Formalism - As the Soviet Union consolidated its

Brief History power, Formalist theory faced

Early 20 century: The Russian Silver Age
th opposition from Marxist critics who saw
- In the early 20th century, Russia was it as “bourgeois” and “formalist”.
experiencing a cultural and artistic - Despite this, formalist theory continued
renaissance, known as the Silver Age to influence literary scholarship in the
- The Russian Avant–Garde was West, particularly in the United States
characterized by a rejection of and Europe.
traditional forms and a desire to explore
new modes of expression. Proponents and Prominent Personalities
Viktor Shklovsky and the OPOYAZ 1. The Moscow Linguistic Circle (1915)
- In 1916, Viktor Shklovsky, a Russian - Is considered the starting point of
literary critic and theorist, founded the Formalism. Prominent theorists like
OPOYAZ (Society for the Study of Poetic Roman Jakobson, Osip Brik, and Borish
Language) in St. Petersburg. Thomashefsky were members of this
- Shklovsky was influenced by the work of group.
Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist - Osip Brik was a Russian literary critic
who had developed the concept of and theorist, prominent in the Russian
structural linguistics. Formalist movement during the early
- Shklovsky’s goal was to create a more 20th century. He was known for his
objective and scientific approach to contribution to the study of the formal
literary criticism, focusing on the formal aspects of literature, particularly in
properties of language rather than its analyzing the structure and techniques
emotional or social content. used in literary works. Brik was closely
The Development of Formalist Theory associated with the avant-garde group
- Shklovsky and his colleagues at LEF (Left Front of the Arts) and was a
OPOYAZ began to develop a theory of key figure in the development of the
literature that emphasized its Formalist theory.
autonomy and formal properties. - Boris Tomashevsky was a Russian
- They argue that literature should be literary scholar and critic, and a leading
studied as a unique system of language figure in the Russian Formalist
use, rather than as a reflection of movement. He is best known for his
external reality or social context. work on the structural analysis of
- This approach let to the development of narrative and the theory of literature.
key concepts such as Tomashevsky introduced key concepts
“defamiliarization” (the process of such as “plot” and “story” (fabula and
revealing the underlying structures of sjuzhet in Russian), distinguishing
language), and “literariness” (the between the raw events of a narrative
specific qualities that distinguish and the way they are presented.
literature from other forms of language) 2. Victor Shklovsky (1893 – 1984)
Influence and Spread - He developed the concept of
- Formalist theory gained popularity in “defamiliarization” which is all about
Russia during 1920s, attracting scholars the familiar strange again. He believed
from various fields, including linguistics, that everyday things and experiences
philosophy and literature. become so routine that we stop noticing
their unique qualities. Shklovsky
 thought that art has the power to break significant impact on fields beyond
this routine and make us see the world literature and linguistics, including
in a new way. By using literary language, anthropology and semiotics, and his
art can “defamiliarize” ordinary things, interdisciplinary approach helped
forcing us to pay attention and engage spread Formalist ideas across various
with the world more deeply. This idea disciplines.
has had a lasting impact on literary 5. I.A. Richards (1893 – 1979)
theory and continues to shape how we - His work contributed top the
think about how literature changes our foundations of New Criticism, a
understanding of the world. formalist movement in literary theory
3. Boris Eichenbaum (1886 – 1959) which emphasized the close reading of
- He is a key figure in the development of a literary text, especially poetry, in an
Russian Formalism, a movement that effort to discover how a work of
studied literature in a unique way. He literature functions as a self – contained
was a part of the group OPOYAZ, where and self – referential aesthetic project.
he worked with other scholars to create
new ideas about literature. Eichenbaum Key Features
believed that literature should be 1. Focus on the text’s internal details
studied based on its own internal - Formalist critics focus on the internal
development, rather than being structure and patterns of the text, rather
influenced by outside factors like than its external context. For example,
society or history. He also developed a in James Joyce’s “Ulysses”, a formalist
method called close reading, which critic might analyze the way the
involves carefully analyzing a text narrative is structured around the
without considering external factors. character’s stream-of-consciousness,
Eichenbaum’s work helped to defend rather than exploring the historical and
Formalism against its critics and cultural context in which it was written.
showed how literary meaning is created 2. Emphasis on the text itself
through formal elements like structure, - Formalist critics prioritize the text itself,
style and language, rather than content rather than using it to explore other
or context. topics or themes. For instance, in
4. Roman Jakobson (1896 – 1982) William Faulkner’s “The Sound and the
- He believed that poetry is unique in its Fury”, a formalist critic might analyze
ability to focus on the form of message the way the narrative is structured
itself, rather than just conveying around the Compson Family’s Decline,
information. Jakobson’s work on rather than using it to explore the
linguistics helped bridge the gap themes of racism or Southern culture.
between Formalism and Structuralism, 3. Use of analytical techniques
his communication model is still widely - Formalist critics use techniques like
used today to analyze different aspects close reading and pattern analysis to
of communication. He also developed a analyze the text. For example, in
theory of distinctive features in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”, a formalist
phonology, which revolutionized the critic might analyze the way the play’s
study of sound systems in language and structure is built around the character’s
laid the groundwork for modern indecision and delay, using techniques
linguistics. Jacobson’s ideas had a
 like close reading to identify patterns difficult to consider multiple or
and motifs. conflicting interpretations. For instance,
in Tono Morrison’s “Beloved”, a
Applications formalist critic might argue that the
1. Analyzing and interpreting literature novel has a single, definitive, meaning,
- Formalism is useful for analyzing and rather than acknowledging multiple
interpreting literary texts. By focusing possible interpretations.
on the text’s internal details and 3. Potential for narrow analysis
structure, formalist critics can uncover - Formalism’s emphasis on close reading
new meanings and insights that might and pattern analysis can lead to a
be overlooked by other approaches. narrow or reductive analysis that
2. Editing and correcting texts overlooks broader themes and contexts.
- Formalism’s emphasis on textual For example, a formalist critic might
analysis can be applied to editing and analyze a specific passage or text in
correcting texts. By closely examining isolation, without considering its place
the language, structure, and other within the larger narrative or cultural
literary devices used in a text, editors context.
can identify errors and make corrections
that improve the text’s overall Writing Techniques
coherence and effectiveness. Close Reading
3. Teaching and Learning - This involves a detailed analysis of
- Formalism’s emphasis on close reading specific passages or lines in a text.
and critical thinking makes it an Close reading entails paying close
effective approach for teaching attention to the language, structure and
literature and promoting critical other literary devices used in the
thinking skills. By encouraging students passage. This technique helps to
to analyze specific passages or texts in uncover the underlying meaning and
depth, teachers can help students significance of the passage.
develop their critical thinking skills and Explication
gain a deeper understanding of - This involves a detailed analysis of a
literature. specific text or passage. Explication
breaks down the text into its component
Limitations parts, such as language, structure and
1. Overemphasizing structure at the literary devices and analyzes how these
expense of meaning elements work together to convey
- Formalism’s focus on the text’s internal meaning.
structure can lead to an over emphasis Pattern Analysis
on structure at the expense of meaning. - This involves identifying and analyzing
For example, a formalist critic might the underlying patterns and structures
spend too much time analyzing the in a text. Pattern analysis can involve
play’s structure and not enough time looking at how the text’s language,
exploring its themes or symbolism. structure, and literature devices are
2. Difficulty in considering multiple used to create a particular effect or
interpretations convey a particular meaning.
- Formalism’s emphasis on a single
“correct” interpretation can make it
Symbolic Analysis
- This involves examining the symbols,
motifs, and other literary devices used in
a text. Symbolic analysis can help to
uncover the underlying meaning and
significance of these devices and how
they contribute to the overall meaning
of the text.
 New Criticism 1938
Brief History - New Criticism was institutionalized
Early 1920s through Cleanth Books and Robert Penn
- T.S. Eliot was a major influence on this Warner’s Understanding Poetry (1938).
literary approach. In his essay “Tradition This Textbook taught student to focus
and the Individual talent” (1919), he on close reading and analyzing the text
argued that to truly understand a poem, itself. Be then, New Criticism became
you should focus on the poem’s the primary method of analyzing
structure and language, not the author’s literature in American universities.
personal life or historical context. His 1941
notion of “impersonality in poetry” - The term “New Criticism” is named
which means separating the poet’s after John Crowe Ransom’s book, The
personal emotions and experiences New Criticism (1941). In this book,
from the work – was influential in ransom reviews the work of influential
shaping New Criticism. British critics like T.S. Eliot, I.A. Richards,
1920s and E. Empson, whose ideas greatly
- In Britain, I.A. Richards conducted influenced new critics.
experiments at Cambridge University, 1947
giving students poems without context - Cleanth Brooks published “the Well-
to interpret based solely on language Wrought Urn.” A celebrated work of
and structure. His findings, published in applied New Criticism. The book
“Practical Criticism” (1929), showed teaches how to closely read and analyze
that readers often misinterpret texts poems, showing that the way a poem is
when relying on external information. written, including its form and structure,
1935 helps us understand its meaning.
- The Southern Review is a literary journal 1949
founded by Robert Penn Warren and - Rene Wellek and Austin Warren’s book
Cleanth Brooks at Louisiana State Theory of Literature helped spread and
university. It became an influential develop New Critical ideas, particularly
platform for promoting New Criticism at Yale University. It provided a clear
by publishing works and critiques that and detailed explanation of New
supported its principles, helping to Criticism, influencing how literature was
establish and spread the movement in studied and taught, and reinforcing the
academic and literary circles. movement’s importance in academic
1937 settings.
- In his essay “Criticism, Inc.”, John Crowe 1954
Ransom argues that literary criticism - In The Verbal icon (1954), a collection of
should be more scientific, meaning it essays, W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe
should be precise, systematic, and Beardsley explained the intentional
objective. He believed that critics should fallacy which means we should not
focus on analyzing poems as aesthetic consider the author’s intentions when
objects and not let personal feelings, analyzing a test, and the affective
history, or moral views influence their fallacy, which mean we shouldn’t base
analysis. our judgment on how the text makes us
feel.
Late 1950s and Early 1960s Brooks, including understanding Poetry
- Throughout the 1950s and into the early (1938) and Understanding Fiction
1960s, New Criticism remained the (1943), which helped teach New Critical
prevailing approach in literary analysis. methods.
Its techniques were widely taught, and 4. William Kurtz Wimsatt and Monroe
its influence was seen in how literature Beardsley
was both written and interpreted. - Are known for their critical essays on
Late 1960s the intentional fallacy and affective
- New Criticism began to face criticism fallacy in The Verbal Icon (1954), which
from emerging literary theories. Critics are key ideas in New Criticism.
argued that New Criticism’s focus on 5. Rene Wellek and Austin Warren
the text alone was too narrow and - Are influential in New Criticism through
neglected important social, historical, their book Theory of Literature (1949),
and political context. which helped explain and promote New
1970s and Beyond Critical ideas in schools.
- By the 1970s, New Criticism was mostly 6. Richard Palmer Blackmur
replaced by other theories such as - Is a prominent personality in New
structuralism, post-structuralism, Criticism, known for his detailed
Marxism, and feminist criticism. These analyses of literature in The Double
newer approaches sought to reintegrate Agent (1944), supporting the
literature into its broader cultural and movement’s focus on form.
historical contexts, something New 7. Allen Tate
Criticism had purposedly avoided. - Is influential in New Criticism through
- Despite its decline, New Criticism had a his essay The Man of Letters in the
lasting impact on literary analysis. Its Modern World (1952), which reflects the
focus on close reading and the New Critical focus on analyzing
importance of a text itself influences literature through its intrinsic features.
how we study literature today, often He also promoted New Critical ideas by
alongside other theoretical approaches teaching students and editing literary
that consider context. journals.
8. Thomas Stearns Eliot
Proponents and Prominent Personalities - Is a precursor to New Criticism, whose
1. John Crowe Ransom ideas about tradition and the role of
- Is a founding figure of New Criticism, artists in works such as The Sacred
known for his important theories, Wood (1920) influenced many New
particularly in The New Criticism (1941), Critics.
that helped shape the movement. 9. Ivor Armstrong Richard
2. Cleanth Brooks - Is a precursor to New Criticism, whose
- Is a major proponent of New Criticism, work on close reading and language.
celebrated for his influential book The Particularly in Practical Criticism
Well Wrought Urn (1947), which focuses (1929), laid the groundwork for the
on close reading and formal analysis. movement.
3. Robert Penn Warren 10. William Empson
- Is an important contributor to new - Is also a precursor to New Criticism,
Criticism, especially through his known for his exploration of ambiguity
collaborative textbooks with Cleanth in literature in Seven types of Ambiguity
 (1930), which affected how New Critics 7. Unity and Organic Whole
approached texts. - It refers to viewing the text as a
complete work where every part
Key Features contributes to the overall meaning and
1. Close Reading effect and examining how different
- It involves carefully examining the text’s parts work together.
language, structure and imagery 8. Emotion through Intellectual
without considering the author’s Engagement
background or the reader’s feelings. - It believes that emotional responses to
2. Textual Autonomy literature should come from a
- It means treating the text as a self- thoughtful analysis of the rather than
contained unit, separate from the personal experiences or biases.
author’s intentions or the historical 9. Heresy of Paraphrase
context in which it was written. - It asserts that the true meaning of a
3. Formal Analysis literary work cannot be fully captured by
- It focuses on how the text’s form and rephrasing or summarizing it, as such
structure, including rhyme, meter, and attempts would distort or diminish its
narrative techniques, contribute to its meaning.
meaning, while examining formal
elements, including but not limited to Applications
plot, character development, setting 1. Literary Criticism
and theme independently. - Critics use New Criticism to look closely
4. Intentional and Affective Fallacy at the text itself, focusing on its
- The intentional fallacy rejects using the language and structure. They analyze
author’s intended meaning to interpret how these elements create meaning,
the text. Meanwhile, the affective without considering the author’s life or
fallacy disregards the reader’s historical background
emotional response or personal 2. Classroom Teaching
interpretation, emphasizing that - Teachers use New Criticism to guide
meaning should come from the text students in analyzing texts by focusing
alone, not from how reader feels about on their language and structure.
it. Students learn to interpret texts based
5. Emphasis on Paradox, Irony and on these formal elements, rather than
Ambiguity external factors like the author’s
- It acknowledges that paradoxes, irony personal background or historical
and ambiguity are important parts of a context.
literary text that need careful analysis. 3. Literary Awards and Evaluation
These devices are seen as valuable - When awarding literary prizes, critics
elements that add depth and often apply New Criticism to assess the
complexity to a text, not as flaws. text’s quality based on its formal
6. Objective Criticism and Universality features like structure and style, rather
- It strives for objectivity in interpretation than the author’s reputation or socio-
by seeking universal and timeless political relevance.
meanings within the text, seeking truths 4. Scholarly Research
and themes that remain relevant across - Research applies New Criticism to study
different times and contexts. text in detail, focusing on literature
 elements like symbolism and narrative Writing Techniques
techniques. They interpret the text’s Here is a detailed, step by step writing
themes without considering the technique for New Criticism:
author’s life and historical setting. Focus on the Poem
5. Textual Editing and Annotation - Begin by looking closely at the poem
- Editors use New Criticism to annotate itself. Stay focused on the poem,
text, highlighting formal features like aiming to interpret its meaning based
poetic structure and narrative on its inherent literary qualities rather
techniques. These annotations help than getting sidetracked by external
readers understand how these elements context or the author’s intention.
contribute to the text’s meaning, Use “The Speaker”
offering insights based purely on the - When writing about a poem, refer to
text itself rather than historical or the speaker, rather than the author.
biographical information. Don’t assume the speaker is the same
Limitations person as the poet.
