Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: Plus ultra (Latin)

(English: "Further Beyond")

Anthem: Marcha Real (Spanish)[1]

(English: "Royal March")
Duration: 54 seconds.0:54

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Location of Spain (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green)

Capital Madrid
40°26′N 3°42′W
and largest city

Official Spanish[b][c]
language

Nationality (20  86.5% Spanish

24)[3]
 13.5% foreigners

Religion  56.0% Roman Catholicism

(2023)[4] o

 37.5% non-
practicing
Catholic
 18.5%
practicing Cath
olic
 14.9% atheist
 12.6% agnostic
 12.3% indifferent or no
religion
 2.7% other religion
 1.5% unanswered

Demonym(s)  Spaniard
 Spanish

Government Unitary parliamentary

constitutional monarchy

• Monarch Felipe VI

• Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez

• President of Francina Armengol

the Congress of
Deputies

• President of Pedro Rollán

the Senate
Legislature Cortes Generales

• Upper house Senate

• Lower house Congress of Deputies

Formation

• Dynastic union 20 January 1479

• Sole sovereign 14 March 1516

• Centralized 9 June 1715

state

• First 19 March 1812

constitution

• Current 29 December 1978

constitution

Area

• Total 505,990[5] km2 (195,360 sq mi)

(51st)

• Water (%) 0.89[6]

Population

• 2024 estimate 48,946,035[7] (31st)

• Density 96/km2 (248.6/sq mi) (121th)

GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate

• Total $2.665 trillion[8] (15th)

• Per capita $55,089[8] (36th)

GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate

• Total $1.731 trillion[8] (15th)

• Per capita $35,788[8] (32nd)

Gini (2023) 31.5[9]

 medium inequality

HDI (2022) 0.911[10]

very high (27th)

Currency Euro[d] (€) (EUR)

Time zone UTC±0 to +1 (WET and CET)

• Summer (DST) UTC+1 to +2 (WEST and CEST)

Note: most of Spain observes

CET/CEST, except the Canary
Islands which observe WET/WEST.

Calling code +34

ISO 3166 code ES

Internet TLD .es[e]

Spain,[f] formally the Kingdom of Spain,[a][g] is a country in Southwestern

Europe with territories in North Africa.[11][h] Featuring the southernmost
point of continental Europe, It is the largest country in Southern Europe and the
fourth-most populous European Union member state. Spanning across the majority
of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic
Ocean, the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous
cities of Ceuta and Melilla, in Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north
by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the
Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic
Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid, and other major urban
areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Málaga, Murcia and Palma de
Mallorca.
In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Celts, Iberians, and
other pre-Roman peoples. With the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the
province of Hispania was established. Following
the Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman
Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central Europe, including
the Visigoths, who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early
eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate,
and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power
centred on Córdoba. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief
among them Asturias, León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal; made an
intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as
the Reconquista, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian
seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown
of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic Monarchs is often
considered the de facto unification of Spain as a nation-state.
During the Age of Discovery, Spain pioneered the exploration of the New World,
made the first circumnavigation of the globe and formed one of the largest empires
in history.[12] The Spanish Empire reached a global scale and spread across all
continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily
by precious metals. In the 18th century, the Bourbon reforms centralized mainland
Spain.[13] In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic occupation and the
victorious Spanish War of independence, the following political divisions
between liberals and absolutists led to the breakaway of most of the American
colonies. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with
the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975.
With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the
country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and
politically. Since the Siglo de Oro, Spanish
art, architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine have been
influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. As a
reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain is the world's second-most visited
country, has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites, and it is
the most popular destination for European students.[14] Its cultural influence extends
to over 600 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second-most
spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language.[15]
Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy,[16] with
King Felipe VI as head of state. A developed country, it is a major advanced
capitalist economy,[17] with the world's fifteenth-largest by both nominal
GDP and PPP. Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union,
the eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a permanent guest of
the G20, and is part of many other international organizations such as the Council
of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the
Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Etymology
The name of Spain (España) comes from Hispania, the name used by the Romans
for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces during the Roman Empire. The
etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians
referred to the region as i-shphan-im, possibly meaning "Land of Rabbits" or "Land
of Metals".[18] Jesús Luis Cunchillos [es] and José Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic
philology at the Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC), conducted a comparative philological study
between several Semitic languages and hypothesize that the Phoenician name
translates as "land where metals are forged", having determined that the name
originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Peninsula. [19] There have
been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:
Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is
the Phoenician word spy, meaning "to forge metals". Therefore, i-spn-ya would
mean "the land where metals are forged".[20] It may be a derivation of the
Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a
reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in
the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,
[21]
and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits". [22] The word in question actually
means "Hyrax", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals. [23]
There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna,
meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula
constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent. [24]
History
Main article: History of Spain
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples
Main article: Prehistoric Iberia

Celtic castro in Galicia

Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated
by hominids 1.3 million years ago.[25]
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years
ago.[26] The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the
paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created
from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon.[27][28] Archaeological and genetic
evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia
from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.
The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest
were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of
the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the
peninsula. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and
adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest;
and Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities
were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies
were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-
Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose
inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.
Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom
Main articles: Hispania and Visigothic Kingdom

The Roman Theatre in Mérida

During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the
expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the
Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete
the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six
centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.
[29]

The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at

different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local
leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. [i][30]
Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a granary for the
Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine.
Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some
of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the
philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania.[j] Christianity was introduced into
Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd
century.[30] Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of
its laws, originate from this period. [29] Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-
African Mauri in the province of Baetica took place.[31]

Votive crown of Reccesuinth from the Treasure of

Guarrazar
The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, entered the
peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over
Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the
Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before
crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social
and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained
many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and
assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.
The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south, with the
intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania
was reunited under Visigothic rule.
Muslim era and Reconquista
See also: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus, and Reconquista
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate which
had conquered North Africa from the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian
Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in
the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north
of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion.
The Kingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian
kingdoms, such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous north, eventually surged
upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica.[32] For several
centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled
areas of the peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.

