyed the fidgety behavior of chil-
dren and the loving involvement of their parents in a manner not
even hinted at in earlier royal portraiture.

THE PORTRAIT OF TIY Akhenaten’s goals were actively sup-

ported not only by Nefertiti but also by his mother, QUEEN
TIY (FIG. 3–27). She had been the chief wife of the king’s father,
Amenhotep III, and had played a significant role in affairs of state
during his reign. Queen Tiy’s personality seems to emerge from a
miniature portrait head that reveals the exquisite bone structure of
her dark-skinned face, with its arched brows, uptilted eyes, and full
lips. Originally, this portrait included a funerary silver headdress
covered with gold cobras and gold jewelry. But after her son came
to power and established his new religion, the portrait was altered.
A brown cap covered with blue glass beads was placed over the
original headdress.

3–28 • NEFERTITI
From Akhetaten (modern Tell el-Amarna). Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1353–
1336 BCE. Painted limestone, height 20! (51 cm). Staatliche Museen zu
Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum. (21300)

THE HEAD OF NEFERTITI The famous head of NEFERTITI

(FIG. 3–28) was discovered in 1912, along with drawings and
other items related to commissions for the royal family, in the
Akhetaten studio of the sculptor Thutmose. It may have served
as a model for full-length sculptures or paintings of the queen. In
2007, analysis of this famous work using a CT scan revealed the
existence of a delicately carved limestone sculpture underneath
the modeled stucco that forms its outer surface. The faces of the
queen in the two likenesses differs slightly. The sculptor seems to
have smoothed out in stucco some of the facial irregularities in the
underlying limestone carving—including a bump in Nefertiti’s
nose and creases around her mouth—and increased the promi-
nence of her cheekbones, probably to bring the queen’s face into
conformity with contemporary notions of beauty, much in the
3–27 • QUEEN TIY way we would retouch a photographic image.
From Kom Medinet el-Ghurab (near el-Lahun). Eighteenth Dynasty,
The proportions of Nefertiti’s refined, regular features, long
c. 1352 BCE. Wood (perhaps yew and acacia), ebony, glass, silver, gold,
lapis lazuli, cloth, clay, and wax, height 33⁄4! (9.4 cm). Staatliche Museen neck, and heavy-lidded eyes appear almost too ideal to be human,
zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum. (21834) but are eerily consistent with standards of beauty in our own

72 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

culture. Part of the appeal of this portrait bust, aside from its stun- struggles with malaria, and CT scans revealed a badly broken and
ning beauty, may be the artist’s dramatic use of color. The hues seriously infected leg, as well as a series of birth defects that have
of the blue headdress and its striped band are repeated in the rich been ascribed to royal inbreeding.
red, blue, green, and gold of the jeweled necklace. The queen’s
brows, eyelids, cheeks, and lips are heightened with color, as they TUTANKHAMUN’S TOMB The sealed inner chamber of Tut-
no doubt were heightened with cosmetics in real life. ankhamun’s tomb was never plundered, and when it was found
in 1922 its incredible riches were just as they had been left since
GLASS Glassmaking could only be practiced by artists working his interment. His mummified body, crowned with a spectacular
for the king, and Akhenaten’s new capital had its own glassmak- mask preserving his royal likeness (see FIG. 3–1), lay inside three
ing workshops (see “Glassmaking,” page 76). A bottle produced nested coffins that identified him with Osiris, the god of the dead.
there and meant to hold scented oil was fashioned in the shape The innermost coffin, in the shape of a mummy, is the richest
of a fish that has been identified as a bolti, a species that carries of the three (FIG. 3–29). Made of over 240 pounds (110.4 kg)
its eggs in its mouth and spits out its offspring when they hatch of gold, its surface is decorated with colored glass and semipre-
(see FIG. 3–33). The bolti was a common symbol for birth and cious gemstones, as well as finely incised linear designs and hiero-
regeneration, complementing the self-generation that Akhenaten glyphic inscriptions. The king holds a crook and a flail, symbols
attributed to the sun disk Aten. that were associated with Osiris and had become a traditional part
of the royal regalia. A nemes headcloth with projecting cobra and
THE RETURN TO TRADITION: vulture covers his head, and a blue braided beard is attached to
TUTANKHAMUN AND RAMSES II his chin. Nekhbet and Wadjet, vulture and cobra goddesses of
Akhenaten’s new religion and revolutionary reconception of Upper and Lower Egypt, spread their wings across his body. The
pharaonic art outlived him by only a few years. The priesthood king’s features as reproduced on the coffin and masks are those
of Amun quickly regained its former power, and his young son of a very young man, and the unusually full lips, thin-bridged
Tutankhaten (Eighteenth Dynasty, r. c. 1332–1322 BCE) returned nose, and pierced earlobes suggest the continuing vitality of some
to traditional religious beliefs, changing his name to Tutankha- Amarna stylizations.
mun—“Living Image of Amun”—and moving the court back
to Thebes. He died at age 19, and was buried in the Valley of RAMSES II AND ABU SIMBEL By Egyptian standards Tut-
the Kings. ankhamun was a rather minor king. Ramses II, on the other
Although some had doubted the royal lineage of the young hand, was both powerful and long-lived. Under Ramses II
Tutankhaten, recent DNA testing of a series of royal mummies (Nineteenth Dynasty, r. c. 1279–1213 BCE), Egypt was a mighty
from this period confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten and empire. He was a bold leader and an effective political strategist.
one of his sisters. And his death at such a young age seems not to Although he did not win every battle, he was an effective master
have been the result of royal intrigue and assassination, but poor of royal propaganda, able to turn military defeats into glorious
health and serious injury. The DNA analysis documented his victories. He also triumphed diplomatically by securing a peace