1. Neglect of Context Perform a Close Reading
- It often ignores historical, social and - Number the lines of the poem and
cultural contexts that are important for examine its elements, such as meter,
understanding a text. rhythm, rhyme, and stanzas. Check if
2. Text or Context Divide the poem follows a specific form or is
- It separates the text from its context, free verse.
which can limit a full understanding of Identify Key Elements
its meaning and significance. - Attempt to look for oppositions,
3. Paradox of Objectivity tensions, paradoxes and ironies within
- It claims objectivity in analysis, but the poem to understand its deeper
different readers might interpret a meanings.
text’s ambiguities in various ways, Find Evidence of Unity
introducing subjectivity. - Look for evidence of unity in the work
4. Limited Scope through specific elements including
- It primarily focuses on formal aspects metaphor, point of view, diction,
of literature, which may overlook imagery, meter/rhyme, and structure.
broader themes and ideological issues. Develop a Thesis Statement
5. Overemphasis on Form - Once you have identified the text’s
- The strong focus on form can lead to complexities and found evidence in its
undervaluing the text’s social and elements, write a thesis statement
political implications. about how the poem’s various elements
6. Dismissal of Authorial Intent work together to support its theme.
- It dismisses the importance of the
author’s intentions, which some critics Teaching Implications
believe can help in understanding a Focus on Textual Analysis
text’s meaning. Close Reading
7. Underestimation of Reader’s Response - New criticism suggests that teachers
- It underestimates the role of the should guide students to closely
reader’s emotional and personal examine texts. This means looking
responses in interpreting texts. carefully at language, structure, and
 literary devices to understand the text’s
meaning.
Emphasis on Literary Forms
- Teaching should highlight the
importance of elements like imagery,
metaphor, irony and symbolism.
Students should learn how these
features contribute to the text’s overall
meaning and unity.
Detailed Interpretation
- Teachers should help students see how
different parts of the text work together.
This involves looking at how tone, word
choice, and structure support the text’s
themes and coherence.
Development of Analytical Skills
Critical Thinking
- By analyzing texts in detail, students
develop critical thinking skills. They
learn to identify complexities,
contradictions, and themes, which
improves their overall ability to analyze
literature.
Objective Criticism
- Teaching should focus on interpreting
the text itself rather than relying on
external contexts or personal opinions.
This helps students base their
interpretations on the text alone.
Appreciating Literaty Form
- Teachers should emphasize the
9importance of form and structure in
literature. By understanding how these
aspects contribute to a text’s meaning,
students gain a deeper appreciation of
literary works.
 Marxism - Marxism established itself as a part of
Brief History the American Literary scene with the
- Marxism has a long and complicated economic depression of the 1930s.
history. It reaches back to the thinking - Despite the variations and additions
of Karl Heinrich Marx (1818 – 1883), a that occurred in the century that
19th century German philosopher and followed, Marx’s writings still provide
economist. the theory of economics, sociology,
- When Marx met the political economist history and politics called Marxism.
Friedrich Engles (1820 – 1895) in Paris
in 1944 and they discovered that they Proponents and Prominent Personalities
had arrived at similar views 1. Karl Heinrich Marx (1818 – 1883)
independent of one another, they - Karl Marx is bet known for his theories
decided to collaborate to explain the that led to the development of Marxism.
principles of communism (which they His ideas also served as the basis for
later called Marxism) and to organize communism.
an international movement. 2. Friedrich Engles (1820 – 1895)
- Marx argued in The German Ideology - Friedrich Engles was a collaborator on
(0845) that means of production several books that laid the foundation
controls the society’s institutions and for the theory and philosophy of
beliefs, contented that history is Marxism.
progressing towards the eventual 3. Gyorgy Lukacs (1885 – 1971)
triumph of communism, and introduced - Was a literary theorist and philosopher
the concept of dialectical materialism, who is widely viewed as one of the
the theory that history develops as a founders of “Western Marxism” and as
struggle between contradictions that a forerunner of 20th – century critical
are eventually synthesized. theory. He is best known for his Theory
- These ideas were expounded in the of the Novel (1916) and History and
Communist Manifesto (1848), in which Class Consciousness (1923).
they identified class struggle as the 4. Ernst Bloch (1885 – 1977)
driving force behind history and - Was a German philosopher and cultural
anticipated that it would lead to a critic who is mostly credited for
revolution in which workers would renewing the interest in utopia and for
overturn capitalists, take control of mediating between the radical
economic production, and abolish philosophy of emancipation, non –
private property by turning it over to the dogmatic religious thought, analysis of
government to be distributed fairly. mass culture, and new aesthetic forms,
With these events, class distinctions notably those of Expressionism.
would disappear. 5. Louis Pierre Althusser (1918 – 1990)
- In the three – volume work Das Kapital - Was one of the most influential Marxist
(1867), Marx argued that history is philosophers of the 20th Century. As they
determined by economic conditions, and seemed to offer a renewal of Marxist
he urged an end to private ownership of thought as well as to render Marxist
public utilities, transportation, and the philosophical respectable, the claims he
means of production. advanced in the 1960s about Marxist
philosophy were discussed and debated
worldwide.
6. The Frankfurt School of Philosophers Applications and Limitations
(Critical Theory) 1. Marxists literary theories tend to focus
- Refers to the work of several on the representation of class conflict
generations of philosophers and social as well as the reinforcement of class
theorists in the Western European distinctions through the medium of
Marxist Traditions. literature.
7. Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and 2. Marxist theories use traditional
Theodor Adorno techniques of literary analysis but
- They played a key role in introducing subordinate aesthetic concerns to the
Marxist assessment of culture into final social and political meanings of
mainstream of American academic life. literature.
These thinkers became associated with 3. Marxists theorist often champion
what is known as “Critical Theory” authors sympathetic to the working
classes and author whose work
Key Features challenges economic equality found in
1. Karl Marx argued that wealth in a capitalist societies.
capitalist economy is created by 4. Literary theories arising from the
underpaying workers. Marxist paradigm have not only sought
2. For Marx, the crucial motor of historical new ways of understanding the
development is not ideas such as relationship between economic
freedom or institutions such as production and literature but all cultural
democracy, but the development of the production as well.
material or economic productive forces
of society. Writing Techniques
3. Marx saw all societies throughout - There is no prescribed form for writing a
history as consisting of classes. The Marxist analysis. Doing so is simply a
ruling class owns the means of matter of applying Marxist principles in
producing wealth in each society and a a clearly ordered manner.
class of laborers or slaves that owns 1. Prewriting
nothing. - Take the items in the text that yielded
4. Marxists believe that the dominant the most information or generated your
class maintains its hegemony through a strongest opinions and use them as the
combination of force and ideas. The basis of a free-write.
ruling ideas of any historical era are the a. What are the values of the author’s
ideas of the ruling class. time and place? Where are they
5. Ideology refers to the dominant ideas in reflected in the text?
a particular society. The word is also b. What biographical elements of the
used to describe the habitual perceptual author’s life can account for his or
and cognitive screens that prevent us her ideology? For example, to what
from seeing the actual material social class did the author’s family
circumstances in which we live. belong? Where is that evident in the
According to the Marxist theory of test?
ideology, schools and the media in c. What are the socioeconomic
capitalist society disseminate ideas conditions of the writer’s culture?
favorable to the maintenance of Where are they reflected in the
societal inequality. text?
 d. Who read the work when it was first - The conclusion of a Marxist analysis
published? How was it initially often takes either the form of an
received? Was it widely read? endorsement of classless societies in
Banned? Favorable or unfavorably which everyone has equal access to
reviewed? power and goods or of criticism of
e. What were the circumstances of its repressive societies when that is not the
publication? Was it quickly case. The conclusion may once again
accepted, widely distributed, and make a case for social reform, pointing
highly promoted? Or was it out where the literary work under
published with difficulty? Was it consideration has either supported or
given limited distribution? rejected social change.
- The four most important goals in
prewriting are: Teaching Implications
1. Clarify your understanding of the - Cultural institutions such as literature
ideology of the work. rest on the material economic
2. Identify the elements of the text foundation. To understand culture and
that present the ideology of the literature, one must relate them to their
work. material foundation.
3. Determine how those elements - Later Marxist literature scholars
promote it – that is, convince the suggested that all literature was useful
reader to accept it. because it drew attention to the
4. Assess how sympathetic or contradictions or fault lines where
opposed it is to Marxist principles. ideologies designed to justify inequality
2. Drafting and Revising failed.
a. The Introduction - Works of literature record the salient
- In Marxist analysis, it can be effective to conflicts of an era, including the
announce the ideology of the text and contradiction between the ruling class
its relationship to Marxist views at the and the subordinate class.
outset. Because the rest of your essay
will be concerned with where and how
the ideology is worked out, it is
important that your reader shares your
understanding of the stance taken by
the text.
b. The Body
- The central part of your essay will
demonstrate the acceptance or
rejection of Marxist principles in the text
you are analyzing. It is in this part that
the organizational principles will be of
your own design. That is, you may
choose to discuss each major character,
assess the nature of the social
institutions depicted, or point out the
struggles between groups of people.
c. The Conclusion
 Critical Theory - In the 1970s, a second generation began
Brief History with Jürgen Habermas, who, among
- A group of intellectuals associated with other merits, contributed to the opening
the Institute for Social Research located of a dialogue between so-called
at a university in Frankfurt, Germany, continental and analytic traditions. With
who sought to rethink Marx’s theories Habermas, the Frankfurt School turned
because the revolutions Marx predicted global, influencing methodological
did not, in fact, occur. approaches in other European academic
- Critical theory emerged out of the contexts and disciplines. It was during
Marxist tradition, particularly in this phase that Richard Bernstein, a
examining how economic systems philosopher and contemporary of
impact society. Then it eventually Habermas, embraced the research
broadened its scope to encompass agenda of Critical Theory and
various fields such as philosophy, significantly helped its development in
sociology, and psychology. Its main American universities starting from the
objective was to reveal the underlying New School for Social Research in New
power dynamics and ideologies that York.
influence our perception of the world.
- The term critical theory was dubbed by Key Features
Max Horkheimer in his 1937 essay 1. Self-reflexive
“traditional and critical theory.” - It accounts for its own embeddedness in
- A theory oriented toward critiquing and specific social and historical conditions.
changing society. It aims to dig beneath 2. Interdisciplinary
the surface of social life and uncover the - It integrates philosophical analysis with
assumptions that keep human beings social theory and empirical social
from a full and true understanding of research.
how the world works. 3. Materialist
- According to Horkheimer, critical theory - It grounds critical theorizing in social
must do two important things: reality.
1. It must account for society within a 4. Emancipatory
historical context. - It orients itself toward the goal of social
2. It should seek to offer a robust and emancipation.
holistic critique by incorporating
insights from all social sciences. Applications
Over the past years, critical theory is applied to
Proponents and Prominent Figures various diverse fields, including:
Some of the most prominent figures of the first 1. Literary Criticism:
generation of Critical Theorists were: - It is used to analyze literature,
1. Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) uncovering hidden ideologies and power
2. Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) structures within texts.
3. Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979) 2. Cultural Studies
4. Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) - It is applied to various forms of media
5. Friedrich Pollock (1894-1970) and cultural products or artifacts to
6. Leo Lowenthal (1900-1993) understand their role in maintaining or
7. Eric Fromm (1900-1980). challenging social hierarchies.
 3. Sociology and Political Science
- It examines social systems, institutions,
and their impact on marginalized
groups.
4. Feminism and Gender, and Race Theory
- Addressing issues of gender and racial
inequality through a critical lens.
Limitations
1. Complexity
- The interdisciplinary nature and
theoretical jargon can make critical
theory challenging for broader
audiences.

Writing Techniques
Critical Analysis
- This method involves critiquing societal
norms and values from within their own
framework, revealing contradictions
and injustices.
Interdisciplinary Approach
- This encourages students to draw on
concepts from sociology, philosophy,
and history to enrich their analysis.
Historical Contextualization
- Emphasizing the historical specificity of
social phenomena helps to ground
theoretical discussions in real-world
contexts.

Teaching Implications
Encouraging Critical Thinking
- Educators can use critical theory to
promote analytical skills, encouraging
students to question dominant
narratives and power structures.
Emphasis on Social Justice
- Teaching critical theory can inspire
students to engage with social justice
movements and develop a commitment
to emancipation and equity
Interdisciplinary Learning
- By integrating various disciplines,
critical theory can enhance students'
understanding of complex social issues.
Reader – Response Criticism 2. Diversity of Interpretations
Brief History - Emphasizes the different readers, based
- Reader – response criticism emerged as on their background, can derive
a reaction to the formalism of New different meanings from the same text.
Criticism, which focused strictly on the 3. Transactional Nature
text itself and often sought a singular, - Reading is seen as a transaction
objective interpretation. In contrast, between the text and the reader, where
reader – response criticism places the both influence the final interpretation.
reader at the center of the interpretative
process, arguing that the meaning of a Applications
text is not fixed but rather shaped by the 1. Literary Analysis
reader’s experiences, emotions, and - Reader – response criticism can be
personal context. The theory gained applied to any genre, offering insights
traction in the 1960s and 1970s, offering into how different readers might
a more democratic and inclusive perceive a text
approach to literary analysis. 2. Teaching
- Encourages students to engage
Proponents and Prominent Personalities personally with texts, recognizing the
1. Louise Rosenblatt validity of their interpretations.
- A key figure in reader – response theory, 3. Interdisciplinary Use
known for her transactional theory of - Can be combined with feminist,
reading which emphasizes the active psychoanalytic, or cultural criticism to
role of the reader. explore how various factors shape
2. David Bleich reader responses.
- Focused on subjective criticism, arguing
that readers’ emotional responses are Limitations
central to understanding a text. 1. Overemphasis on Subjectivity
3. Stanley Fish - Risk of neglecting the text’s formal
- Introduced the concept of interpretative elements and historical context.
communities, groups of readers who 2. Potential for Bias
share similar reading strategies and - Readers’ personal biases may
thus produce similar interpretations. overshadow other critical aspects of a
4. Wolfgang Iser text.
- Developed the concept of the “implied 3. Challenge of Validity
reader” a hypothetical reader who - Determining which interpretations are
embodies all the presuppositions valid can be difficult, as the theory
necessary for a text to achieve its suggests that any interpretation could
effects be equally valid.