The Court of the Lions and its central fountain in

the Alhambra complex
Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of
ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of
Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. [33][34]
A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th
and 10th centuries.[35] The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it
ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' ballistas; and seventy of
the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of
King Ramiro I of Asturias.
In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of
petty kingdoms (Taifas),[36] often subject to the payment of a form of protection
money (Parias) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a
southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085
marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian
kingdoms.[37] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of
the Almoravids and the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled
territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed
some Christian territorial gains.

Catholic Monarchs of Spain.

The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188,
the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of
each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of
León).[38] The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor
as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in
this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective
of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.
Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236)
and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and
the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power
in the Mediterranean. In 1229, Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In
the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves
around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid
Sultanate of Granada (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula
after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the Catholic Monarchs,
and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile. [39]
Spanish Empire
Main article: Spanish Empire

Late 16th-century Seville, the harbor enjoying

the exclusive right to trade with the New World
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by
the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492,
Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion; [40] as
many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year 1492 also
marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage
funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the
Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the
Americas. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,
[41]
for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon,
leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos.
About four decades after the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over
300,000 moriscos were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.[42]

Diachronic map of the Spanish Empire

The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their
sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each
kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in
currency and language.[43][44]
Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century
and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from
colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its
apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I (1516–
1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic
War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession, clashes with
the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish
War.[45]

Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire

Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance,
the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific,
Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula,
the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté). The so-called Age of Discovery featured
explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans,
conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Precious metals, spices,
luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading
part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. [46] The cultural
efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden
Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the
collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated
American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-
Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that
were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of
Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known
as international law and human rights.

"The Comuneros Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado in

the Patíbulo", by Antonio Gisbert, 1860.
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over
the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle
of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in
1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–
1604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime
power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch
Republic (Battle of the Downs) and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–
1660; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from
pirates and privateers.
The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged
wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the
Mediterranean.[47] By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century
Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide
religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined
the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered
Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a
large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to
recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and
eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of
the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.[48] In the latter half of the
17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several
small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its
vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th
century.
18th century
 The family of Philip V. During the Enlightenment in
Spain a new royal family reigned, the House of Bourbon.
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which
consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish
Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and
was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading
European power.[49]
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed.
The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and
the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy Office.[50] A number of reform
policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms) were pursued by the Monarchy with the
overarching goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity. [51] They
included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws, [52] as well
as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed
by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms. [53]
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through
much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one,
and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as
well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs.
[54]
Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south
of mainland Spain.[55] Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the
kingdom's elite and monarchy.
Liberalism and nation state
Main articles: Contemporary history of Spain, Mid-19th-century Spain, Spanish
American wars of independence, Spanish–American War, Anarchism in Spain,
and Second Spanish Republic
 Ferdinand VII swears on the 1812 Constitution before
the Cortes in 1820
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a
member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the
country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field,
peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost
control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty
between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war
against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal
but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a
puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with Joseph
Bonaparte as king.
The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the
French occupation.[56] These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of
independence against the Napoleonic regime.[57] Further military action by Spanish
armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined
with Napoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial
armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.[58]
During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled
to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a
constitution.[59] It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish
empire.[60] In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional
monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish
king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch.
 General and statesman Baldomero Espartero, a key
political figure in the 19th century.
The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for
overseas criollo elites who resented the privilege towards Peninsular elites and
demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 the
American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence,
leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that put an end to the
metropole's grip over the Spanish Main. Attempts to re-assert control proved futile
with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army
revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held
were Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined,
deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a
reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch),
fought against the government forces supportive of Queen Isabella II's dynastic
rights in the Carlist Wars. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict
between progressives and moderates ended in a weak early constitutional period.
The 1868 Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive Sexenio
Democrático (including the short-lived First Spanish Republic), which yielded to a
stable monarchic period, the Restoration (1875–1931).[61]

Spanish Revolution of 1854 in Puerta del Sol,

Madrid. Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies fled to exile and Baldomero
Espartero became regent.
In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In
1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke
out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American
War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once
vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war
became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98. Although the
period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th
century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the scramble for
Africa. It remained neutral during World War I. The heavy losses suffered by the
colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought
discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in
several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as labour
movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1870 Barcelona Workers'
Congress and the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition are good examples of this. In
1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to this
party, Unión General de Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-
syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del
Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927.
Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain,
arose in that period: the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist
League of Catalonia in 1901.
Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the
constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system. [62] The July 1909 Tragic
Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.
The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to
eight hours.[63]

Women voting in Éibar in 1933, after women's

suffrage was approved. Deputy Clara Campoamor was a key figure for the right to
be granted.
After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections
since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the 12 April
1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-
Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of
monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation
of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.
A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the June 1931
Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel
Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held
in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic there
was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the
left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the
burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution
of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is
also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country
were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army,
political decentralization and women's right to vote.
Civil War and Francoist dictatorship
Main articles: Spanish Civil War, Spanish Revolution of 1936, and Francoist Spain
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the
military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The
situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones:
one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside
support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and
the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction), most
critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was not
supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention.
General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1
October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the
grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also ensued.

Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936

The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all
sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up
to a half-million citizens from the country. [64][65] On 1 April 1939, five months before
the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious,
imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after
the civil war in Francoist concentration camps.
The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World War,
although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the
Nazi Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal party
under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las
JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange
Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-
wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional",
sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper,
largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.