3–29 • INNER COFFIN FROM TUTANKHAMUN’S SARCOPHAGUS

From the tomb of Tutankhamun, Valley of the Kings. Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1332–1322 BCE. Gold inlaid with glass
and semiprecious stones, height 6#7⁄8! (1.85 m), weight nearly 243 pounds (110.4 kg).
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. (JE 60671)

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 73

A BROADER LOOK " The Temples of Ramses II at Abu Simbel
Many art objects are subtle, captivating us hills. The larger temple is dedicated to Ramses the Nile, suggesting that they may have been
through their enduring beauty or mysterious and the Egyptian gods Amun, Ra-Horakhty, associated with the annual life-giving flood.
complexity. Monuments such as Ramses II’s and Ptah (FIG. 3–30). A row of four colossal Ironically, rising water nearly destroyed
temples at Abu Simbel, however, engage us seated statues of the king himself, 65 feet high, them both. Half-buried in the sand over the
forcefully across the ages with a sense of raw dominate the monument, flanked by relatively ages, the temples were only rediscovered early
power born of sheer scale. This king-god of small statues of family members, including his in the nineteenth century. But in the 1960s,
Egypt, ruler of a vast empire, a virile wonder principal wife Nefertari. Inside the temple, eight construction of the Aswan High Dam flooded
who fathered nearly a hundred children, is self- 23-foot statues of the god Osiris with the face the Abu Simbel site. An international team of
described in an inscription he had carved into of the god-king Ramses further proclaim his experts mobilized to find a way to safeguard
an obelisk (now standing in the heart of Paris): divinity. The corridor they form leads to seated Ramses II’s temples, deciding in 1963 to cut
“Son of Ra: Ramses-Meryamun [‘Beloved figures of Ptah, Amun, Ramses II, and Ra. The them out of the rock in blocks (FIG. 3–32)
of Amun’]. As long as the skies exist, your corridor was oriented so that twice a year the and re-erect them on higher ground, secure
monuments shall exist, your name shall exist, first rays of the rising sun shot through it to from the rising waters of Lake Nasser. The
firm as the skies.” So far, this is true. illuminate statues of the king and the three projected cost of $32 million was financed by
Abu Simbel was an auspicious site for gods placed against the back wall (FIG. 3–31). UNESCO, with Egypt and the United States
Ramses II’s great temples. It is north of the About 500 feet away, Ramses ordered a each pledging $12 million. Work began in 1964
second cataract of the Nile, in Nubia, the smaller temple to be carved into a mountain and was completed in 1968. Because of this
ancient land of Kush, which Ramses ruled and sacred to Hathor, goddess of fertility, love, joy, international cooperation and a combination of
which was the source of his gold, ivory, and and music, and to be dedicated to Hathor and modern technology and hard labor, Ramses II’s
exotic animal skins. The monuments were to Nefertari. The two temples were oriented temples were saved so they can continue to
carved directly into the living rock of the sacred so that their axes crossed in the middle of engage future generations.

3–30 • TEMPLE OF RAMSES II

Abu Simbel. Nineteenth Dynasty, c. 1279–1213 BCE.

74 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 inner
sanctuary

a row of baboons
greeting the rising sun
vestibule with
scenes of Ramses
and Nefertari
making offerings
statues of Osiris
with the face of
statue of Ramses
Ra-Horakhty

storerooms

INTERIOR

colossal statues
of Ramses II

entrance to temple

EXTERIOR

3–31 • SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF THE TEMPLE

OF RAMSES II
Abu Simbel.