Key Features Writing Techniques

1. Subjectivity Journal Entries
- Reader-response theory highlights the - Encourages students to write personal
subjective nature of reading, where reflections on their reading experience
meaning is not found in the text alone
but is co – created by the reader.
Annotated Readings
- Have students annotate texts with their
emotional and intellectual responses
Comparative Essays
- Assign essays that compare how
different groups (e.g., different cultural
or demographic groups) might interpret
a text.

Teaching Implications
Student – Centered Learning
- Shift the focus from the teacher’s
interpretation to the student’s
interpretations
Encouragement of Divers Perspectives
- Promote discussions that allow
students to share and compare their
unique readings
Critical Thinking Development
- Help students become aware of how
their backgrounds and beliefs influence
their interpretations.
 Structuralism (concept). He argued that the
Brief History relationship between these two is
- Structuralism, a pivotal intellectual arbitrary, meaning that the connection
movement of the 20th century, between words and their meanings is
fundamentally changed how we not natural but conventional,
approach language, culture, and human determined by cultural norms.
behavior. It emerged from the early - Historical Emergence
work of Ferdinand de Saussure, often - Structuralism gained momentum as it
regarded as the father of modern was applied beyond linguistics,
linguistics. Saussure’s ideas, particularly in anthropology, literary
particularly those expressed in his theory, and cultural studies. The
seminal "Course in General Linguistics," movement grew in response to earlier
laid the foundation for Structuralism by forms of analysis that focused on the
introducing the notion that language is individual elements rather than the
a structured system of signs. relationships and systems that give
- In any field, a structuralist analysis them meaning. This shift from focusing
looks to find the basic units that make on individual parts to understanding the
up a system, and then to discover the underlying structures marked a
rules that govern how those units can significant change in intellectual
combine. An example might be atoms. thought, influencing a wide range of
The atom is the basic unit of all matter, disciplines.
and the rules governing how atoms can
combine are what we call "chemistry." Proponents and Prominent Personalities
- A structuralist view of a literary text 1. Ferdinand de Saussure
would start by asking what the most - As the movement's progenitor,
basic units are, the "atoms," of a text. A Saussure’s theories laid the groundwork
literary text, like any other kind of for Structuralism. His emphasis on the
written text, is made of language, so a arbitrary nature of the sign and the
structuralist analysis of literature would relational nature of meaning in
start with a structural examination of language has been foundational in
language itself. linguistics and beyond.
Saussure’s Key Contributions 2. Claude Lévi-Strauss
- Langue and Parole - A central figure in Structuralist
- Saussure distinguished between anthropology, Lévi-Strauss extended
"langue" (the structured system of Saussure’s ideas to the study of culture.
language) and "parole" (individual He argued that myths across different
speech acts). This distinction cultures exhibit similar structures,
emphasized that language operates as revealing universal patterns in human
a social institution, with meaning thought. Lévi-Strauss’s analysis of
arising from the relationship between binary oppositions—such as life/death,
elements within this system. nature/culture—was crucial in his
- Signifier and Signified exploration of myths, kinship systems,
- Saussure’s most enduring concept is the and culinary traditions, illustrating how
"sign," composed of the "signifier" these binaries’ structure human
(sound or image) and the "signified" societies.
- Examples of Lévi-Strauss’s Work functions of language, highlighting the
a. Myth Analysis: In his analysis of myths, complex ways in which language
Lévi-Strauss showed that despite their conveys meaning.
surface differences, myths from various 5. Jacques Lacan
cultures share underlying structures. For - Lacan’s integration of Structuralism
instance, the Oedipus myth reveals with Freudian psychoanalysis
tensions between concepts like family revolutionized the understanding of the
loyalty versus individual desires, which human psyche. He famously declared
can be understood through a that "the unconscious is structured like
Structuralist lens. a language," emphasizing the role of
b. Kinship Systems: In "The Elementary linguistic structures in shaping human
Structures of Kinship," Lévi-Strauss identity, desire, and subjectivity.
argued that kinship systems across Lacan’s work bridged Structuralism
cultures share structural similarities, with psychoanalysis, offering new
providing a framework for insights into the formation of the self
understanding social organization. and the mechanisms of the unconscious.
3. Roland Barthes - Key Concepts from Lacan:
- Barthes brought Structuralism into the a. Mirror Stage: Lacan’s concept of the
realm of literary criticism and semiotics, Mirror Stage suggests that the
the study of signs in cultural contexts. formation of the ego is a result of
His work, such as "Mythologies," identifying with one’s own image, a
explored how everyday objects, cultural process that is deeply intertwined with
texts, and media could be language and symbolic structures.
deconstructed to reveal the underlying b. The Real, the Imaginary, and the
structures of meaning. Barthes Symbolic: Lacan’s triad represents
introduced the idea of cultural codes— different orders of human experience,
systems of signs that operate within each structured in ways that reflect
specific contexts to create meaning. broader cultural and linguistic systems.
- Key Works of Barthes:
a. "S/Z": In this work, Barthes performed a Key Features
detailed Structuralist analysis of 1. Binary Oppositions
Balzac’s novella "Sarrasine," illustrating - Central to Structuralism is the analysis
how various codes (such as the of binary oppositions, pairs of
proairetic, hermeneutic, symbolic, and contrasting concepts that are believed
cultural codes) interact to produce to structure human thought and culture.
meaning. These oppositions are not just about
4. Roman Jakobson differences but are hierarchical, with
- A linguist and literary theorist, Jakobson one term typically valued over the other.
further developed Structuralist ideas, - Examples (Binary) include:
particularly in communication and a. Life/Death
poetics. He introduced the concept of b. Nature/Culture
distinctive features in phonology, c. Male/Female
showing how meaning is produced d. Hot/Cold (as seen in Lévi-Strauss’s
through differences in language sounds. analysis of culinary traditions)
Jakobson also proposed a model of
communication that identified six
 - These binaries are crucial for - Structuralism holds that, according to
understanding how meaning is the human way of understanding things,
constructed and how cultural norms and particular elements have no absolute
values are established. meaning or value: their meaning or
2. Deep Structures value is relative to other elements
- Structuralists seek to uncover the deep, everything makes sense only in relation
often hidden structures that govern to something else; and an element
cultural phenomena. These structures cannot be perceived by itself.
are thought to be universal, underlying
all human activities, whether in
Applications
language, myth, kinship, or literary texts.
1. Literary Criticism
For example, the narrative structures
- Structuralism provides a framework for
identified by Vladimir Propp in his
analyzing literary texts by identifying
analysis of Russian folktales reveal
their underlying structures, such as
recurring patterns, such as the hero’s
narrative patterns, character
journey, which can be found across
relationships, and symbolic meanings.
different cultures.
- Example: In the story "Goldilocks and
3. Sign System
the Three Bears," binary oppositions
- Structuralism views cultural
such as hot/cold, hard/soft, and
phenomena as systems of signs that
big/small structure the narrative,
can be decoded to reveal underlying
ultimately leading to a resolution where
meanings. In literature, this involves
Goldilocks finds the "just right" option,
analyzing how narratives, characters,
symbolizing balance and harmony.
and symbols function as signs within a
2. Anthropology and Mythology
text. In cultural studies, it might involve
- Lévi-Strauss’s work on myths
examining how media, fashion, or
demonstrated that despite cultural
architecture convey ideological
differences, myths often share common
messages.
structures that reflect universal aspects
4. Synchronic vs. Diachronic Analysis
of the human experience.
- Structuralists often favor synchronic
- Example: Lévi-Strauss’s analysis of the
analysis, focusing on the structures that
Oedipus myth reveals underlying
exist at a given moment in time, over
tensions between nature and culture,
diachronic analysis, which traces
life and death, which are expressed
historical development. This approach
through the narrative structure.
allows for the examination of the
3. Psychoanalysis
functional relationships within a
- Lacan’s Structuralist approach
system, revealing how meaning is
reinterpreted Freudian psychoanalysis,
produced and maintained.
emphasizing that the unconscious is
structured like a language.
Points to Remember:
- Example: Lacan’s concept of the "Mirror
- Structuralism views a text as a whole or
Stage" shows how the ego is formed
as part of a larger structure, and it
through identification with an image, a
suggests that the meaning of a text is
process deeply connected to language
determined by the relationships
and cultural structures.
between its parts.
4. Cultural Studies ability to adapt to new or unexpected
- Structuralism has been applied to the cultural phenomena. This inflexibility
analysis of media, advertising, and other can make it difficult to apply
cultural artifacts. Barthes’s semiotic Structuralist analysis to contemporary
analysis reveals how seemingly issues that do not fit neatly into
mundane objects or images (e.g., a established patterns.
photograph of a politician) carry
complex ideological meanings. Writing Techniques
- Example: In "Mythologies," Barthes Structural Analysis in Literature
analyzed a range of cultural - Teach students to identify and analyze
phenomena, from wrestling to the underlying structures within literary
advertisements, showing how these texts. This involves looking for patterns,
cultural texts are structured by signs binary oppositions, and the interplay of
that convey underlying messages about symbols and themes.
power, ideology, and society. - Example: When analyzing a novel,
students might explore how the
Limitations narrative is shaped by opposing forces
1. Oversimplification (e.g., freedom vs. constraint) and how
- One of the significant criticisms of these oppositions drive the plot and
Structuralism is its tendency to reduce character development.
complex cultural phenomena to simple Applying Binary Oppositions
binary oppositions and universal - Encourage students to apply the
structures. This can lead to a flattening concept of binary oppositions in their
of cultural diversity and a failure to writing, whether analyzing texts or
account for the richness and variability creating their own stories.
of human experiences. Understanding how these oppositions’
2. Determinism structure meaning can deepen their
- Structuralism’s focus on underlying engagement with both reading and
structures can lead to a deterministic writing.
view of human behavior and culture, Comparative Structural Analysis
where individuals are seen as mere - Use comparative analysis to explore
products of these structures rather than how similar structures appear across
active agents who can resist or change different cultural texts. This can help
them. students appreciate the universality of
3. Lack of Attention to Subjectivity certain themes and structures, while
- Structuralism has been criticized for also recognizing the unique ways they
neglecting the subjective experiences of are expressed in different contexts.
individuals. By focusing on the objective - Example: Comparing the structure of a
analysis of structures, it may overlook Greek myth with a modern superhero
the ways in which personal story can reveal how the same
perspectives, emotions, and lived underlying patterns (e.g., the hero’s
experiences influence human behavior journey) are adapted to different
and cultural practices. cultural contexts.
4. Inflexibility
- Structuralism’s rigid focus on
predefined structures can limit its
 Teaching Implications
Interdisciplinary Approach
- Structuralism’s broad applicability
makes it an excellent tool for
interdisciplinary study. Encourage
students to apply Structuralist concepts
across different fields, from literature
and anthropology to psychology and
cultural studies.
Critical Engagement with Structuralism
- While Structuralism offers valuable
insights, it is important to engage
critically with the theory. Discuss its
limitations and encourage students to
explore alternative perspectives that
consider subjectivity, agency, and
cultural specificity.
Using Structuralism to Enhance Textual
Engagement
- Structuralism can be a powerful tool for
helping students engage more deeply
with texts. By uncovering the hidden
structures that shape meaning,
students can develop a more nuanced
understanding of literature and culture,
moving beyond surface-level
interpretations.
 Semiology group or society and was the founder of
Brief History semiology.
- Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 – 1913) is 2. Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 – 1914)
acknowledged as the founder of - An American philosopher and logician
semiology, a literary theory which who studied how signs shape our
studies the role of signs as part of social individual understanding of physical
life. Saussure believed that his linguistic reality. Also, a foundational figure in the
theories could be applied to all development of semiotics and
communication events. Semiology pragmatism.
assumes that all culture, on some level, 3. Roland Barthes (1915 – 1980)
is “like a language” - He significantly contributes to
- Semiology originated in the late 19th semiology by expanding its application
century, a term used by Saussure to to cultural studies. His work in
characterize the science that, he “Mythologies” illustrated how various
asserted, would study both verbal and sign systems including images and
non – verbal signs and sign – using texts, can be studies to understand
behavior. He thus envisioned semiology cultural narratives.
as the study of all kinds of signs in the 4. Julia Kristeva (1941)
same manner that linguistics studied - Her involvement in semiology is notable
verbal signs. With the growing use of for her exploration of intertextuality and
term ‘semiotics’ in the 20th century, sign function within psychoanalytic
especially in America, semiology was frameworks. She proposed that
not eliminated as a tern and continues meaning arises not solely from sign
to be used as a mode of sign study itself but also from its relationship
focusing on language and its relation to within a network of texts and cultural
other sign systems context
- More generally, semiology is the study 5. Umberto Eco (1932 – 2016)
of all patterning communication - He is recognized for bridging various
systems, both linguistic and non- semiotic traditions and enhancing the
linguistic. It is an approach that is framework of semiology. He defined
rooted in linguistics but has been semiotics broadly, stating that it is
appropriated by sociology, particularly concerned with “everything that can be
in the analysis of the communications taken as a sign”, and stressed the
media, cultural studies and film studies. importance of interpreting signs within
- Semiology is underpinned by their cultural context.
structuralism. When used in the social
sciences, it is particularly concerned Key Features
with revealing ideology. It laid the - One of Saussure’s key contributions to
groundwork for modern semiotics. semiotics lies in what he called
semiology, the concept of the bilateral
Proponents and Prominent Personalities sign which consists of the signifier (the
1. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 – 1913) physical form of a sign, like a word,
- A Swiss linguist who studies the image, or sound) and the signified (the
meaning of signs within a particular concept or meaning associated with the
signifier. It is concerned with the
relationship between the two. It is the
 study of signs and symbols, particularly 2. Linguistics
within language. It’s about - Semiology is applied to analyze the role
understanding how signs work, how of signs in communication. It helps the
they’re structured and how they create researchers understand how meaning is
meaning constructed through the relationships
- Semiology highlights that the between signifiers and signified. By
connection between a sign’s physical examining the underlying structures of
form (signifier) and its meaning language, semiology contributes to a
(signified) is arbitrary, not based on any deeper comprehension of linguistic
inherent relationship. phenomena, enriching the study of
- The signifier is not the things but the language and its functions within
mental representation of the thing. The society.
signified, the meaning associated with a 3. Cultural Values, Beliefs, and Ideologies
signifier, is not inherently fixed but is - By examining the signs and symbols
influenced by individual interpretation that are used within a particular culture.
and context, leading to variations in This can help us understand how
understanding. cultures are shaped and how they
- Semiology also aims to distinguish communicate meaning.
langue from parole. It aims to cover the 4. Literary Analysis
underlying structure or rules of - To explore the use of symbols,
language (Langue) by studying how metaphors, and other literary devices to
language is actually used (Parole). It understand the deeper meanings and
also explores how words or signs are themes within text.
connected in a sentence (syntagmatic
relations) and how they can be replaced Limitations
to convey different meanings 1. Subjectivity
(paradigmatic relations). - The interpretation of signs can be
- The three components, semantics (the subjective. Different individuals may
analysis of meaning), syntactics (the interpret the same sign differently
analysis of grammar), and pragmatics based on their personal experiences,
(the analysis of the actual purposes and cultural background and perspectives.
effects of meaningful utterances), are 2. Oversimplify the complexity of meaning
part of the broader field of semiotics, - It may not fully account for the nuances
but they are still related to semiology. and complexities of human
communication, which are often
Applications influenced by a multitude of factors.