Spanish leader Francisco Franco and Adolf Hitler at

the Meeting at Hendaye, 1940
After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of
the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it
became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the
Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the
Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of
American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion. [66] In the 1960s,
Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled
by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural areas
to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism
industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by authoritarianism, promotion of a
unitary national identity, National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.
Restoration of democracy
Main articles: Spanish transition to democracy and Spanish society after the
democratic transition

Juan Carlos I before the Cortes Españolas, during his

proclamation as King on 22 November 1975
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside
the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich,
where they made a resolution in favour of democracy. [67][68][69]
With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position
of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the Francoist law. With the
approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy,
the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal
organisation based on autonomous communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty
Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without
consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy
like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha.
In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical
nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until the latter's
dissolution in May 2018.[70] The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but
had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy
and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in
an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal
command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national
television, to surrender.[71]

Felipe González signing the treaty of accession to

the European Economic Community on 12 June 1985
During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society.
New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. In
May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a referendum after a strong social
opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power,
the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European
Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was
replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) in 1996 after scandals around
participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against ETA.
 The 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong
economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-
publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the
boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit
were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse. [72]
In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along
Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George
W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish
society. In March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried
out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191
people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in
Madrid.[73] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA,
evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of
the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a
political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging
accusations over the handling of the incident. [74] The PSOE won the election, led
by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[75]
In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased
rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis. [76] In
2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage, becoming the third
country worldwide to do so.[77] Decentralisation was supported with much resistance
of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like
quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened,
and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010. [78]
 Demonstration against the crisis and high youth
unemployment in Madrid, 15 October 2011
The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16 Spanish
financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and
corruption in Royal family and People's Party served as a backdrop to the 2011–12
Spanish protests.[79] Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's
conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[80] As prime
minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and
Growth Pact.[81] On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of
his son, who became Felipe VI.[82]
In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the Catalan
parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan
Republic[83][84] on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule
over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister. [85][86] On the same day
the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan
parliament and called a new election. [87] No country recognised Catalonia as a
separate state.[88]

Salvador Illa, former minister of Health during COVID-

19 pandemic in the first coalition Government in Spain, elected first non
independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, with Barcelona
mayor Jaume Collboni.
In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against
Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez.[89] In 2019, the first
ever coalicion government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas
Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced an institutional crisis surrounding
the mandate of the General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), until finally the mandate
got renovated.[90] In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread
to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year. [91] The European
Commission economic recovery package Next Generation EU were created to
support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be
in use in the period 2021–2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the
world to make active euthanasia legal.[92] Following the general election on 23 July
2023, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this
time with Sumar (successors of Unidas Podemos).[93] In 2024, the first non-
independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, Salvador Illa, was
elected, normalizing the constitutional and institutional relations between the
national and the regional administrations. According to latest polls, [94] only 17.3% of
Catalans feel themselves as "only catalan". 46% of Catalans would answer "as
spanish as catalan", while 21.8% "more catalan than spanish". [95] Accordind to a
2024 poll of University of Barcelona, over 50% of Catalans would vote against
independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour. [96]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Spain

Topographic map of Spain (excluding Canary Islands)

At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fifty-first largest
country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi)
smaller than France. At 3,715 m (12,188 ft), Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest
mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.
Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa.
Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.
On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered
by Gibraltar and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla,
and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along
the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and Andorra. Along the
Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.
Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest
uninterrupted border within the European Union.[97]
Islands
Main article: List of islands of Spain
 Aerial view of Mallorca island
Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary
Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the
Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as plazas de soberanía ("places
of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas
Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as
a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between
Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the
municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is
a Spanish-French condominium.
There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies
(Cabildos insulares in the Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are
specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial
representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form
the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands
include Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La
Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago
and Mallorca, Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago.
Mountains and rivers

Teide, still an active volcano in Santa Cruz de

Tenerife, Canary Islands, is the tallest peak in Spain.
Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high plateaus and
mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera
Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema
Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema
Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-
foot) Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian
Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft)
active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as 'Inner
Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the
Sistema Central.
There are several major rivers in Spain such as
the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia
and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is
that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.
Climate
Main article: Climate of Spain

Köppen climate classification map of Spain.

Urriellu peak (Naranjo de Bulnes) from Pozo de La

Oracion, Picos de Europa
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation
and orographic conditions:[98]
 The Mediterranean climate is characterised by warm/hot and dry summers
and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two
varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification.
 The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is
predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and
Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia, Extremadura
and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly
those inland, such as some areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Extremadura,
Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some
continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate
close to the sea have mild winters.
  The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to
additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a
Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of
Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and
northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably Galicia).
 The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter
of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most
of the Region of Murcia, southern and central-eastern Valencia, eastern
Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of
Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid
reaches of the Ebro valley, which crosses southern Navarre,
central Aragon and western Catalonia. It is also found in a small area in
northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation
is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average
temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
 The oceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country,
especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and
partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most
highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where
a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer
temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine
climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of
northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc, Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in
the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra
Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the
zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary
Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having
influences of tropical climate, although they cannot properly be classified as tropical
climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or
semi-arid climate.[99]
Climate change
Main article: Climate change in Spain
Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate crisis in Europe.
Spain could see 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming compared to pre-industrial levels in the next
twenty years, in the worst-case scenario Spain will reach 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming by
the end of the century. Due to declining rainfall Spain's droughts which are already
one of the worst in Europe will be ten times worse compared to 2023.
The WHO estimated that 4,000 people died in 2022 due to heat related stress in
Spain.[100] 74% of the country is at risk of desertification. [101]
Spain's per capita emissions was 4.92 tonnes in 2021, around 1.5 tonnes lower than
the EU average. Spain was in 2021 responsible for 0.87% of cumulative global
emissions. Spain committed to reduce 23% of emissions compared to 1990 levels in
2030 and to be net zero in 2050.[102]
Fauna and flora

The Iberian wolf in Castile and Leon. The region has

25% of the land covered by Natura 2000 protected natural spaces.
Main article: Wildlife of Spain
The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical
position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and
between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the
result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.
The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the
terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions,
each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of
climate, topography, soil type and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a
2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th
globally out of 172 countries.[103]
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600
vascular plants) of all European countries. [104]
In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow
each year.[105]
Politics
Main article: Politics of Spain
See also: Spanish Constitution of 1978
Felipe VI,
King of Spain