3–32 • REMOVAL OF THE FACE OF ONE OF THE

COLOSSAL SCULPTURES OF RAMSES II AT ABU
SIMBEL IN THE MID 1960S

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 75

 TECHNIQUE " Glassmaking
No one knows precisely when or where the technique of glassmaking
first developed, but the basics of the process are quite clear. Heating a
mixture of sand, lime, and sodium carbonate or sodium sulfate to a very
high temperature produces glass. The addition of other minerals can
make the glass transparent, translucent, or opaque, as well as create a
vast range of colors.
The first objects to be made entirely of glass in Egypt were produced
with the technique known as core-formed glass. A lump of sandy clay
molded into the desired shape was wrapped in strips of cloth, then
skewered on a fireproof rod. It was then briefly dipped into a pot of
molten glass. When the resulting coating of glass had cooled, the clay
core was removed through the opening left by the skewer. To decorate
the vessel, glassmakers frequently heated thin rods of colored glass
and fused them on and flattened them against the surface in strips.
The fish-shaped bottle (FIG. 3–33)—is an example of core-formed
glass from the New Kingdom’s Amarna period: The body was created
from glass tinted with cobalt, and the surface was then decorated with
small rods of white and orange glass, achieving the wavy pattern that 3–33 • FISH-SHAPED PERFUME BOTTLE
resembles fish scales by dragging a pointed tool along the surface. From Akhetaten (present-day Tell el-Amarna). Eighteenth Dynasty,
Then two slices of a rod of spiraled black and white glass were fused reign of Akhenaten, c. 1353–1336 BCE. Core-formed glass, length 53⁄4!
to the surface to create its eyes. (14.5 cm). British Museum, London. (EA 55193)

3–34 • QUEEN NEFERTARI MAKING

AN OFFERING TO ISIS
Wall painting in the tomb of Nefertari, Valley
of the Queens. Nineteenth Dynasty, 1290–
1224 BCE.

agreement with the Hittites, a rival power centered in Anatolia pyramids at Giza. Today, the most awe-inspiring of his many
(see Chapter 2) that had tried to expand to the west and south architectural monuments are found at Karnak and Luxor, and at
at Egypt’s expense. Ramses twice reaffirmed that agreement by Abu Simbel in Egypt’s southernmost region (see “The Temples
marrying Hittite princesses. of Ramses II at Abu Simbel,” page 74). At Abu Simbel, Ramses
In the course of a long and prosperous reign, Ramses II ordered two large temples to be carved into natural rock, one for
initiated building projects on a scale rivaling the Old Kingdom himself and the other for his principal wife, Nefertari.

76 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

 The temples at Abu Simbel were not funerary monuments. Family members commissioned papyrus scrolls containing
Ramses’ and Nefertari’s tombs are in the Valleys of the Kings and magical texts or spells, which the embalmers sometimes placed
Queens. The walls of Nefertari’s tomb are covered with exquisite among the wrappings of the mummified bodies. Early collectors
paintings. In one mural, Nefertari offers jars of perfumed ointment of Egyptian artifacts referred to such scrolls, often beautifully illus-
to the goddess Isis (FIG. 3–34). The queen wears the vulture-skin trated, as “Books of the Dead.” A scene in one that was created for
headdress and jeweled collar indicating her royal position, and a a man named Hunefer (Nineteenth Dynasty) shows three succes-
long, semitransparent white linen gown. Isis, seated on her throne sive stages in his induction into the afterlife (FIG. 3–35). At the left,
behind a table heaped with offerings, holds a long scepter in her Anubis leads him by the hand to the spot where he will weigh his
left hand, the ankh in her right. She wears a headdress surmounted heart against the “feather of Truth.” Ma’at herself appears atop the
by the horns of Hathor framing a sun disk, clear indications of balancing arm of the scales wearing the feather as a headdress. To
her divinity. the right of the scales, Ammit, the dreaded “Eater of the Dead”—
The artists responsible for decorating the tomb diverged very part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus—watches eagerly
subtly but distinctively from earlier stylistic conventions. The out- for a sign from the ibis-headed god Thoth, who prepares to record
line drawing and use of pure colors within the lines reflect tradi- the result of the weighing.
tional practices, but quite new is the slight modeling of the body But the “Eater” goes hungry. Hunefer passes the test, and
forms by small changes of hue to enhance the appearance of three- Horus, on the right, presents him to the enthroned Osiris, who
dimensionality. The skin color of these women is much darker than floats on a lake of natron (see “Preserving the Dead,” page 53).
that conventionally used for females in earlier periods, and lightly Behind the throne, the goddesses Nephthys and Isis support the
brushed-in shading emphasizes their eyes and lips. god’s left arm, while in front of him Horus’s four sons, each
entrusted with the care of one of the deceased’s vital organs, stand
THE BOOKS OF THE DEAD atop a huge lotus blossom rising up out of the lake. In the top
By the time of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians had come to register, Hunefer, finally accepted into the afterlife, kneels before
believe that only a person free from wrongdoing could enjoy an 14 gods of the underworld.
afterlife. The dead were thought to undergo a last judgment con-
sisting of two tests presided over by Osiris, the god of the under-
world, and supervised by the jackal-headed god of embalming THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE
and cemeteries, Anubis. After the deceased were questioned about
their behavior in life, their hearts—which the Egyptians believed
PERIOD, c. 1075–715 BCE
to be the seat of the soul—were weighed on a scale against an After the end of the New Kingdom, Egypt was ruled by a series
ostrich feather, the symbol of Ma’at, goddess of truth, order, of new dynasties, whose leaders continued the traditional pat-
and justice. terns of royal patronage and pushed figural conventions in new