1. Communication Analysis 3. Context of Communication
- Semiology helps us understand how - Semiology primarily focuses on the
meaning is created and interpreted in analysis of signs and symbols, but it
various forms of communication, may not fully address the broader
including language, images gestures context of communication, such as the
and cultural practices. It can be used to social, political and historical factors
analyze advertising, marketing that influence meaning.
campaigns, film, art, and even political
discourse.
 Writing Techniques demonstrate how meaning is not fixed
Understanding Sign Systems but rather fluid and dynamic.
- A fundamental technique in semiology Employing Visual Semiotics
involves grasping the concept of sign - In contemporary literary analysis,
systems. Writers should analyze howe writers should also consider visual
signs operate within a literary context, semiotics, focusing on how visual
distinguishing between the signifier elements (such as illustrations or design
(the form of a sign) and the signified features) contribute to meaning. This
(the concept it represents). This technique requires an exploration of
analysis helps to reveal the underlying how images, colors, and layouts
meanings, and the cultural significance function as signs that interact with the
of the signs employed in literary text text. Recognizing these visual dynamics
Contextual Analysis can enhance the analysis by providing a
- Contextual analysis is crucial in multi – modal perspective on textual
semiology, emphasizing the importance meaning
of the socio – cultural background in
understanding the texts. Writers should Teaching Implications
consider the historical, cultural, and Understanding Representation
social contexts that frame the signs in a - Educators need to recognize that
literary work. This technique images and other forms of
encourages a more comprehensive representation are socially and
interpretation by acknowledging how culturally constructed. Images convey
context influences meaning and specific messages through “made
reception. meanings” that can significantly
Intertextual Communication influence how students perceive and
- Intertextuality is a key semiotic interpret information. Teachers should
technique that explores the aim to use diverse visual materials
relationships between texts. Writers thoughtfully to enhance comprehension
can employ this approach by identifying and engagement in the classroom.
references, allusions, or echoes of other Promoting Critical Literacy
texts within a literary work. This - Educators emphasize the importance of
enhances the analysis by situating the critical literacy, which involves teaching
text within a broader literary tradition students to not only understand the
and highlighting how it dialogues with content but also to question the
other works, ultimately enriching its underlying meanings and intentions
meaning. behind signs and symbols in texts. This
Deconstruction of Binary Oppositions approach equips students with the skills
- A common approach in semiological to critique media and literature, making
analysis is the deconstruction of binary them more discerning consumers of
opposition, such as nature/culture or information in a media – saturated
male/female. Writers should investigate world.
how these binaries are constructed and Enhancing Multimodal Learning
challenged within texts. By revealing - In the context of semiology, employing
the complexities and nuances inherent multimodal approaches to learning that
in these oppositions, writers can integrate visual, auditory and
kinesthetic elements can enhance
 student engagement and
comprehension. Educators can leverage
various media forms – such as images,
videos, and interactive activities – to
facilitate deeper understanding and
meaning making process.
Encouraging Interdisciplinary Connections
- Educators can use semiology to
promote interdisciplinary learning by
connecting concepts across subjects.
Understanding how meaning is
constructed in different fields – be it art,
literature, or social sciences – can lead
to enriched leaning experiences. This
encourages students to see
relationships between disciplines and
apply their semiotic skills in diverse
contexts.
 Post – Structuralism significant moment in the shift of
Brief History Structuralism to Post-structuralism.
- Post-structuralism emerged in the late 1967
1960s and 1970s in France to critique - Derrida’s work Grammatology, Writing
Structuralism which was the dominant and Difference and Speech and
framework at the time. Structuralism Phenomena, introduces the key
sought to know the universal structures concepts of post-structuralism which is
of human culture, language and thought. deconstruction and difference.
However, post-structuralism critiqued - Ronald Barthes’ published The Death of
the rigidity and determinism of the Author, which argues that a text’s
structuralism. meaning is determined by the reader,
- Post-structuralism argues that the not the author's intentions, marking his
structures of structuralism are not as departure from Structuralism.
stable and universal as thought by its 1970
proponents; instead, they are always - Julia Kristeva’s work titled Semeiotike
contingent, fluid and dependent on introduced the concept of
context. intertextuality, which explores how
The Foundations texts are interconnected and their
1844 – 1900 influence on one another.
- The concept of “will power” and Consolidation and Critique
challenging the truth was introduced by 1972
Friednich Nietzsche’s works such as - Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari’s Anti-
Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883 - 1885) Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia
and Beyond Good and Evil (1886) which critiqued psychoanalysis and capitalist
influenced the post-structuralist society and introduced the concept of
thought. psychoanalysis.
1927 1975
- Martin Heidegger published his work - Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the
titled Being and Time where he critiqued Prison of Michel Foucault explored how
western metaphysics and explored the societal institutions exert power and
concepts of “being”, setting the thought control over individuals.
for the existence and post-structuralist 1976
philosophies. - Foucault begins publishing The History
1957 of Sexuality which is a series of books
- The publication of Mythologies of analyzing how power and knowledge
Ronald Barthes applied semiotic shape human sexuality.
analysis to contemporary culture, laying 1979
the groundwork for his transition from - Jean Baudrillard published Seduction
structuralism to post-structuralism. which further developed his ideas on
The Rise of Post-Structuralism hyper reality and the symbolic order,
1966 challenging conventional understanding
- Jacques Derrida delivered her paper of reality and representation.
“Structure, Sign, and Play in the In Academia and Beyond
Discourse of the Human Sciences” at
John Hopkins University marking a
1991 power structures. He examined how
- Derrida published Given Time: I, institutions like prisons, hospitals, and
Counterfeit Money which continued his schools exert control over individuals.
exploration of deconstruction and the 3. Roland Barthes
gift economy. - Barthes focused on the role of the
1993 reader in creating meaning, famously
- Kristeva’s work Nations without declaring "the death of the author,"
Nationalism applies post-structuralist suggesting that the interpretation of a
ideas to issues of nationalism and text is not determined by the author's
identity in the context of globalization. intentions but by the reader's
1994 perspective.
- Baudrillard’s the Illusion of the End 4. Julia Kristeva
critiqued the idea of historical progress - Kristeva introduced the concept of
and the linearity of history. intertextuality, emphasizing that all
Continuing Influence texts are interconnected and that
2004 meaning arises from the relationship
- Derrida’s passing leaves behind a between different texts.
legacy of deconstructive thought that 5. Gilles Deleuze
continues to influence various - Deleuze, often working with Félix
disciplines. Guattari, explored concepts like
2011 rhizomes and deterritorialization,
- Kristeva published The Severed Head: challenging traditional hierarchical
Capital Visions which continued to structures and promoting a more fluid
explore the intersections of understanding of reality.
psychoanalysis, semiotics and culture. - Baudrillard is known for his work on
2020s hyperreality and simulacra, exploring
- Post-structuralism remains as a key how media and technology create a
theoretical framework in various world where simulations of reality
academic fields, influencing become more real than reality itself.
contemporary debates in cultural 6. Jean Baudrillard
studies, critical theory and social - Baudrillard is known for his work on
analysis. hyperreality and simulacra, exploring
- how media and technology create a
Proponents and Prominent Personalities world where simulations of reality
1. Jacques Derrida become more real than reality itself.
- Often considered the father of post-
structuralism, Derrida introduced the Key Features
concept of deconstruction, which 1. Rejection of Fixed Structures
challenges the idea of fixed meanings in - Post-structuralism challenges the
texts and emphasizes the fluidity of structuralist idea that cultural
language. phenomena can be understood through
2. Michel Foucault stable, underlying structures. Instead, it
- Foucault explored the relationship argues that structures are fluid,
between power, knowledge, and contingent, and subject to change.
discourse, arguing that what is Meaning and knowledge are seen as
considered "truth" is shaped by societal
 constantly shifting rather than being 6. Intertextuality
stable and universal. - The concept of intertextuality,
2. Instability and Multiplicity of Meaning developed by Julia Kristeva, suggests
- Post-structuralists believe that that texts are not isolated entities but
meaning is not fixed but rather is always are interconnected with other texts. A
in flux. A single text or concept can text’s meaning is shaped by its
generate multiple interpretations, relationship to other texts, and
depending on context and perspective. understanding this network of
This instability of meaning is central to relationships is crucial for interpreting
post-structuralist thought, contrasting meaning. This idea challenges the
with the structuralist view of relatively notion of a single, authoritative
stable systems of meaning. interpretation.
3. Deconstruction 7. Focus on Subjectivity and Identity
- A method developed by Jacques Derrida - Post-structuralism questions the idea
is a key aspect of post-structuralism. It of a fixed, coherent identity. Instead, it
involves critically examining texts to views identity as fluid, fragmented, and
reveal inherent contradictions, constructed through language, culture,
ambiguities, and the ways in which and power relations. This has significant
texts undermine their own meanings. implications for understanding race,
Deconstruction shows that binary gender, sexuality, and other aspects of
oppositions (such as good/evil, identity, as it suggests that these
male/female) are not natural but categories are not natural but socially
constructed, and these oppositions can constructed and subject to change.
be destabilized. 8. Critique of Universal Truths
4. Critique of Binary Oppositions - Post-structuralism is skeptical of
- Post-structuralism critiques the binary universal truths and grand narratives
oppositions that are central to (or "metanarratives") that claim to
structuralist thought (e.g., light/dark, explain the world in totalizing terms. It
speech/writing). It argues that these argues that such narratives often serve
binaries are hierarchical and culturally to reinforce power structures and
constructed rather than natural or exclude alternative perspectives. Post-
universal. Post-structuralism seeks to structuralism advocates for a more
deconstruct these oppositions to reveal localized, context-dependent
the complexities and nuances that they understanding of truth and knowledge.
obscure. 9. Play of Signifiers
5. Emphasis on Discourse and Power - Building on Saussure’s ideas, post-
- Drawing on the work of Michel Foucault, structuralism argues that the
post-structuralism emphasizes the role relationship between signifiers (words,
of discourse (ways of speaking and symbols) and signified (concepts) is not
thinking) in shaping knowledge, power, stable. Instead, meaning is produced
and social realities. Foucault argued through the endless play of signifiers,
that power is not just top-down but is where each signifier refers not to a fixed
dispersed through various discourses concept but to other signifiers in an
and practices, influencing what is infinite chain. This idea is encapsulated
considered "true" or "normal." in Derrida's concept of difference, where
 meaning is always deferred and never represented in media, literature, and
fully present. other cultural forms.
10. Critique of Authorial Intent 2. Identity and Subjectivity
- Post-structuralism challenges the - Post-structuralism has influenced the
notion that a text’s meaning is study of identity, challenging the notion
determined by the author’s intent. of a fixed, stable self. Instead, identity is
Instead, meaning is seen as created by seen as fluid, fragmented, and shaped
the reader’s interaction with the text, by discourse and power relations. This
influenced by cultural and social has implications for understanding race,
contexts. Roland Barthes’ essay "The gender, sexuality, and other aspects of
Death of the Author" is a key text in this identity.
regard, arguing that the reader's role in C. Feminist Theory
interpreting a text is more important 1. Critique of Essentialism
than the author's intentions. - Post-structuralist feminism challenges
essentialist views of gender, which
Applications assume that there are inherent, stable
A. Literary Theory and Criticism differences between men and women.
1. Deconstruction Instead, gender is seen as a social
- One of the most prominent applications construct, subject to change and
of post-structuralism is in literary reinterpretation. Thinkers like Judith
theory, where deconstruction Butler have used post-structuralism to
(pioneered by Jacques Derrida) is used develop the concept of gender
to analyze texts. This approach involves performativity, where gender identity is
critically examining the internal seen as something performed rather
contradictions and ambiguities within a than innate.
text to reveal the instability of meaning 2. Intersectionality
and challenge traditional - Post-structuralism has contributed to
interpretations. the development of intersectional
2. Textual Interpretation approaches in feminist theory,
- Post-structuralism encourages multiple recognizing that identities are complex
readings of a text, emphasizing that no and shaped by various intersecting
single interpretation can be definitive. factors such as race, class, and sexuality
This approach has influenced the way D. Postcolonial Theory
literary critics and scholars approach 1. Decentering the Western Narrative
literature, fostering a more open-ended - Post-structuralism has been applied in
and pluralistic understanding of texts. postcolonial theory to challenge
B. Cultural Studies Eurocentric narratives and highlight the
1. Power and Knowledge voices and experiences of colonized
- Michel Foucault’s post-structuralist peoples. The critique of binary
theories of power and discourse have oppositions, such as
been widely applied in cultural studies colonizer/colonized, has been crucial in
to analyze how societal norms, values, revealing the power dynamics and
and knowledge are constructed and complexities of postcolonial identities
maintained. This includes examining 2. Hybridity and Cultural Identity
how marginalized groups are - Post-structuralism has influenced the
concept of cultural hybridity, where
 cultures and identities are seen as fluid, post-structuralist emphasis on
evolving, and formed through the mixing complexity and multiplicity.
of different influences, rather than being 2. Critique of Modernist Planning
pure or fixed. - Post-structuralism has been used to
E. Sociology And Social Theory critique modernist urban planning,
1. Critique of Social Structures which often relies on rigid, top-down
- Post-structuralism has been used to structures. Instead, post-structuralism
critique traditional sociological theories advocates for more fluid, decentralized,
that focus on fixed social structures. and context-sensitive approaches to
Instead, social life is seen as dynamic, urban design.
with structures being constantly H. Political Theory
reshaped by discourse, power, and 1. Post-structuralist Politics
agency. - Post-structuralism has influenced
2. Discourse and Power Relations political theory by challenging the idea
- Foucault’s ideas have been widely of universal truths and stable
adopted in sociology to study how ideologies. It promotes a more fluid,
power operates through social context-dependent understanding of
institutions, practices, and knowledge power and politics, emphasizing the
systems, influencing everything from need for continual questioning and
penal systems to health care. critique of dominant narratives.