Pedro Sánchez,
Prime Minister of Spain
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June
1976, Spain's new King Juan Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed
the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister.[106][107] The resulting general election in
1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a
constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution
of 1978.[108] After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters
approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from
a one-party personalist dictatorship to a multiparty parliamentary
democracy composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities.
These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish
Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish
nation.
Governance
The Crown
The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and
reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability
of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and
territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a
channel for cohesion among Spaniards. [109]
King Felipe VI, 2014
The Spanish Constitution provides for a separation of powers between five branches
of government, which it refers to as "basic State institutions". [k][110][111] Foremost
amongst these institutions is the Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish
state and its permanence.[112] Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is
a constitutional one whereby the reigning king or queen is the living embodiment of
the Crown and thus head of state.[l][113][112][114] Unlike in some other constitutional
monarchies however, namely the likes of Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, The
Netherlands, Norway, or indeed the United Kingdom, the monarch is not the fount
of national sovereignty or even the nominal chief executive.[115][116][117][118][119]
[120]
Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular
functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state. [112] As such, the
monarch resolves disputes between the disparate branches, mediates constitutional
crises, and prevents abuses of power.[121][122][123][124]
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth moderating branch that does not
make public policy or administer public services, functions which rightfully rest with
Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional
level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions
legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of
the public will.[125][126] Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home,
represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard to nations of their historical
community), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of the Spanish
government, defends representative democracy, and upholds the rule of law.[111] In
other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish constitution and of the rights
and freedoms of all Spaniards.[127][m] This stabilising role is in keeping with the
monarch's solemn oath upon accession "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to
obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect
the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities." [129]
A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are
assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the
Crown enjoys inviolability in the performance of these prerogatives and cannot be
prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name. [130] For this
reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the countersignature of
the prime minister or, when appropriate, the president of the Congress of
Deputies to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure or refrendo in turn
transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties.
[131]
This provision does not apply to the Royal Household, over which the monarch
enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in the Order of the
Golden Fleece, which is a dynastic order in the personal gift of the House of
Bourbon-Anjou.[132]
The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial acts or
reserve powers. Ministerial acts are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to
the convention established by Juan Carlos I, performed by the monarch after
soliciting the advice of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the
General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be.
On the other hand, the reserve powers of the Crown are those royal prerogatives
that are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion. [127] Most of the Crown's
royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no
discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state
ceremonial.[p] Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial acts, the monarch has
the right to be consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular
course of action, and the right to warn the responsible constitutional authorities.
The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the Crown's reserve powers, which may be
invoked by the monarch when necessary to maintain the continuity and stability of
state institutions.[152] For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on
affairs of state through regular audiences with the Government. For this purpose,
the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but
only when requested by the prime minister. [153] Moreover, the monarch may
prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the
Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in
consequence thereof, concurrently call for snap elections. The monarch exercises
this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been
discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse
the request.[154] The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of
the prime minister, but only with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.
Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request. [155]
The Crown's reserve powers further extend into constitutional interpretation and
the administration of justice. The monarch appoints the 20 members of the General
Council of the Judiciary. Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme,
appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a
majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with
the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.
[156]
In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of
the Constitutional Tribunal. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated
by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four
magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates
are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the
General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any
nomination.[157]
However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning Government formation that
are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate
for prime minister and, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from
office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the confidence of
the Congress of Deputies.[158] If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence
to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a
result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales
and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his
own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of
Deputies.[159]
Cortes Generales

The hemicycle of the Congress of Deputies

Legislative authority vests in the Cortes Generales (English: Spanish
Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'), a democratically elected bicameral parliament that
serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the
Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability. [160] It comprises
the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), a lower house with 350
deputies, and the Senate (Senado), an upper house with 259 senators.[161]
[162]
Deputies are elected by popular vote on closed lists via proportional
representation to serve four-year terms.[163] On the other hand, 208 senators are
directly elected by popular vote using a limited voting method, with the remaining
51 senators appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.[164]
Government
Executive authority rests with the Government (Gobierno de España), which
is collectively responsible to the Congress of Deputies.[165][166] It consists of the prime
minister, one or more deputy prime ministers, and the various ministers of state.
[167]
These characters together constitute the Council of Ministers which, as
Spain's central executive authority, conducts the business of the Government and
administers the civil service.[168] The Government remains in office so long as it can
maintain the confidence of the Congress of Deputies.
The prime minister, as head of government, enjoys primacy over the other ministers
by virtue of his or her ability to advise the monarch as to their appointment and
dismissal.[169] Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the
Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and
administrative actions.[170] The Spanish monarch nominates the prime minister after
consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn
formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of
Deputies.[171]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: History of the territorial organization of Spain and Political divisions of
Spain
Autonomous communities
Main article: Autonomous communities of Spain
See also: Nationalities and regions of Spain