3–35 • JUDGMENT OF HUNEFER BEFORE OSIRIS

Illustration from a Book of the Dead. Nineteenth Dynasty, c. 1285 BCE. Painted papyrus, height 155⁄8!
(39.8 cm). British Museum, London. (EA 9901)

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 77

 and interesting directions. One of the most extraordinary, and certainly one
of the largest, surviving examples of ancient Egyptian bronze sculpture dates
from this period (FIG. 3–36). An inscription on the base identifies the subject
as Karomama, divine consort of Amun and member of a community of virgin
priestesses selected from the pharaoh’s family or retinue who were dedicated
to him. Karomama herself was the granddaughter of king Osorkan I (Twenty-
First Dynasty, r. c. 985–978 BCE). These priestesses amassed great power, held
property, and maintained their own court, often passing on their position to
one of their nieces. The sistra (ritual rattles) that Karomama once carried in
her hands would have immediately identified her as a priestess rather than
a princess.
The main body of this statue was cast in bronze and subsequently cov-
ered with a thin sheathing of bronze, which was then exquisitely engraved
with patterns inlaid with gold, silver, and electrum (a natural alloy of gold
and silver). Much of the inlay has disappeared, but we can still make out the
elaborately incised drawing of the bird wings that surround Karomama and
accentuate the fullness of her figure, conceived to embody a new female ideal.
Her slender limbs, ample hips, and more prominent breasts contrast with the
uniformly slender female figures of the late New Kingdom (see FIG. 3–34).

LATE EGYPTIAN ART, c. 715–332 BCE

The Late period in Egypt saw the country and its art in the hands and service
of foreigners. Nubians, Persians, Macedonians, Greeks, and Romans were
all attracted to Egypt’s riches and seduced by its art. In the eighth century,
Nubians from the powerful kingdom of Kush—ancient Egypt’s neighbor to
the south—conquered Egypt, establishing capitals at Memphis and Thebes
(712–657 BCE) and adopting Egyptian religious practices, artistic conven-
tions, and architectural forms. The sphinx of the Nubian king Taharqo (r.
c. 690–664 BCE) expresses royal power in a tradition dating back to the Old
Kingdom (see FIG. 3–6), the two cobras on his forehead perhaps representing
Taharqo’s two kingdoms—Kush and Egypt (FIG. 3–37). The facial features,

3–36 • KAROMAMA
Third Intermediate period, Twenty-Second Dynasty, c. 945– 3–37 • SPHINX OF TAHARQO
715 BCE. Bronze inlaid with gold, silver, electrum, glass, and From Temple T, Kawa, Nubia (modern Sudan). Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, c. 680 BCE.
copper, height 231⁄2! (59.5 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Granite, height 16! (40.6 cm); length 28¾! (73 cm). British Museum, London.

78 CHAPTER 3 ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT

RECOVERING THE PAST " How Early Art is Dated
After centuries of foreign rule, beginning with the arrival of the
Greeks in 332 BCE, the ancient Egyptian language gradually died 3–38 • ROSETTA
out. Modern scholars were only able to recover this long-forgotten STONE

language through a fragment of a stone stele, dated 196 BCE 196 BCE. British
Museum, London.
(FIG. 3–38). Known today as the Rosetta Stone—for the area of the
delta where one of Napoleon’s officers discovered it in 1799—it contains
a decree issued by the priests at Memphis honoring Ptolemy V (r. c.
205–180 BCE) carved in hieroglyphs, demotic (a simplified, cursive form
of hieroglyphs), and Greek.
Even with the juxtaposed Greek translation, the two Egyptian texts
remained incomprehensible until 1818, when Thomas Young, an English
physician interested in ancient Egypt, linked some of the hieroglyphs to
specific names in the Greek version. A short time later, French scholar
Jean-François Champollion located the names Ptolemy and Cleopatra in
both of the Egyptian scripts. With the phonetic symbols for P, T, O, and
L in demotic, he was able to build up an “alphabet” of hieroglyphs, and
by 1822 he had deciphered the two Egyptian texts.