F. Psychoanalysis 2. Radical Democracy
1. Reinterpretation of the Unconscious - Some political theorists, like Chantal
- Post-structuralism has influenced Mouffe and Ernesto Laclau, have used
psychoanalytic theory by challenging post-structuralism to advocate for
traditional notions of the unconscious. radical democracy, where the political
Figures like Jacques Lacan sphere is seen as a site of constant
reinterpreted Freud’s ideas, contestation and negotiation, rather
emphasizing the role of language and than a fixed order.
symbols in shaping the unconscious and
identity. Limitations
2. Desire and Power 1. Relativism
- Post-structuralist psychoanalysis often - One of the most significant criticisms of
focuses on how desire is constructed post-structuralism is that it leads to a
within power relations and social form of extreme relativism. By
structures, rather than being an innate deconstructing the idea of stable
biological drive. meanings and objective truths, post-
G. Architecture And Urban Planning structuralism can undermine the
1. Deconstructivism possibility of making any definitive
- In architecture, post-structuralist ideas claims or judgments, which can be
have influenced the deconstructivism problematic in practical or ethical
movement, which challenges traditional contexts.
forms and structures. Buildings 2. Obscurity and Complexity
designed in this style often feature - Post-structuralist texts are often
fragmented, non-linear, and criticized for being overly complex and
unconventional forms, reflecting the difficult to understand. The dense and
abstract nature of the writing can
 alienate readers and make the ideas it difficult to critique harmful practices
inaccessible to a broader audience, or advocate for universal human rights.
limiting its practical applicability.
3. Lack of Agency Writing Techniques
- Post-structuralism's focus on the Deconstruction
instability of meanings and the - Technique: Deconstruction involves
deconstruction of subjectivity can lead analyzing and breaking down texts to
to a diminished sense of individual or reveal internal contradictions,
collective agency. Critics argue that it ambiguities, and multiple meanings.
can be difficult to account for social Writers often focus on the instability of
change or resistance within a language, showing how meanings are
framework that sees identity and not fixed but constantly shifting.
meaning as fluid and contingent. - Example: In literary criticism, a post-
4. Ethical and Political Ambiguity structuralist writer might deconstruct a
- Because post-structuralism often novel to show how the text undermines
avoids definitive stances, it can be its own apparent themes or values.
criticized for not providing clear ethical Intertextuality
or political guidance. This ambiguity can - Technique: Intertextuality refers to the
make it challenging to apply post- idea that texts are always
structuralist ideas in concrete social or interconnected with other texts, and
political situations. that meaning is derived from these
5. Potential for Nihilism relationships. Writers use references,
- Some critics argue that post- allusions, and pastiche to create layers
structuralism, with its emphasis on the of meaning that rely on the reader's
deconstruction of meaning, can lead to awareness of other texts.
nihilism—a rejection of all values, - Example: A writer might incorporate
meaning, and purpose. This can be seen quotes or ideas from other works to
as a limitation, especially when trying to create a dialogue between texts,
engage with constructive projects or challenging the notion of originality and
social activism. singular meaning.
6. Detachment from Material Realities Multiplicity of Voices
- Post-structuralism is often criticized for - Technique: Post-structuralist writers
being overly focused on language, often include multiple perspectives or
discourse, and texts, potentially voices within a single text, challenging
neglecting material conditions and the authority of any one voice. This can
socio-economic factors. This can result manifest as polyphony, where different
in a disconnect between theory and the characters or narrative voices express
lived realities of individuals and conflicting viewpoints
communities. - Example: A novel might present
7. Cultural Relativism conflicting narratives or perspectives
- Post-structuralism’s emphasis on the without privileging one as the "true" or
contextual and constructed nature of authoritative version.
knowledge can lead to cultural Self-Reflexivity
relativism, where all cultural practices - Technique: Self-reflexivity involves the
are seen as equally valid. This can make text being aware of itself as a text.
Writers often draw attention to the act
 of writing or the artificial nature of the educational materials perpetuate
narrative, blurring the line between power dynamics and explore alternative
fiction and reality. perspectives.
- Example: A post-structuralist text Student-Centered Learning
might include meta-commentary on its - Implication: Post-structuralism
own structure, or a narrator who supports a more student-centered
questions the validity of their own approach to learning, where the
storytelling. teacher's role is not to impart fixed
Fragmentation knowledge but to facilitate exploration
- Technique: Post-structuralist writing and discussion. Students are seen as
often features fragmented narratives, active participants in the creation of
non-linear structures, and disjointed knowledge.
forms. This reflects the belief that - Practice: Teachers might use open-
reality and identity are not coherent or ended questions, group discussions, and
stable but are composed of disparate projects that allow students to explore
elements. topics from multiple angles and develop
- Example: A writer might structure a text their interpretations.
in a series of disconnected scenes or Challenging Canonical Texts
vignettes, leaving it to the reader to - Implication: In a post-structuralist
piece together the narrative. framework, the traditional literary
canon is questioned and expanded to
Teaching Implications include diverse voices and non-Western
Encouraging Critical Thinking perspectives. This challenges the
- Implication: In a post-structuralist dominance of certain cultural narratives
classroom, teachers emphasize the and promotes inclusivity.
importance of questioning established - Practice: A teacher might include non-
truths, exploring multiple canonical works in the curriculum or
interpretations, and recognizing the encourage students to analyze
fluidity of meaning. Students are canonical texts through the lens of
encouraged to think critically about marginalized perspectives.
texts, discourses, and social structures. Emphasizing the Role of the Reader
- Practice: Teachers might ask students - Implication: Post-structuralism argues
to deconstruct a literary work, that the reader plays a crucial role in
examining how different readings can constructing the meaning of a text.
emerge depending on the interpretive Teaching practices, therefore,
lens applied. emphasize the active role of students in
Focus on Discourse and Power Relations interpreting and engaging with texts.
- Implication: Post-structuralism - Practice: Educators might ask students
highlights how language and discourse to write reflective essays on their
shape power relations in society. In personal interpretations of a text,
teaching, this involves examining how considering how their background,
knowledge is constructed and how experiences, and perspectives
certain voices or perspectives are Interdisciplinary Approaches
marginalized. - Implication: Post-structuralism
- Practice: Educators might incorporate encourages breaking down the
discussions on how media, literature, or boundaries between disciplines,
 reflecting the idea that knowledge is
interconnected, and that meaning is
constructed across different contexts.
- Practice: Teachers might design
interdisciplinary courses or projects that
integrate literature, philosophy,
sociology, and other fields, encouraging
students to make connections between
different areas of study.
 Deconstruction accurately represent things in the world.
Brief History Derrida contended that even the
- Deconstruction, developed by Jacques clearest ideas gain meaning through
Derrida in the late 1970s, is a critical their differences from other ideas. For
approach that challenges traditional instance, "justice" is understood in
notions of language, truth, and meaning. relation to "injustice," and the notion of
To fully appreciate deconstruction, it's "presence" only makes sense because of
essential to understand the intellectual its opposite, "absence."
backdrop that led to its development. - Therefore, Deconstruction reveals that
Historical Context meaning is always dependent on
- For centuries, Western thought, differences and is never fixed. Instead of
influenced by philosophers such as René seeking a single, absolute truth,
Descartes, upheld the belief that reason Derrida’s approach highlights the
and logic could reveal absolute truths fluidity and openness of meaning,
about the world. This belief extended showing that interpretations can vary
into literary criticism, where texts were and are always subject to change. It
considered to have fixed, stable involves breaking down the text to
meanings that could be uncovered uncover hidden contradictions,
through careful analysis. ambiguities, and multiple
- In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, interpretations that challenge the
this belief began to be questioned. traditional, straightforward
Friedrich Nietzsche argued against the understanding of the text. He argues
existence of a single, unchanging truth. that meaning is not stable but can be
Simultaneously, scientists like Albert reconstructed differently with each
Einstein demonstrated that reading, as texts are full of
fundamental concepts like time are not inconsistencies and binary oppositions.
absolute but relative, depending on Deconstruction aims to liberate texts
various factors. from the author's intended meaning,
Emergence of Deconstruction allowing readers to uncover new
- Derrida's deconstruction built upon meanings by closely analyzing the
Ferdinand de Saussure’s ideas in flaws, gaps, and contradictions within
linguistics. Saussure proposed that the text. Essentially, it’s about
words derive their meaning from their questioning the certainty and stability
differences from other words (e.g., "rat" of meaning in literature.
gains meaning through its distinction
from "pat" and "hat"). Derrida extended Proponents and Prominent Personalities
this idea to argue that everything, 1. Jacques Derrida
including concepts and ideas, gains its - Founder of deconstruction. His seminal
identity through what it is not. works include "De la grammatologie"
- Derrida critiqued traditional and "La voix et le phénomène" (Voice
epistemology (the study of knowledge) and Phenomenon). Derrida's work
and ontology (the study of being). focuses on the instability of language
Traditional philosophy, exemplified by and the impossibility of achieving fixed
phenomenologist Edmund Husserl, meanings. To deconstruct a particular
posited that ideas in the mind literary text, Derrida stated that, "the
reading must always aim at a certain
 relationship, unperceived by the writer, century. As Johnson moved the insights
between what he commands and what of deconstruction into areas such as
he does not command of the patterns of feminisms, African American studies,
the language that he uses." and cultural studies, her attention to
2. Paul de Man “differences within” engaged not only
- In the mid-1960s de Man befriended the language and rhetoric but also politics,
French philosopher Jacques Derrida, popular culture, and the power of
with whom he developed differentiation to both oppress and
deconstruction, at first a form of literary express particular subjects. She stated
analysis that aimed to show the that deconstruction is something that is
“seams” existent in all texts and to "the careful teasing out of warring
demonstrate that, if examined in detail, forces of signification within the text
all language contradicts itself, and its itself."
claims to “meaning” are “slippery.” Their 5. Jonathan Culler
approach soon gained influence in a - Culler is best known for his book "On
wide range of other academic Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism
disciplines—including law, architecture, after Structuralism" (1982), which
anthropology, and theology—and was serves as a comprehensive introduction
taken up by feminist and other to deconstructive theory. Culler stated
movements, in which it was perceived that "to deconstruct a discourse is to
as a means of subverting oppressive show how it undermines the philosophy
social and political forces. it asserts, or the hierarchical
3. J. Hillis Miller oppositions on which it relies."
- He stated that “Deconstruction as a
mode of interpretation works by a Key Features
careful and circumspect entering of - Deconstruction is related to the close
each textual labyrinth.... The textual reading and there is nothing
deconstructive critic seeks to find, by outside the text.
this process of retracing, the element in - It always discovers something else
the system studied which is alogical, the inside the text.
thread in the text in question which will - There is no fixed meaning of the text,
unravel it all, or the loose stone which and it offers different meanings at
will pull down the whole building. The different readings.
deconstruction, rather, annihilates the - It tells the relationships between the
ground on which the building stands by words and meanings, and how the
showing that the text has already language is used to convey the
annihilated the ground, knowingly or meanings.
unknowingly. Deconstruction is not a - Every text has inconsistent and
dismantling of the structure of a text but contradictory meaning. There is no
a demonstration that it has already actual meaning of any text, and it is all
dismantled itself.” about the new interpretation of a text.
4. Barbara Johnson - It finds flaws, cracks, incompleteness,
- Bridged the heyday of deconstruction gaps, deficiencies, conflicts, clashes,
and the turn to theory in the 1970s and uncertainty, and ambiguity in a text. To
the ascendance of cultural studies and find out these elements, a text must be
the turn to ethics in the early 21st divided and analyzed in separate pieces.
- Binary opposition generates other 3. Obscure and Confusing Terminology
possible meanings. - Often criticized for its complex and
- Deconstruction helps to liberate the text jargon-heavy language, which can
from the authority of the author make it difficult to understand and
- Relational Meaning apply.
- Binary Oppositions 4. Critique of Objectivity
- Difference - Challenges to the idea of objective
- Critique of Logocentrism meaning can be seen as undermining
the possibility of achieving objective or
Applications universal understandings, which some
1. Literary Criticism critics argue is necessary for effective
- Used to analyze texts by uncovering communication and scholarship.
hidden meanings, contradictions, and 5. Contradiction in Application
ambiguities, challenging traditional - Jane Tompkins' critique points out a
interpretations, and demonstrating how potential contradiction in applying post
texts resist fixed meanings. structuralist principles to texts using
2. Philosophy methods that are positivist and
- Applied to philosophical texts to critique empirical. Deconstruction is
traditional notions of absolute truth, fundamentally opposed to the idea of
presence, and stable meaning. It fixed meaning and objective analysis,
questions the assumptions underlying yet when applied in a structured,
various philosophical arguments. systematic way, it might inadvertently
3. Social sciences and the Arts adopt the very methods it seeks to
- Deconstruction is applied in the social critique. This contradiction can be seen
sciences and the arts by challenging as undermining the coherence of
fixed ideas and revealing how meanings deconstruction as an approach.
and identities are constructed through
language, actions, and social practices. Writing Techniques
Prewriting for Deconstruction Analysis
Limitations Reading the text
1. Perceived Negativism - Focus on how the style (like images,
- Some critics think deconstruction is too symbols, and figurative language)
focused on tearing down ideas, leaving contributes to the overall meaning.
nothing meaningful behind. They worry Notice any tensions, like paradoxes or
that it makes literature seem pointless ironies, and how they’re resolved. Look
by suggesting that we can never really for unresolved issues, things that are
understand a text's true meaning. left unexplained, or details that seem
2. Trivialization of Literature and Reading off.
- Makes reading less enjoyable. By Binary oppositions
constantly questioning and picking - Identify significant binary oppositions
apart texts, deconstruction might make within the text, such as black/white or
it hard to appreciate the beauty or men/women, and determine which
importance of literature. This can make terms are privileged or accepted as
literature seem less special or valuable, normal and natural. Reverse these
especially in academic settings. binary terms to create an alternate
 perspective and examine how this new C. Which terms in the oppositions are
perspective alters your view of the text. privileged?
Language Examination D. What elements in the work support the
- Examine the language of the text by privileged terms?
identifying paradoxes and E. What statement of values or beliefs
contradictions. Make a list of metaphors emerges from the privileged terms?
and other figures of speech. F. What elements in the text contradict the
Global View hierarchies as presented?
- Take a step back and look at the overall G. Where is the statement of values or
structure. Pay attention to changes in beliefs contradicted by characters,
perspective, time, or tone, as these events, or statements in the text?
might show that the narrative is not Conclusion
consistent. If conflicts or contradictions - Conclude by contrasting your
can’t be resolved, this might reveal the deconstructive analysis with the
text’s instability. conventional interpretation,
Note-Making demonstrating why the traditional view
- Write down your observations and ideas might be limited. Highlight the
to help you when you start drafting your complexities and instabilities revealed
analysis. through your analysis, emphasizing the
Drafting and Revising text's multifaceted nature and the value
- This is the next step after the prewriting of alternative readings.
for deconstruction analysis; the writing
itself.
Introduction
- Begin by summarizing the conventional
interpretation of the text, outlining how
it is typically understood or perceived.
Introduce the aim of your analysis,
which is to challenge this standard view
by exploring alternative readings and
uncovering hidden complexities.
- In the body, identify key binary
oppositions in the text, highlighting
which terms are privileged and how the
text supports these terms. Discuss any
inconsistencies or contradictions within
these terms and explore how reversing
the oppositions can reveal new
meanings and destabilize the intended
message. Guide questions when writing
the body:
A. What is the primary binary opposition in
the text?