Galicia
Navarre
Community of
Madrid
La Rioja
Aragon
Catalonia
Valencian
Community
Castilla–
La Mancha
Extremadura
Portugal
Castile
and León
Asturias
Cantabria
Basque
Country
Region of
Murcia
Andalusia
Ceuta
Melilla
France
Balearic
Islands
Canary
Islands
Mediterranean Sea
Atlantic
Ocean
Andorra
Atlantic
Ocean
Gibraltar (UK)
Morocco
Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the
country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978)
in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalities and regions of
Spain".[172] The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with
common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based
on devolution, is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (Estado de las
Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is
the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the
community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its
territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the
rights they enjoy according to the constitution. [173] This ongoing process of
devolution means that, while officially a unitary state, Spain is nevertheless one of
the most decentralised countries in Europe, along
with federations like Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland.[174]
Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves
as nationalities, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia
also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it
followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country.
Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have
also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern
identities, such as the Valencian Community, [175] the Canary Islands,[176] the Balearic
Islands,[177] and Aragon.[178]
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with
their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own
dedicated public administrations. The distribution of powers may be different for
every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was
intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque
Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient foral provisions.
Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and
education, among other public services. [179] Beyond these competencies,
the nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were also
devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of
the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time.
In addition, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Catalonia, and Navarre each
have autonomous police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Policía Canaria, Mossos
d'Esquadra, and Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited
forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or BESCAM in
Madrid.[180]
Provinces and municipalities
Main articles: Local government in Spain, Provinces of Spain, and Municipalities of
Spain
Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their
territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The
existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected
by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves.
Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces
are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State. [181]
The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833
territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into
50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands,
Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single
province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the
administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental
institutions of the community.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Spain
 Informal meeting of the European Council. Granada, 6
October 2023, during 2023 Spanish Presidency of the Council of the European

Union. Royal Palace of Pedralbes in Barcelona,

headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean
After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign
policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and
expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security
relations with the West.
As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in
multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an
important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond
western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through
the European political co-operation mechanisms. [vague]
Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines.
Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the
renewal of the concept of "Hispanidad" or "Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in
English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America
through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on
shared values and the recovery of democracy." [182]
The country is involved in a number of territorial disputes. Spain claims Gibraltar,
an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, in the southernmost part of the
Iberian Peninsula.[183][184][185] Another dispute surrounds the Savage Islands; Spain
claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the
Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands.
[186][187]
Spain claims sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited
rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar; it was the subject of
an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish
cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast
of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory
of Olivenza.[188]
Military
Main article: Spanish Armed Forces

Amphibious assault ship-aircraft carrier Juan Carlos I

The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army (Ejército de
Tierra); Navy (Armada); and Air and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio).[189]

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) leaders at

the NATO Summit in Madrid, June 29–30, 2022
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas
Armadas Españolas). Their commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.
[190]
The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of
Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the Chief of the Defence
Staff (JEMAD).[191] The Defence Staff (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD
as auxiliary body.
The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of
121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the
77,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense
in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros
(US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security
concerns in the country.[192] Military conscription was suppressed in 2001. [193]
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country
in the world.[194]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Spain
See also: LGBT rights in Spain
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain
in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and
institutions".[195]
According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police
abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. [196] Violence against women
was a problem, which the Government took steps to address. [197][198]
Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for
its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013,
Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed
saying that homosexuality should be accepted. [199]
The Cortes Generales approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at
furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life.
[200]
According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the
350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there
were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries
ranked by proportion of women in the lower (or single) House.[201] The Gender
Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development
Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.[202]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Spain

Cuatro Torres Business Area in Madrid

Torre Glòries and the 22@ business district

in Barcelona
Spain's capitalist mixed economy is the 15th largest worldwide and the 4th
largest in the European Union, as well as the eurozone's 4th largest. The centre-
right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to
gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in
1999. Unemployment stood at 11.27% in July 2024.[203] The youth
unemployment rate (26.5% in April 2024) is extremely high compared to EU
standards.[204] Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large informal
economy,[205][206][207] and an education system which OECD reports place among the
poorest for developed countries, along with the United States. [208]
Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often
expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second
biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also
expanded into Asia, especially China and India. [209] Spanish companies invested in
fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest
renewable energy operator[210]), technology companies
like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation (which is the world's
largest worker-owned cooperative), Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers
like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum
companies like Repsol or Cepsa and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest
international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish,
like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.[211]
The automotive industry in Spain is one of the largest employers in the country. In
2023, Spain produced 2.45 million cars which makes it the 8th largest automobile
producer country in the world and the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe
after Germany,[212] a position in the ranking that it was still keeping in 2024. [213] In
total, 89% of the vehicles and 60% of the auto-parts manufactured in Spain were
exported worldwide in 2023. A total of 2,201,802 made in Spain vehicles were
exported in 2023. In 2023, the Spanish automotive industry generated 10% of
Spain's gross domestic product and accounted for 18% of total Spanish exports
(including vehicles and auto-parts). External trade surplus of vehicles reached
€18.8bn in 2023. The industry generates 9% of total employment, nearly 2 million
jobs are linked to this industry.[212]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Spain

Benidorm, one of Europe's largest coastal tourist

destinations
In 2023, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behind France,
recording 85 million tourists. The headquarters of the World Tourism
Organization are located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical
legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's
international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five
decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in
the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of
GDP in 2006.[214][215]
Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its environmental
and architectural heritage.
Energy
Main article: Energy in Spain

The Solucar Complex, with the PS10 Solar Power

Plant in the foreground and the PS20 in the background
In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United
States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz.
[216][217]
Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. [218][219] In 2010 its wind
turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. [220][221][222] On 9
November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland
electricity demand[223] and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that
of 14 nuclear reactors.[224] Other renewable energies used in Spain
are hydroelectric, biomass and marine.[225]
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative
reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's
electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated
another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each. [226]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Spain

The Gran Telescopio Canarias at sunset

The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading public
agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top
governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018
SCImago Institutions Rankings.[227] Spain was ranked 28th in the Global Innovation
Index in 2024.[228]
Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the
country.[229] Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is
much lower than in other EU and OECD countries. [230]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Spain
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid
to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura
and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo),
Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts.
Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the
government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency.[231] The former
Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the electric vehicle is the future and
the engine of an industrial revolution." [232]
As of July 2024, the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in
Europe with 3,966 km (2,464 mi)[233] and the second longest in the world, after
China's. It is linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with
the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 330 km/h (210 mph).[234] On
average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by
the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV.[235] Regarding punctuality, it is second
in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). [236]
There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of
Madrid (Barajas), with 60 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 15th busiest
airport, as well as the European Union's third busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El
Prat) is also important, with 50 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 30th-
busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca, Málaga, Las Palmas
(Gran Canaria), and Alicante.