The hieroglyphic signs for the letters

P, T, O, and L were Champollion’s clues
to deciphering the Rosetta Stone.

p t o l m y s

however, clearly identify him as African, and his specific identity is generals divided up his empire. Ptolemy, a Greek, took Egypt,
secured by an inscription engraved into his chest. declaring himself king in 305 bce. The Ptolemaic dynasty ended
In 332 bce, Macedonian Greeks led by Alexander the Great with the death of Cleopatra VII (r. 51–30 bce), when the Romans
conquered Egypt, and after Alexander’s death in 323 bce, his succeeded as Egypt’s rulers and made it the breadbasket of Rome.

THINK ABOUT IT

3.1 Explain the traditional pictorial conventions for representing CROSSCURRENTS

the human figure in ancient Egypt using the Palette of Narmer What do these two ancient
(“A Closer Look,” page 52) as an example. scenes of hunting express
about the wealthy and powerful
3.2 Summarize the religious beliefs of ancient Egypt with regard
people who commissioned them?
to the afterlife, and explain how their beliefs inspired traditions
How do the artists make their
in art and architecture, citing specific examples both early and messages clear? How is location
FIG. 2–17
late. related to meaning?
3.3 How do depictions of royalty differ from those of more
ordinary people in ancient Egyptian art? Focus your answer
on one specific representation of each.
3.4 Characterize the stylistic transformation that took place during
the rule of Akhenaten by comparing FIGURES 3–24 and 3–26.
Why would there be such a drastic change?

FIG. 3–12

Study and review on myartslab.com

ART OF ANCIENT EGYPT CHAPTER 3 79

Art of Ancient
Egypt
Dr Sami De Giosa
Important factors, dates
etc.

• Time- 2950 BCE until 715-332 BCE

• Geographically comprising of modern-day
Egypt and parts of Sudan Main thing that’s talked about is religion
horus two eyes one is the sun the other the moon
• Important Symbols
• Belief(s) in the afterlife and in a version of the
Underworld
• Artistic conventions which were followed for
different millenia.
• See the Namer Palette in the following Slide
The Narmer Palette From
Hierakonpolis. Early Dynastic period,
c. 2950 BCE.
Green schist, height 25 (64 cm).
Egyptian Museum, Cairo

• Hierarchy defined
• Men and God Good vs Evil
• The power of Animals
• The symbols of power
From mastaba to
Pyramid, how great
structures were born
• The Prelude of Djoser's pyramid in
Saqqara will give life to the great
Pyramids of Giza
• Third Dynasty, c. 2630–2575

Click to add text

The Old Kingdom
• Nothing represents Egypt and its civilisation more
than the complex in Giza
• Three Pyramids:Fourth Dynasty, c. 2575–2450 BCE.
Erected by (from the left) Menkaure, Khafre, and
Khufu.
• Limestone and granite, height of pyramid of Khufu,
450 (137 m).
Symbol of wisdom and power
• The SPhinx kinda looks like its guarding the
pyrimads
• Chambers
 • Funerary Stelae
• STELE OF THE SCULPTOR
• USERWER
• Twelfth Dynasty, c. 1850 BCE.
Limestone, red
• and black ink, 201⁄2 19 (52 48
cm). British
• Museum London
 Details ,
advanced
techniques
The New Kingdom until 1075 BCE

• The magnificent temples of

Karnak and Abu Simbel
• Many innovations with
symmetrical plan
• Columns and capitals
distinguished from drawing
from the natural world
Papyrus columns • Plan with architectural details
Hathersput in Deir el-
bahri Was represented by
a male because they
didn’t know how to
represent a female

• To the untrained eye this would

be a funerary temple dedicated to
an Egyptian ing but in reality it
was for a Queen.
• No representation of female royal
member up until that time
• Aristic license.
• From Deir el-Bahri. Eighteenth
Dynasty, c. 1473–1458 BCE. Red
granite, height 86 (2.59 m).
• Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.
Video about the construction
of Funerary temples in Egypt
the tomb of ramose of he new kingdom

Delicate

akhenaten and the art of the marina period

Radically transformed the political, spiritual, and cultural life of the country

made a new religion where he is one god

Wife and mother

00