B. What associated binary oppositions do
you find?
 Psychological Criticism archetypes and the collective
Brief History unconscious (analytical psychology).
- Examines literature using psychological This allowed for a broader
theories, focusing on mental states, interpretation of literature by
motivations, and emotional experiences identifying universal patterns across
of characters. cultures and time periods
- This approach aims to uncover the a. Analytical Psychology
primary cause of psychological 1. Archetypes
motivations, conflicts, and desires of - Universal symbols and themes like the
characters in literature. Therefore, it Hero (protagonist), the Lover (romantic
provides a greater understanding of lead), the Anima/Animus (feminine
characters and narratives by revealing qualities in a man/masculine quality in
deeper meanings and motivations, a woman)
exploring the human psyche within 2. Collective Unconscious
literature. - A shared reservoir of archetypes and
experiences.
Proponents 3. Individuation
- Psychological criticism began in the - The process of integrating different
early 20th century with the emergence aspects of the self for personal growth.
of psychoanalysis in Sigmund Freud’s Such concepts are applied to identify
work. and analyze archetypal patterns in
stories and characters
Key Concepts b. Lacanian Theory
1. Psychoanalysis 1. Mirror Stage
a. Id - Formation of the self through reflection.
- Represents primal desires and instincts. - Example: A character’s realization of
(Example: Characters driven by their identity
uncontrolled desires) 2. Imaginary
b. Ego - The world of images and illusions.
- The rational part of the psyche, - Example: Characters’ idealized
managing reality. (Example: Characters perceptions
balancing desires with societal 3. Symbolic
expectations) - The role of language and social
c. Superego structures.
- The moral conscience. (Example: - Example: The influence of societal
Characters influenced by guilt or social norms on a character’s actions
norms) 4. Real
- Such concepts are applied to analyze - What exists beyond language and
characters’ motivations, desires, and symbolization.
conflicts by considering how the Id, Ego, - Example: Unexplainable events or
and Superego influence their behavior in emotions in a narrative.
the story. 2. Phallic Symbol and Castration Complex
- After Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, - Power dynamics and feelings of
Carl Jung expanded the ideas of Freud inadequacy.
by introducing the concept of - Example: A character’s struggle with
authority or power.
- This theory can be used to analyze how between the Real, Imaginary, and
characters perceive themselves and Symbolic Orders. However, in contrast
their desires, often highlighting a sense to the other two approaches, this theory
of lack or fragmentation. Lacan’s ideas is often too complex and abstract. It
are particularly useful in understanding might be challenging for those
complex, non-linear narratives unfamiliar with Lacanian theory to
apply effectively
Applications and Limitations
1. Psychoanalysis (Freudian Writing Techniques
Psychological Criticism) A. Prewriting
- Example: A character who struggles - Identify key psychological elements
with authority might be analyzed in such as symbols, dreams, and character
terms of unresolved Oedipal conflicts, conflicts in the text they are analyzing.
revealing deeper issues with paternal Use guiding questions to organize
figures. thoughts and analyze effectively.
- This approach focuses on unconscious Example guide questions:
desires, childhood experiences, and (for Freudian Theory or Psychological Approach)
repressed memories. It often analyzed 1. What do you see as the character's main
dreams, symbols, and character traits?
behavior. However, this can reduce 2. By what acts, dialogue, and attitudes
complex characters to simplistic are those traits revealed?
psychological categories, ignoring other 3. What does the narrator reveal about the
literary elements. character?
2. Analytical Psychology (Jungian 4. During the narrative, does the character
Psychological Criticism) change? If so, how and why?
- Example: A hero’s journey might be 5. Where do you find evidence of the id,
interpreted as an archetypal quest for superego, and ego at work?
individuation, where the character (for Jungian Theory or Psychoanalytical
seeks to reconcile different aspects of Approach)
the self. 1. What similarities do you find among the
- This approach emphasizes archetypes characters, situations, and settings of
and the collective unconscious. It looks the text under consideration and those
for universal patterns and symbols in in other works that you have read?
literature. However, it can also 2. What commonly encountered
overgeneralize as it applies universal archetypes do you recognize?
archetypes too broadly, neglecting 3. Is the narrative like any classic myths
specific cultural contexts. you know?
3. Lacanian Psychological Criticism B. Drafting
(Lacanian Theory) - Structure the analysis around a specific
- Example: A narrative that disrupts psychological theory, ensuring that each
traditional storytelling symbolizing the point is supported by textual evidence.
reflection of the character’s fragmented - Create a coherent or understandable
sense of self and their struggle to find argument that traces character’s
meaning within the symbolic order. psychological development throughout
- This approach centers on language, the the narrative.
fragmented self, and the interplay
1. Introduction c. Examine whether a character operates
- One approach is to explain the primary according to the pleasure principle, the
goal and focus of the literary morality principle, or the reality
psychological analysis. An indication of principle. (Freud’s Psychological
the direction of the analysis will make it Criticism)
easier for the readers to follow the 3. Conclusion
development of your discussion. - Restate key points without repetition.
Additionally, you can also introduce the Explain how the analysis ties back to
other works of the author as part of the broader themes introduced in the first
analysis. You can mention the part of the text.
similarities that you have discovered - Conclude the paper by discussing the
between the text you are analyzing and implications of the character’s behavior
other works that you have read (same for understanding human psychology in
author or not). literature.
- For example, as mentioned in the C. Revising
Complete Guide to Literary Analysis and - Clarity and cohesion is important.
Theory book by Ryan in 2023, if the work Review the work, ensuring that all
is similar with classic myths or even relevant psychological concepts are
more modern works, mentioning these incorporated and support their analysis
connections will turn your direction effectively. - Summarize key points in
toward a mythic-perspective the conclusion without redundant
discussion. words to wrap up the overall analysis.
2. Body
- There is no formula for the organization Teaching Implications
of the paper” (Ryan, 2023) Although Connecting psychological theories to literary
there is no standardized pattern for the analysis
organization of contents in the body, - Explain the importance of
you must prove your case by using the helping students connect psychological theories
principles and key concepts of to literary analysis. This approach can
psychological theories to explain. You deepen their understanding of both literature
do not have to explain all concepts of a and psychology.
certain theory, but you should Application of psychological criticism in
incorporate all the main points that help literature
support your position in the analysis. - Use examples from literature to
You may use the following guide for your demonstrate how psychological criticism can
discussion: reveal hidden meanings and enrich
a. Reveal what is happening in the students' interpretations.
character’s unconscious as suggested
by images, symbols, or interior
monologues. (Lacanian Theory)
b. Find some behavior that a character is
fixated on, then trace it to some need or
issue from childhood that went
unsatisfied or unresolved. (Freud’s
Psychological Criticism)
 New Historicism - His writings have consistently shown
Brief History how so-called objective historical
- Began being applied to the texts in the accounts are always products of a will
late 1970s and early 1980s follows a to power enacted through formations of
trajectory out American formalist knowledge within specific institutions
criticism with its close reading 3. Hayden White
practices, through a hybrid mix of - Influential figure in the literary
seventies theory, to return to history. movement of New Historicism
- Attracted enough attention to challenge - View history as narrative
the prominent position then held by the construction/stories
deconstructionists. - Compares historiography with literature
- Radically a new way of examining the - Historical imagination
human past which seems to be a. filling in the blanks
grounded in: b. making assumptions
a. sociology, psychology, economics
history, and anthropology Key Features
b. difficult to pin down - More specifically concerned with
1. still changing and developing question of power and culture
2. draws on widely diverse fields that - Considers the entire historical situation
seem to have little in common surrounding the time the work was
- Ever limited to any single field of study published
- See all parts to a given culture as 1. Interconnectedness of Texts and
shaping and being shaped by one Context
another - Every literary work is a product of its
- New Historic are mostly literary time and should be analyzed in relation
scholars. Who have challenged and to the cultural and social conditions of
resisted assumptions and goals of creation
tradition historicism. They deny that 2. Reciprocal Influence
anyone can ever know exactly what - Views the relationship between
happened at a given time and place. All literature and history as reciprocal
that can be perceived is what has been - Literature is both influenced by and can
handed down in artifacts and stories influence history
that make a narration of history. It is an 3. Material Practices
analysis can pursue several different - Asserts that every expressive act is
but not connected lines of inquiry. embedded in a network of material
practices
Proponents and Prominent Figures - The author’s environment and
1. Stephen Greenblatt circumstances influence their work
- Credited with establishing New 4. Critique and Opposition
Historicism - New Historicist believe that critics also
- Shares the same view of Michel bring their own experiences and biases
Foucault into their interpretations
2. Michel Foucault - Every act of unmasking/critique uses
- His works are the most pervasive the tools it condemns
influence on New Historicist practice
5. Circulation of Texts 3. Historical Relativism
- Literary and non-literary texts circulate - New historicism’s contextual approach
inseparably, suggesting that texts of all may lead to relativism, where all
kinds contribute to the cultural interpretations are equally valid based
discourse and should not be separated on historical context.
based on perceived literary value
6. Subjectivity of History Writing Techniques
- History is produced through discourse - Helps New Historicists to uncover the
- Historical viewpoints are complex and complex interplay between literature,
filtered through our experiences history, and culture
7. Self-Positioning - To understand how texts both reflect
- New Historicists recognize their own and shape the world in which they were
subjectivities and biases created
- They disclose their political and Contextual Analysis
philosophical views - Analyze texts by considering the
8. Focus on the Human Subject historical and cultural circumstances in
- The theory often focuses on the history which they were produced and receive.
of the human body and subject, Self-Positioning
especially in relation to life, death, - Sharing political and philosophical
health, and illness views as part of analysis
Interdisciplinary Research
Application - Often incorporate knowledge and other
1. Early Modern Literature methods from other disciplines (history,
- New historicism has been influential in anthropology, sociology) to enrich the
studying works by William Shakespeare understanding of texts
and literature from the Renaissance Use of Anecdotes
period. - Frequently used to provide alternative
2. Linking Cultural Products views of established historical records
- It often makes unlikely connections - Offer new perspectives on specific
between literary texts and various events/time periods
cultural artifacts, revealing hidden Preoccupation with Representation
meanings and power structures. - New Historicists have keen interest in
how historical events and figures are
Limitations represented in literature and other
1. Deterministic View forms of media
- Critics argue that new historicism can Fascination with the Body
be deterministic, reducing agency and - The body is often the focal point on New
subversion to mere containment. Some Historicist analysis
versions of the theory have been - Seen as a site where power dynamics
criticized for leaving little room for real and social norms are enacted and
change or individual agency. contested
2. Focus on Power Relations: Challenging Literary Elitism
- While valuable, its emphasis on power - New Historicists argue against
dynamics may overshadow other separating texts based on perceived
aspects of literary analysis. literary value
 - Advocate for inclusion of non-literary
and sub-literary texts in literary
analysis

Teaching Implications
- Educators can help students develop a
deeper appreciation for the intricate
relationship between literature and its
historical context, as well as critical
skills to analyze and interpret cultural
texts in a nuanced way.
Contextual Analysis
- Encourage students to explore the
historical, cultural, and social contexts
of literary works
- Involves examining the power
structures, beliefs, and value of the time
to understand how they shape the text
Interdisciplinary Approach
- Integrate various disciplines such as
history, anthropology, and sociology to
provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the text being studied
Critical Thinking
- Challenging the students to question
the narrative and perspectives
presented in historical and literary texts
- Involves analyzing the representation of
different social groups and power
relations
Texts as Cultural Products
- Teach students to view texts not just as
isolated works of art but as products of
their time, reflecting and contributing to
the culture in which they were created
Diverse Perspective
- Encourage the exploration of multiple
perspectives including those of
marginalized groups to understand the
complexities of historical periods and
cultural dynamics
Dynamic View of Culture
- Present culture as dynamic and
heterogeneous entity
- Allows discussion on how cultural
norms and values evolve over time.
 Cultural Materialism Cultural Materialist principles to the
Brief History study of Shakespeare.
- “Cultural Materialism” in Britain, which, - Key Works: "Political Shakespeare: New
in the words of their leading advocate, Essays in Cultural Materialism" (1985),
Raymond Williams describes “the "Radical Tragedy" (1984).
analysis of all forms of signification, 3. Alan Sinfield
including quite centrally writing, within - Another co-author of "Political
the actual means and conditions of their Shakespeare," focused on how
production.” literature, especially that of the early
- Is a Marxist-inspired and mostly British modern period, both reflects and
approach to Shakespeare and early challenges the dominant ideologies of
modern English literature that emerged its time.
and became prominent in the 1980s. 4. Graham Holderness
- Seek to understand literary texts - His work often explores how literature
historically and reject the formalizing interacts with and is shaped by the
influence of previous literary studies, material conditions and ideological
including “New Criticism,” structures of its time.
“Structuralism” and “Deconstruction.” - He specifically critiques Tillyard along
- New historicism concerns itself with with other scholars from the 1940s, for
better understanding the past for the using Shakespeare to further a patriotic,
sake of academic interest, cultural nationalist agenda during the war
materialism concerns itself with better effort.
understanding the political present as - His work often explores how literature
mediated through the past for the sake interacts with and is shaped by the
of changing that present. material conditions and ideological
- One of cultural materialism’s main structures of its time.
interests was social stratification. - He specifically critiques Tillyard along
with other scholars from the 1940s, for
Proponents and Prominent Personalities using Shakespeare to further a patriotic,
1. Raymond Williams nationalist agenda during the war
- He re-theorized the traditional Marxist effort.
concept of the base and superstructure.
Who coined the term ‘cultural Key Features
materialist’. Cultural materialism is 1. Rejection of Formalist Approaches
theoretical movement which emerged - Cultural Materialism rejects the
in the early 1980s along with new formalizing influence of previous literary
historicism. studies, such as New Criticism,
2. Jonathan Dollimore Structuralism, and Deconstruction.
- Dollimore is one of the leading figures in 2. Challenge to Traditional Literary
applying Cultural Materialism to literary Hierarchies
studies, particularly in the analysis of - Cultural Materialism challenges the
Shakespeare and early modern English traditional separations between literary
literature. and non-literary texts, as well as
- He co-authored the influential book between "great" literature and popular
"Political Shakespeare," which applies. literature.
 critical pedagogy that encourages
3. Cultural Hegemony students to question and analyze the
- Following Gramsci's notion of cultural cultural and ideological assumptions in
hegemony, Cultural Materialism the texts they study.
explores how dominant cultural
formations legitimize themselves, often Limitations
by constructing marginalized groups as 1. Emphasis on Subversion and
"Other." Dissidence
4. Influence on Shakespeare Studies - Cultural Materialism's interest in finding
- Cultural Materialism has been signs of subversion and political
particularly influential in Shakespeare dissidence in texts may lead to
studies. provocative interpretations.
5. Subversion and Dissidence 2. Declining Political Commitment
- Cultural Materialism reads texts for - The text suggests that although
signs of subversion and political Cultural Materialism initially had strong
dissidence, offering interpretations that political commitments and
challenge dominant ideologies interventionist purposes, these aspects
have largely been abandoned or
Application increasingly ignored over time.