High-speed AVE Class 103 train near Vinaixa, Madrid-Barcelona line. Spain has the
longest high-speed rail network in Europe.[233]
 

The Port of Valencia, one of the busiest in the Golden Banana

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Spain
See also: List of Spanish autonomous communities by population

Population density by municipality in Spain, 2018

In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,946,035 people as recorded by
Spain's Instituto Nacional de Estadística.[237] Spain's population density, at
96/km2 (249.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its
distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region
surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The
population of Spain has risen 2+1⁄2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million,
principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.
[238]

In 2022, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.16 children born
per woman,[239] one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it
remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.
[240]
Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the
average age of 43.1 years.[241]
Native Spaniards make up 86.5% of the total population of Spain. After the birth
rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the
population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who
had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently,
fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The
immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern
Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%).[242]
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from
Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.[243] Spain has a number of descendants of
populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller
numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been
settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of
whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest
group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians,
Britons, Germans, French and others.[244]
Urbanisation
Main article: List of metropolitan areas in Spain

Largest cities or towns in Spain

Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2023)

Ran Autonomous Ran Autonomous

Name Pop. Name
k community k community

3,332,0
1 Madrid Community of Madrid 11 Bilbao Basque Country
35

1,660,1
2 Barcelona Catalonia 12 Córdoba Andalusia
22

Valencian
3 Valencia 807,693 13 Valladolid Castile and León
Community

4 Seville Andalusia 684,025 14 Vigo Galicia

5 Zaragoza Aragon 682,513 15 L'Hospitalet Catalonia

Madrid
Principality of
6 Málaga Andalusia 586,384 16 Gijón
Asturias

Vitoria-
7 Murcia Region of Murcia 469,177 17 Basque Country
Gasteiz
Barcelona
8 Palma Balearic Islands 423,350 18 A Coruña Galicia

Las Valencian
9 Canary Islands 378,027 19 Elche
Palmas Community

Valencian
10 Alicante 349,282 20 Granada Andalusia
Community
Immigration
Main article: Immigration to Spain

Distribution of the foreign population in Spain in 2005

by percentage
According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 6.6 million foreign
residents in Spain in 2024 (13.5%)[245] while all citizens born outside of Spain were
8.9 million in 2024, 18.31% of the total population. [246]
According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian,
about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000
were Ecuadorian.[247] Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian,
German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants
from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians.
[248]
Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of
immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This
sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea,
has caused noticeable social tension. [249]
Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms
after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.
[250]
The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996
to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[251] In 2005 alone, a
regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000
people.[252] There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration,
including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the
porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength
of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour
than can be offered by the national workforce.
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin
typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest
absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than
doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[253] In 2008, prior to the onset of the
economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured
destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and
seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[254]
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged
unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and
receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits
and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. [255] The
programme had little effect.[256] Although the programme failed to, the sharp and
prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of
immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a
million people left Spain.[257] For the first time in decades the net migration rate was
expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners. [257]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Spain

Languages of Spain
Spain is a multilingual state.[258] Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish
Constitution as castellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of
the entire country since 1931.[259] As allowed in the third article of the Constitution,
the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their
respective autonomous communities. The territoriality created by the form of co-
officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish
speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official
languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories. [260]
Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages include Aragonese, Aranese, Astur-
Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic
(Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Valencian and Tamazight, to which
the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up. [261] The number of speakers
varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most
vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection. [262] Those enjoying
recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include
Catalan/Valencian (in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands officially named as Catalan
and in the Valencian Community officially named as Valencian); Galician (in Galicia);
Basque (in the Basque Country and part of Navarre); and Aranese in Catalonia.
Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan/Valencian by 17%, Galician by 7% and
Basque by 2% of the Spanish population. [263]
Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities
include Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and English.[264]
Education
Main article: Education in Spain
 University of Salamanca one of the first European
universities
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The
current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley
Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education. [265] In 2014, the LOE
was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica
para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement
of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[266] Since 1970 to
2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE,
LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[267]
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education, [268] secondary
education[269] and post-16 education.[270] In regards to the professional development
education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university
degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo
Formativo de Grado Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can
be studied after studying the secondary education, and the Ciclo Formativo de
Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which can be studied
after studying the post-16 education level. [271]
The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by
the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds
as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics,
and science.[272][273]
Health
Main articles: Health care in Spain and Abortion in Spain
The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one
of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World
Health Organization.[274] The health care is public, universal and free for any legal
citizen of Spain.[275] The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the
average of 9.3% of the OECD.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Spain
Religious self-definition in Spain (CIS survey; sample size: 3,935; February 2023)[276]
Practicing Catholic (18.5%)
 Non-Practicing Catholic (37.5%)
Believer in another religion (2.7%)
Agnostic (12.6%)
Indifferent/Non-believer (12.3%)
Atheist (14.9%)
Did not answer (1.5%)
Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant
religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain
students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion
most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam, [277] Judaism,[278] and
evangelical Christianity[279] is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by
the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify
as Catholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with no religion.[280] Most
Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. [281] Recent polls and
surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious. [281][282][283]
The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as freedom of
religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character",
while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.
Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members.[284] There are about
105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has
approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations. [285]
A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that
there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as
of 2019, accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was
composed of immigrants and descendants originating from
the Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000
(42%) of them had Spanish nationality. [286]
Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th
century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are
around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Spain
Spain is a Western country and one of the major Latin countries of Europe, and has
been noted for its international cultural influence. [287] Spanish culture is marked by
strong historic ties to the Catholic Church, which played a pivotal role in the
country's formation and subsequent identity. [288] Spanish art, architecture, cuisine,
and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by
the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era
globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and
commercial products of its diverse empire.
World Heritage Sites
Main article: World Heritage Sites in Spain
See also: Castles in Spain and Cathedrals in Spain
Spain has 49 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte Perdido in
the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa
Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal, the Heritage of Mercury,
shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests, shared with other
countries of Europe.[289] In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or
"Human treasures".[290]
Literature
Main articles: Spanish literature, Catalan literature, Galician literature, and Basque
literature
See also: Latin American literature, Royal Spanish Academy, and Instituto
Cervantes
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets
of Mozarabic Romance (such as refrains) sprinkled in Arabic and Hebrew texts.
[291]
Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the Glosas
Emilianenses written in Latin, Basque and Romance. [292]

Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, at

the Plaza de España in Madrid
Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in Latin, which remained as
the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-
Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken. [293] A decisive development ensued
in the 13th century in Toledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local
vernacular, Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed
alongside Galician-Portuguese across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.
[294]
The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, Occitan,
became increasingly Catalanised in the 14th and 15th centuries.[295] Major literary
works from the Middle Ages include the Cantar de Mio Cid, Tirant lo Blanch, The
Book of Good Love and Coplas por la muerte de su padre. Genres such as Mester de
Juglaría and Mester de Clerecía were cultivated.
Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late
15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th
century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian
Peninsula, which ushered in a Golden era of Castilian literature in the 16th and 17th
centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan. [296] Famous
Early Modern works include La Celestina and Lazarillo de Tormes. The famous Don
Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers
from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la
Barca or Tirso de Molina. During the Enlightenment authors included, Benito
Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, and Leandro Fernández de Moratín.
Steps of Spanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French classicism)
have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the
movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter. [297] In a
broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-
called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued. [298][299]
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of Spanish
Realism, which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were',
rather than romanticised or stylised presentations. [citation needed] The major realist writer
was Benito Pérez Galdós.[300] The second half of the 19th century also saw the
resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural
movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan Renaixença or the
Galician Rexurdimento.[301] Rarely used before in a written medium, the true
fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s,
even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.
[302]
20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as
the Generation of '98, the Generation of '27, Generation of '36 and the Generation
of '50. Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main
awards in Spanish literature.
Philosophy
Main article: Spanish philosophy
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been
variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development
throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early
representatives such as Seneca, Trajan, Lucan, or Martial); by pinpointing its origins
to the late 19th century (associated to the Generation of 98); or simply by outright
denying its existence.[303] The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy
pitted the likes of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the myth around
it)[304] against Antonio Pérez.[305] Foreign imports such as Krausism proved to be
extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [306]
Art
Main article: Spanish art

Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez

Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various
European and American artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and
generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The
Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain,
especially in Andalusia, is still evident today. European influences include Italy,
Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, Spanish
Baroque and Neoclassical periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such
as the Pre-Romanesque art and architecture, Herrerian architecture or the Isabelline
Gothic.[citation needed]
During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco, José de
Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán. Also in the Baroque
period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such
as Las Meninas and Las Hilanderas.[307]
Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish
Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of
contemporary nations-states.[citation needed]
Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many
important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement,
including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.[citation needed]
Sculpture
 The Comb of the Wind of Eduardo Chillida in San
Sebastián
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last
third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great
Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid School) is called the
"Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of
the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the
altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other
notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni and Damián
Forment.[citation needed]
There were two Schools: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez
Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral
of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to
which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of
Rosary, are attributed.[citation needed]
Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and
his daughter Luisa Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th
century the most important Spanish sculptors were Julio González, Pablo
Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano.
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Spain

Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope Cruz in Oviedo

After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed
in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the
country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I. [308] The
conflict offered the Spanish industry of silent films an opportunity for further growth.
[309]
Local studios for sound films were created in 1932.[310] The government
imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to
watching dubbed films.[311]
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for films
such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver.[312]
Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century
include the Fantaterror, the cine quinqui and the so-called destape [es] films.[313]
As of 2021, the festivals of San Sebastián and Málaga are ranked among the top
cultural initiatives in the country.[314]
Architecture
Main article: Spanish architecture

Basilica Sagrada Família in Barcelona

Earth and gypsum are very common materials of the traditional vernacular
architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the
deposits of gypsum are located).[315] Due to its historical and geographical diversity,
Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples
of Islamicate architecture, belonging to the Western Islamic tradition, were built in
the Middle Ages in places such as Córdoba, Seville, or Granada. Similarly to the
Maghreb, stucco decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the
high Middle Ages.[316]
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing
a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream
European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later
integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary
flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built
throughout the entire territory. The so-called Mudéjar style came to designate works
by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims. [317]
The arrival of Modernism produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An
influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of
important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by
groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary
architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo
Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown. [citation needed]
Music and dance
Main article: Music of Spain

Flamenco is an Andalusian artistic form that evolved

from Seguidilla.
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West
Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region. Various
regional styles of folk music abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also
popular.
In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers
such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and
performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de
Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de
Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty
professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta
Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera
houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El
Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally
recognised summer music festivals Sónar which features pop and techno acts,
and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.
[318]
The Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre.
The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain.
[319]
Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias
and Galicia.
Cuisine
Main article: Spanish cuisine
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in
geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from
the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's
deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences
has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of
seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-
based dishes like paella from Valencia[320] and arròs negre (black rice) from
Catalonia.[321]
Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian
soup, along with substantial stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally
preserved by salting, such as Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, such
as Manchego cheese.
Atlantic Spain – the Northern coast,
including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-
based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham.
The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in
the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á
feira and shellfish dishes.

Paella, a traditional Valencian dish[320]

Cochinillo asado

Jamón ibérico is one of the most expensive hams.[322][323]

Empanadas, part of entire Latin American cuisine due Spanish colonization

Torta del Casar, a sheep milk cheese from Spain.