1. Literary Criticism 3. Reduction of Literature to Historical
- Cultural Materialism is used to analyze Context
literary texts by situating them within - By emphasizing the material and
their historical and material conditions. historical conditions of literary
It challenges traditional interpretations production, Cultural Materialism risks
of canonical texts (like those of reducing literature to merely a reflection
Shakespeare) by exposing how they of its historical context.
have been used to support dominant 4. Limited Scope of Application
ideologies. - While Cultural Materialism has been
2. Social and Political Analysis particularly effective in the study of
- Cultural Materialism is used to critique early modern literature and
the ways in which social hierarchies are Shakespeare, its applicability to other
constructed and maintained through literary periods and genres is
cultural practices. Cultural Materialists sometimes questioned.
often apply their analyses to intervene
in contemporary social and political Writing Techniques
debates, using their insights to Contextual Analysis
challenge injustices and advocate for - When writing from a Cultural
social change. Materialist perspective, it is important
3. Education to analyze the socio-economic and
- In education, Cultural Materialism can historical context of the text.
be used to reevaluate the curriculum, Close Reading with a Social Lens
particularly in literature and history - While still paying attention to the text's
courses, to include perspectives that language and structure, interpret these
challenge dominant ideologies. elements in relation to broader social
Educators might apply Cultural and material conditions.
Materialist principles to develop a
Interdisciplinary Research
- Incorporate insights from history,
sociology, and politics to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the text.
Critical Examination of Ideology
- Focus on how the text reflects, critiques,
or perpetuates the dominant ideologies
of its time.

Teaching Implications
Contextual Studies
- Integrate lessons on the historical and
socio-economic context of the texts
being studied, helping students
understand the relationship between
literature and society.
Debates and Discussions
- Encourage debates and discussions on
the ideological implications of texts,
allowing students to explore different
perspectives and interpretations.
Encouraging Critical Thinking
- Teaching Cultural Materialism can help
students develop critical thinking skills
by prompting them to consider how
literature is shaped by and interacts
with social forces.
 Ethnic Studies representations of ethnic identity as
Brief History found within the majority culture.
3. Henry Louis Gates, Toni Morrison, &
- is a result of political activism
Kwame Anthony Appiah
- In 1968, a group of students in San
- Brought attention to the problems
Francisco State University went on
inherent in applying theoretical models
strike to protest the unequal curriculum
derived from Euro-centric paradigms
and type of courses that they are unable
(that is, structures of thought) to
to take. (The longest student strike in
minority works of literature while at the
US History)
same time exploring new interpretive
- Third World Liberation Front were the
strategies for understanding the
reason for the founding of the
vernacular (common speech) traditions
Department of Ethnic Studies, School of
of racial groups that have been
Ethnic Studies, and the College of Ethnic
historically marginalized by dominant
Studies at San Francisco State
cultures.
- After a year, they started the second
longest strike at the University of
Key Features
California at Berkeley (included faculty
1. Explores the histories, cultures, and
and staff members) leading to the
social structures of different ethnic
creation of an ethnic studies curriculum,
groups, often focusing on marginalized
and the establishment of an important
or underrepresented communities.
Department of Ethnic Studies, with a
2. Considers how various aspects of
highly regarded doctoral program.
identity—such as race, ethnicity,
gender, class, and sexuality—intersect
Proponents and Prominent Personalities
and influence individuals' experiences.
1. Third World Liberation Front
3. Emphasizes the importance of social
- A coalition of students that formed
justice and the need to address
during a crucial moment of the Civil
inequalities and systemic
Rights Movement which led to the
discrimination faced by different ethnic
formation of Ethnic Studies within
groups.
Colleges in the US
4. The field includes critical theories that
- They were composed of students of the
challenge dominant narratives and
Black Student Union, the Latin
question established historical and
American Student Organization, the
social viewpoints.
Pilipino American Collegiate Endeavor,
5. It examines how ethnic and racial
El Renacimiento, a Mexican American
identities are formed, expressed, and
student association, etc.
negotiated within communities and
2. Aime Cesaire, Frantz Fanon, & Chinua
across different contexts.
Achebe
6. Compares experiences across different
- Afro-Caribbean and African writers who
regions and contexts.
have made significant early
7. Integrates academic research with
contributions to the theory and practice
activism, aiming to contribute to
of ethnic criticism that explores the
societal change and support
traditions, sometimes suppressed or
marginalized communities.
underground, of ethnic literary activity
while providing a critique of
 Applications Writing Techniques and Teaching
1. Teach students information that Implications
directly relates to their lived - Ethnic studies situate the experience of
experiences, which may lead to an people of color in methodological
increase in self-confidence, self- framing that emphasizes both the
efficacy, and overall well-being. structural dimensions of race and
2. Student makeup tends to be more racism—social, political, and economic
diverse, and faculty tend to be more inequalities and struggles against
knowledgeable and better equipped to them—and the associated cultural
rectify gender and racial bias in the dimensions—literary, artistic, musical,
classroom. Students are also exposed to and other forms of humanistic
more diverse coursework and faculty, expression. Because ethnic studies
which provides opportunities for people disciplines focus on a holistic
of color (POC) to see themselves perspective of communities of color,
reflected in their texts and in their they touch upon various traditional
professors. disciplines in their course catalog.
3. The critical thinking skills participants - Students of ethnic studies disciplines
develop in ethnic studies courses help often take on more than one field in their
them pursue academic and career goals. studies and graduate with academic
These skills can also prepare them to foundations in both ethnic studies and
directly improve their communities. another discipline. Ethnic studies
4. Teaches students the breadth and courses also often combine theoretical
depth of social issues in the United approaches from different disciplines to
States and allows them to examine how gain a more holistic understanding of a
activism and social movements can topic.
rectify inequality. Many students
believe supporting social justice drives
change.
5. Colleges must educate students about
social and political issues in our country
and empower them to become civically
engaged change agents. Furthermore,
schools should make sure they provide
students with opportunities to take
diverse courses and broaden their
perspectives.

Limitations
- While ethnic studies can enhance
cultural understanding and inclusivity,
some potential negative effects on
students may include reinforcing
stereotypes, creating divisions, or
limiting exposure to diverse
perspectives if not taught thoughtfully
and with a balanced approach.
 Ethnic Studies 2. Edward Said
Definition - Author of "Orientalism," published in
- Postcolonial criticism analyzes and 1978, who critiques the Western
interprets literature from colonized construction of the "Orient" as the
regions. exotic "Other."
Focus - Excerpt: "I consider Orientalism's failure
- Examines relationships between to have been a human as much as an
colonizers and the colonized. intellectual one; for in having to take up
Themes a position of irreducible opposition to a
- Identity, power, cultural hybridity, and region of the world it considered alien to
colonial ideologies. its own, Orientalism failed to identify
- Postcolonial criticism is particularly with human experience, failed also to
concerned with themes of identity, see it as human experience."
power, and cultural hybridity. It also 3. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
addresses how literature either - Known for "Can the Subaltern Speak,"
challenges or reinforces colonial an essay published in 1988 which
ideologies. explores the silencing of marginalized
voices.
Brief History - Excerpt: “…The abolition of this rite by
Before Postcolonialism the British has been generally
- Commonwealth Literature, focusing on understood as a case of 'White men
British colonies. saving brown women from brown men'."
1980s 4. Homi K. Bhabha
- Postcolonialism - Introduced key concepts like hybridity
1960s and mimicry in "The Location of
- Emergence of theories related to Culture," published in 1994.
postcolonialism - Excerpt: “The metonymic strategy
Key Figures produces the signifier of colonial
- Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, Gayatri mimicry as the effect of hybridity - at
Spivak one a mode of appropriation and of
Milestone resistance, from the disciplined to the
- Said’s Orientalism (1978) introduces desiring.”
“the Other”
Key Features
Proponents and Prominent Personalities 1. Colonial Power Dynamics
1. Frantz Fanon - Examines colonizer-colonized
- A pivotal figure whose works, like "Black relationships.
Skin, White Masks" in 1952 that 2. First World
addresses the psychological effects of - refers to the developed, industrialized
colonization. nations.
- Excerpt: "By loving me, she proves to me 3. Third World
that I am worthy of love. I am loved like - refers to developing nations (Alfred
a white man. I am a white man." Sauvy, 1952).
4. Hybridity
- cultural blending of colonial encounters
(subconscious).
5. Mimicry c. What is the relationship between
- colonized adopting colonizer’s traits the colonized and the colonizers in
(conscious). the narrative?
6. Othering 3. Validity of the Narrative
- depiction of colonized as inferior/exotic. - Questioning the legitimacy/accuracy of
7. Subaltern the story.
- marginalized voices under colonial rule. a. Is political and cultural domination
8. Rejects universalism and orientalism presented explicitly or implicitly?
- challenges Western norms and b. Is the whole story being told, or are
stereotypes about Easterners. some elements exaggerated or
9. Double Consciousness downplayed?
- dual identity perspective (W. E. B. c. How does the author's background
DuBois, 1903). influence the narrative's validity?
10. Unhomeliness 4. Expressions of Nativism
- feeling of displacement (Homi Bhabha, - Emphasis on indigenous culture
1994). a. Does the story refer only to native
11. Decolonization elements of the culture, or does it
- dismantling colonial ideologies depict a hybrid culture?
b. Which characters experience
Applications unhomeliness?
- To fully grasp postcolonial criticism, it's c. Where do you find instances of
essential to examine literature with a double consciousness?
focus on how colonialism and its 5. Recurring Subjects and Themes
aftermath are depicted. - Themes that engage with
1. Presentation of Colonialism colonial/postcolonial experiences
- Critique or justification of colonial a. Does the narrative look to the past,
practices. examine the present, or
a. Is the work critical of colonialism, hypothesize a possible future?
approving of it, or ambivalent about b. Where is imitation of the cultural
its value? standard depicted, and what is its
b. Does the narrator speak as an effect?
observer or a participant in the c. How do specific characters struggle
story's cultural setting? to develop a personal identity by
c. What traditions and practices serve reconciling the two cultures in
to maintain the cultural hierarchy in which they live?
the work? 6. Context
2. Treatment of Characters - Influence of colonization narrative
- Power dynamics in character portrayal. a. Are the context of the story and the
a. What descriptive terms context of its creation the same or
characterize the depiction of the different?
colonizers? b. How did the historical or cultural
b. What descriptive terms context of the writer influence the
characterize the depiction of the work?
colonized characters? c. What significant public events in
the writer's life contributed to her
views?
7. Minor Characters
- Representation of marginalized voices.
a. Which minor characters typify
major cultural attitudes?
b. How does the principal character
view specific minor characters?
c. Where do minor characters embody
cultural conflict?
8. Political Statement and Innuendo
- Examination of political messages.
a. Does the text make overt political
statements or support a particular
social or economic agenda?
b. Does it admire characters who
stand for a stated cause?
c. Does it criticize those who
represent a specific ideology?
9. Similarities
- Shared experiences of colonized
peoples.
a. Do native populations from
different countries share
commonalities due to their
colonization experiences?
b. How do different authors depict the
themes of double consciousness,
hybridity, and mimicry?
c. What correspondences and
differences exist among the style of
writing of different colonies?

Limitations
1. Complexity of Language
- The use of terms and concepts that are
specific to the field.
- Impact on accessibility for readers.
2. Representation of Cultures
- Challenges in accurately representing
colonized cultures.
- Risk of stereotypes and
oversimplifications.
3. Balancing Different Perspectives
- Risk of bias in arguments
4. Identity and Language
- Challenges in decolonizing in terms of
language.
 Feminist Criticism - For centuries, Western culture believed
Feminism or feminist criticism studies how that women were inferior creatures—
women are depicted in literature. creatures that were inferior to men. This
- Feminist critics believe that all aspects ideology is often associated with the
of culture—religion, philosophy, term patriarchy. Since approximately
economics, education, and literature— 4500 years ago, western societies have
significantly influence the social been patriarchal.
structure that enforces the same gender • Women are lesser beings - Leading
and sexual norms for everyone. As their thinkers, from Aristotle to Charles
end goal, they aim to expose such Darwin
ideology and change it in order for • Women are “a foe to friendship, an
everyone’s worth to be recognized and inescapable punishment, a necessary
appreciated. evil.” - John Chrysostom (ca. AD 347–
- This involves analyzing gender 407), a Greek ecclesiast
inequalities and imbalances, how they • “All wickedness is but little to the
operate, and how they might, could, and wickedness of a woman” - from
should be changed. Ecclesiasticus, a book of the biblical
- By changing the literature people read apocrypha
and the ways they indulge in it, feminist • “The judgment of God upon your sex
critics hope to transform the world in a endures even today; and with it
way that everyone is valued as a inevitably endures your position of
creative, rational being. criminal at the bar of justice. You are the
Who is considered a feminist? gateway to the devil.” - from Tertullian’s
- A feminist is someone who studies and (ca. AD 160–230), a Roman theologian,
seeks to understand gender as a system lecture to women
of cultural signs or meanings assigned • “Most women have no character at all.”
to sexually dimorphic bodies, - Alexander Pope (1688–1744)
recognizing how this impacts our - As it is widely acknowledged, even
individual lives and the functioning of women accepted their inferiority to
society. men.
- A feminist is someone who recognizes • “I am glad that I am not a man, as I
that current gender systems, both should be obliged to marry a woman.” -
within their own culture and others, Madame de Staël (1766–1817), a
often favor men over women, French writer
particularly in positions of social power. • “A woman, especially, if she has the
- A feminist is someone who perceives misfortune of knowing anything, should
these gender systems as wrong and conceal it as well as she can.” - Jane
unjust and believes they need to be Austen (1775–1817)
changed. • “Brains are an asset, if you hide them.” -
Mae West (1893–1980)
Brief History - Women are treated as the
- Analyzing literature through a feminist laughingstock of the town, the brunt of
lens only began to be developed in the jokes.
early 1960s • “Woman’s place is in the wrong.” -
James Thurber (1894–1861)
- This applies not only to Western society Proponents and Prominent Personalities
but also to other parts of the world. 1. Mary Wollstonecraft
• Women under Confucianism were - In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published
expected to be inferior to men. A Vindication of the Rights of Women,
• In Hinduism, women were expected to where she argued that women are “duly
devote themselves to their husbands. prepared by education to be the
- In earlier literary works, women were companions of men.” This book served
depicted as: as her call to her fellow women to take
• Weak humans with personal and control over their own lives by
emotional issues. Such literary recognizing that they had equal abilities
characters helped enforce the with men, to shape their identities for
compliance of real women with themselves, and write their own roles to
patriarchy. e.g., Emma Woodhouse’s play in society. Despite her stand not
Emma and Jane Austen’s fiction being acknowledged by everyone, her
• Monsters. Assigning the female sex to words are impossible to obscure from
monsters in literary works may have the light ever again.
been a way for men to “protect”
themselves from the strengths of 2. Virginia Woolf
women they feared. e.g., Medusa from - In 1929, Virginia Woolf published A
Greek Mythology and Grendel’s Mother Room of One’s Own, where she
in Beowulf questioned women’s seldom
- However, before the emergence of appearance in history. She pointed out
feminism, there were earlier literary how women are often depicted in
works and writers that recognized the poems and stories, but they hardly seem
presence of women. to have existed in real life. She claimed
• The Epic of Gilgamesh, the first that without a room of their own,
Sumerian literary work, involves a whatever women have written “would
strong woman who serves as a teacher have been twisted and deformed.”
for the two male characters, instructing 3. Elaine Showalter
them on how to become civilized. - Alongside Wollstonecraft and Woolf are
• Sappho wrote love poems dedicated to women whose efforts have significantly
other women. contributed to the development of
• Ovid retold male-dominated myths women’s history, both social and
from the perspective of their female literary. Elaine Showalter divided these
characters. women into the following phases:
- It was only in the late 18th century when • The Feminine Phase (1840–1880)
feminism truly emerged. Female writers imitated the literary
• Feminist Movement (late 18th century) tradition established by men, but with
- fought for greater equality between careful consideration of offensive
the two sexes. language or subject matters.