Sport
Main article: Sport in Spain

Spain or La Roja celebrating their 2023 FIFA Women's

World Cup victory. Football is the most popular and profitable[324] sport in the
country.
While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times,
sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real
Madrid CF and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the
world. The country's national men's football team won the UEFA European
Championship in 1964, 2008, 2012 and 2024 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is
the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments. [citation
needed]
Spain's women's national team were champions of the 2023 FIFA World Cup,
becoming one of only five nations to win a Women's World Cup. Barcelona
Femení has won a record 20 domestic trophies.
Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula
One also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports
powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics and Paralympics that
were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the
country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure,
especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In their respective regions, the
traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian pilota both are popular.[citation needed]
Public holidays and festivals
Main articles: National Day of Spain, Public holidays in Spain, Fiestas of
International Tourist Interest of Spain, and Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of
Spain
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic),
national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum
of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national
government and at least two are chosen locally. [325] Spain's National Day (Fiesta
Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.[326][327]
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is San
Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of
the bulls. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain,
with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.
Other festivals include La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia, the carnivals
in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia
and Castile and León.

Carnival in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

See also

 Spain portal

 Europe portal
 History of education in Spain
 Outline of Spain
 Topographical relief of Spain
 History of the territorial organization of Spain
Notes
1. ^ Jump up to:a b In Spain, some other languages enjoy co-official status
in certain regions (in accordance with the latter's Statutes of
Autonomy) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these,
Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws
and the most used (Spanish: Reino de España, pronounced: Spanish
pronunciation: [ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
 Aragonese: Reino d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈrejno ðesˈpaɲa]
 Asturian: Reinu d'España, IPA: [ˈrejnu ðesˈpaɲa]
 Catalan: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə]
 Basque: Espainiako Erresuma, IPA: [es̺paɲiako eres̺uma]
 Galician: Reino de España, IPA: [ˈrejnʊ ð(ɪ) esˈpaɲɐ]
 Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha, IPA: [reˈjawme ðesˈpaɲɔ]
 Valencian: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋne ðesˈpaɲa]
2. ^ The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of
the Constitution of Spain to be Castilian.[2]
3. ^ In some autonomous
communities, Basque, Catalan, Galician, Valencian,
and Occitan (locally known as Aranese) are co-official
languages. Aragonese, Asturian, and Leonese have some degree of
government recognition at the regional level.
4. ^ The Peseta before 2002
5. ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European
Union member states. Also, the .cat domain is used
in Catalonia, .gal in Galicia and .eus in the Basque-
Country autonomous regions.
6. ^ Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa] ⓘ
7. ^ The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for
Spain. Instead, the terms España (Spain), Estado español (Spanish
State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the
document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry
of Foreign Affairs established that the denominations España (Spain)
and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate
Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the
government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including
foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore
recognised as the conventional name by many international
organisations.[328]
8. ^ See list of transcontinental countries.
9. ^ The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the
aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding
system.
10.^ The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania.
11.^ Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales,
the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.
12.^ Most Spanish monarchs have been kings. However, a queen
regnant – while uncommon – is possible due to Spain's adherence
to male-preference primogeniture. Leonor, Princess of Asturias, will be
Spain's first queen regnant since Isabella II, who reigned from 1833 to
1868, should she someday succeed her father Felipe VI as expected.
13.^ Former king Juan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the 1981
Spanish coup attempt is but one example of the Crown exercising its
influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold
the rule of law.[128]
14.^ The Spanish state honours system comprises the Order of Charles III,
the Order of Isabella the Catholic, the Order of Civil Merit, the Civil
Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, the Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort,
and the Order of Constitutional Merit, among other orders, decorations
and medals. The prime minister is ex officio chancellor of the Order of
Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of foreign
affairs, education, and justice are the corresponding chancellors for the
orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of
Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and
of Constitutional Merit, respectively.
15.^ They being the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando,
the Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas, the Royal Academy
of Engineering of Spain, the Real Academia de la Historia, the Royal
Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation, the Royal Academy of
 Pharmacy, the Royal Spanish Academy, and the Spanish Royal
Academy of Sciences
16.^ The ministerial acts performed by the Spanish monarch are as
follows:
1. Sanction and promulgate bills duly passed by the Cortes
Generales, making them laws. The Spanish Constitution
mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within
fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right
to veto legislation.[133][134]
2. Summon the Cortes Generales into session following a general
election, dissolve the same upon the expiration of its four-year
term, and proclaim the election of the next Cortes. These
functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the
Spanish Constitution.[135][136][137][138][139]
3. Appoint and dismiss ministers of state on the advice of the
prime minister.[140]
4. Appoint the president of the Supreme Court on the advice of the
General Council of the Judiciary.[141]
5. Appoint the president of the Constitutional Tribunal from among
its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three
years.[142]
6. Appoint the Fiscal General, who leads the Prosecution Ministry,
on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the
Government is required to consult the General Council of the
Judiciary.[143]
7. Appoint the presidents of the autonomous communities as
elected by their respective parliaments.[144]
8. Issue decrees approved in the Council of Ministers, confer civil
service and military appointments, and
award honours and distinctions in the gift of the state, all done
on the advice of the prime minister or another minister
designated thereby.[n][145]
9. Exercise supreme command and control over the Armed Forces,
on the advice of the prime minister.[146]
10. Declare war and make peace on the advice of the prime minister
and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales. [147]
11. Ratify treaties, on the advice of the prime minister. [148]
 12. Accredit Spanish ambassadors and ministers to foreign states
and receive the credentials of foreign diplomats to Spain, on the
advice of the prime minister.[149]
13. Exercise the right of clemency, but without the authority to
grant general pardons, on the advice of the prime minister. [150]
14. Patronise the Royal Academies.[o][151]

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Further reading
 Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: a history. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.
 Callaghan O.F. Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press
1983.
 Frank, Waldo D. Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great
People NYC: Boni & Liveright, 1926.
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