- Charlotte Brontë (Currer Bell) and Mary
Evans (George Eliot)
• The Feminist Phase (1880–1920)
- Women protested their lack of rights
and ensured they will not be deprived of
these rights.
 4. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Key Features and Applications
Stanton General approaches in feminism include the
- Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady following:
Stanton, along with others, advocated - Looking at literary history to rediscover
to secure equality under the law. forgotten texts written by women
- In literature, they publicly declared the - Reevaluating texts
unjust depictions of women by male - Examining the cultural contexts in
writers as wrong. which works were produced
• The Female Phase (1920–present) - Analyzing and rejecting the
- The female experience was given focus male/female power structure that
in art and literature. makes women inferior to men
- Female writers began to focus on their - Abolishing limiting stereotypes of
own lives as the subject of their works. women
- Feminist critics look at the depiction of - Exposing patriarchy and the prejudices
women in male texts to uncover the it creates
underlying misogyny. - Challenging traditional, static ways of
5. Simone de Beauvoir seeing gender and identity
- Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex In studying differences in the writing of men and
(1949) focuses on how women are women, the following questions can be
treated as secondary or non-existent. considered:
Beauvoir called for women to realize - Has the writer chosen to write in a genre
their possibilities to be able to break out typical of male or female writers of the
of being the “other.” period?
6. Germaine Greer - Do you consider the content of the piece
- Germaine Greer’s The Female Eunuch typical or atypical of a male or female
(1970) attempts to free women from writer?
their mental dependence on images of - Does the voice sound characteristic of a
women in popular culture and literature. male or female writer? That is, is it
- Other works include Betty Friedan’s The personal or impersonal, subjective or
Feminine Mystique (1963) and Kate objective, implicit or explicit?
Millett’s Sexual Politics (1970). 1. Studies of Power
- Feminists focus on the imbalance of
Showalter acknowledges that, at the present power between the sexes. In literature
time, there is no single feminist approach to the they aim to examine and protest power
study of literature. Feminism has truly become relationships of men and women.
diverse—may it be in terms of origin, beliefs, or - These include marginalized subgroups
associated movements. such as African Americans, Asian-
- American Feminism Americans, and Hispanics.
- French Feminism - To them, art and life are interconnected
- British Feminism literature is a medium that advocates
- Equality Feminism for public awareness; helps enlighten
- Difference Feminism those who are oppressed.
- Pre-poststructuralist Feminism - In studies of power, the following
- Poststructuralist Feminism questions can be considered:
a. Where do you find an imbalance of
power among the characters?
 b. Who are the powerful ones, and Limitations
who are the powerless? Are the - Alongside feminist criticism, queer
latter women and/or minority theory criticism emerged and became
figures? significant by the 1980s.
c. What divisions of labor exist - No matter how interconnected they
between men and women in the may be, feminist criticism and queer
work? theory criticism differ from one another.
d. Does the work resist a social order - Feminist criticism focuses on how
that denies equal treatment to all? women are depicted in literature and on
Or does it accept it? identifying gender inequalities and
2. Studies of the Female Experience imbalances in literary works.
- Feminist critics and writers identify the - Queer theory encompasses
unique nature of the female personality heterosexual privilege and the
and experience, as well as a distinct marginalization of homosexuals and
female tradition in literature. their work.
- They examine female images in the - Studies of power involve focusing on
works of female writers, such as marginalized subgroups in society,
goddesses and the image of where female writers from these groups
motherhood, to uncover the essence of are given focus.
feminine style in literature. - It is important to limit the focus of
- In studying the nature of female studies of power to female writers from
personality and experience, the marginalized subgroups.
following questions can be considered: - Writing a critique paper using a feminist
a. Where do characters speak with approach may involve addressing
mannerisms that seem to be questions related to readers'
characteristically female, such as perceptions of female characters or
unfinished sentences, silences, writers in literary works. e.g., “How is the
exclamations? female reader co-opted into accepting
b. Does the text include images of or rejecting the images of women
motherhood or references to goddesses presented in the work?”
that suggest creativity and power? - Nonetheless, feminist criticism differs
c. Do you find the female characters from reader-response theory, as it limits
conforming to expected norms? Are readers' contributions and perceptions
they nurturing, giving, passive, to those specifically related to female
emotional? characters or authors in literary works
d. Are there reversals of the expected
norms? Do some female characters take Writing Techniques and Teaching
on what are masculine characteristics? Implications
e. According to this work, what does it Prewriting
mean to be female? - If you can choose the text you will
- A work of literature where the three examine using a feminist approach,
approaches are applied is the letters of prioritize selecting works by female
Abigail Adams, written on March 31 and writers, especially those that are rarely
April 5, 1776, and the one from her critiqued.
husband, John, written on April 14, 1776. - In lesson planning, teachers may select
such texts for students to analyze. It is
 essential and helpful to focus on the The Body
characters in the text, as, through them, - It is important to determine which of the
you can determine the attitudes and three approaches used by the major
ideology of the author. groups of feminist critics to follow or
- In the prewriting process, the following how they will work together in your
questions may be considered: critique. This will help shape the overall
a. What stereotypes of women do you flow of your critique.
find? Are they oversimplified, - In writing the body of your critique, the
demeaning, untrue? following questions may be considered
b. Examine the roles women play in a if you wish to focus on gender
work. Are they minor, supportive, differences:
powerless, obsequious? Or are they a. Is the genre one that is traditionally
independent and influential? associated with male or female writers?
c. Is the narrator a character in the b. Is the subject one that is of particular
narrative? If so, how does the male or interest to women, perhaps one that is
female point of view affect the reader’s of importance to women’s lives?
perceptions? c. Is the work sympathetic to female
d. How do the male characters talk about characters?
the female characters? d. Are the female characters and the
e. How do the male characters treat the situations in which they are placed
female characters? presented with complexity and in
f. How do the female characters act detail?
toward the male characters? e. How does the language differ from what
g. Who are the socially and politically you would expect from a writer of the
powerful characters? opposite gender?
h. What attitudes toward women are f. How does the way the female
suggested by the answers to these characters talk influence the reader’s
questions? perception of them?
i. Do the answers to these questions g. What are the predominant images?
indicate that the work lends itself more Why are they (or why are they not)
naturally to a study of differences associated with women’s lives?
between the male and female h. Does the implied audience of the work
characters, a study of power include or exclude women? In the case
imbalances between the sexes (or of a male writer, is the work addressed
perhaps other groups), or a study of to a mixed audience, or does it sound
unique female experience? more like one man telling a story to
The Introduction another man?
- Begin your critique by stating the - The following questions may be
reason/s as to why a feminist approach considered if you wish to focus on the
is appropriate for the text you are balance or imbalance of power between
analyzing to help the readers better the sexes:
understand your critique. a. Who is primarily responsible for making
- Another way to begin your critique is to decisions in the world depicted: men or
connect the characters or events in the women?
story with similar situations that have
occurred in real life.
b. Do the female characters play an overt g. Can you find instances in which
part in decision making? Or do they wholeness rather than otherness is
work behind the scenes? associated with the female characters?
c. Who holds positions of authority and h. What generalizations about the
influence? uniqueness of the female experience
d. Who controls the finances? can you make based on the answers to
e. Do the female characters play these questions?
traditional female roles? Or do they - In teaching literature, especially works
assume some unusual ones? featuring female characters or written
f. Are there any instances in which women by female authors, teachers can use the
are unfairly treated or ill-treated? previously mentioned questions in
g. What kind of accomplishments do the activities like oral recitations, critique
female characters achieve? papers, group discussions, and similar
h. Are the female characters honored for exercises.
their accomplishments? The Conclusion
i. Do the male characters consult the - To end your critique, summarize the
female characters before acting or do generalizations and conclusions drawn
they merely inform them of their action? from the key points you made
j. Does the story approve or disapprove, throughout the text.
condemn or glorify, the power structure - Conclude with a brief analysis on what
as revealed by your answers to these is particularly female about the work,
questions? the power relationships depicted in it, or
k. How is the female reader co-opted into its presentation of the nature of the
accepting or rejecting the images of female experience.
women presented in the work?
- The following questions may be
considered if you wish to focus on the
unique nature of the female experience
depicted in the work:
a. Does the text reject the idea of a male
norm of thinking and behavior that is
stable or unchanging? If so, where?
b. Are images of the female body
important in the text?
c. Do you find references to female
diseases or bodily functions?
d. Do motherhood, or those attitudes and
behaviors characteristic of motherhood,
figure significantly in the text?
e. Can you find instances in which the
traditional binaries of male/female,
intellectual/emotional,
objective/subjective, and
active/passive are reversed?
f. What new circumstances do the
reversals suggest?
 Queer Theory - “Closet” is a metaphor for living a life
Brief History hidden from others. This term
In the Classical Age represents how gay and lesbian people
- Love between men was common in hid their desire and love from the public.
public life and lesbian poetry was The concept of the closet allowed works
welcomed as straight poetry. However, by gay and lesbian people to be
heterosexuals did not tolerate interpreted in the tradition even when it
alternatives to reproductive was hidden from view.
heterosexuality due to Christian
religious superstition and conservative Proponents and Prominent Personalities
morality. The works of gays and 1. Michel Foucault
lesbians and works about alternative - He is known for his work “The History of
sexual practices to heterosexuality Sexuality,” where he pointed out that
were subject to legal attack. social categories such as homosexual
1970s and heterosexual did not always exist
- Various groups within the feminist but were created through discourses
movement expressed dissatisfaction that classified people as such. Foucault
because they no longer identified with argued that if we do not internalize
the mainstream image of feminism, Western culture’s sexual rules, they will
leading to the formulation of different force us to conform.
feminisms. Lesbian feminism pursued 2. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick
its own separate path, as mainstream - She investigated the wide varieties of
feminism failed to question traditional sexualities and gender identities found
views of same-sex relations. among humans. In her book
1991 “Tendencies,” Sedgwick described
- The term “queer” emerged from the identity as a complex mixture of
work of Teresa de Lauretis titled “Queer choices, life experiences, and
Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities.” professional roles, as she believed that
- Queer theory emerged from the fields of differences among people should not
lesbian, gay, and gender studies. It is the only be tolerated, but also be accepted.
study of gender practices, identities, 3. Judith Butler
and sexualities that exist outside of - In her book “Gender Trouble,” Butler
heterosexual norms. argued that some early feminists were
- Queer theory as a literary criticism wrong in asserting that women have
explores, interprets, and critiques the inherent characteristics and common
representation of LGBTQIA+ identities interests. She highlighted that the
and themes in literature. It often continuation of the traditional binary of
challenges heteronormative masculine and female makes it difficult
perspectives and binary categorizations for individuals to choose their authentic
of gender and sexuality. identities.
- Queer theory is a deeper philosophical 4. Gayle Rubin
challenge to the status quo that aims to - She is known for her essay “Thinking
provide readings that subvert difference Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the
and celebrate uniqueness. Politics of Sexuality,” where she
questioned the value system that
 societies attribute to sexuality and - Instead of using gendered terms like
sexual practices. “fireman” or “stewardess,” use
gender-neutral terms such as
Key Features “firefighter” or “flight attendant.”
1. Flexibility Avoid using adjectives as nouns.
- The term “queer” is flexible and can - Using adjectives as nouns can be
refer to a variety of non-normative demeaning to the people you are
sexual orientations and gender referring to. For example, instead of
identities, making it a versatile term in saying “gays,” you may use “gay
analyses. people.”
2. Questions established norms Avoid using language that implies a gender
- Queer theory challenges the binary.
stereotypical idea that everyone is - Referring to gender as only men and
heterosexual. It expands on the wide women is exclusive. Instead of
varieties of sexuality and gender saying “both genders,” you may use
identity. “all genders” as a way of including
3. Explores the LGBTQIA+ life everyone.
- Queer theory sheds light on the untold Use gender-neutral pronouns.
stories and experiences of queer people, - Use they, them, or theirs when you
such as their battles against oppression refer to non-binary and gender non-
and gender discrimination. conforming individuals. This may
4. Challenges binaries vary depending on what kind of text
- Queer theory aims to deconstruct the
you are writing
traditional binaries established by
Possible Questions to Ponder in Approaching a
society, specifically, only having two
Text as a Queer Theory Critic
genders, which are male and female.
- Does the work challenge traditional
Moreover, this theory promotes the
ways of viewing sexuality and identity?
fluidity of human sexuality and how it
- Does it depict human sexuality as more
should be explored.
complex than the essentialist terms
male and female suggest?
Applications and Limitations
- Does the work assume an essentialist
- Queer theory examines gender, sexual
view of gender—that is, does it accept
practices, identity, defining choices,
that there is a fixed, unchanging self?
sexual stereotyping, assumed norms,
- Does the work or narrator assume that
types of masculinity and femininity, and
the self is a constructed one?
other related issues.
- What sexual topics do you find in the
- Queer theory critics examine lesbian
work that are odd or peculiar—that is,
and gay episodes in canonical works,
queer?
especially those that have been
- Does the work complicate what it
previously ignored. They also expose
means to be homosexual or
homophobic literary practices.
heterosexual?

Writing Techniques
Use gender-neutral terms to reference
general categories of people.
 Teaching Implications
- Schools and teachers must address
heterosexist discrimination and
homophobic attitudes among students,
fellow teachers, and administrators.
- Educational institutions must make the
resources and teaching practices more
gender inclusive. For instance, by
integrating the topic of gay and lesbian
relationships within discussions of
families, or homophobia within
discussions of social discrimination.
- Teachers must also consider the
educational needs of learners who
belong in the LGBTQIA+ community.
- Teachers must create a healthy learning
environment where every learner can be
open about their gender and sexual
identity, as well as be able to express
themselves without fear.