Unit-1

Sociology is one of the first social sciences to be acknowledged. The word

‘sociology’owes its origin to the Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logy (study
of). Sociology incorporates the study of social phenomena, social life, groups, institutions,
associations and societies. It focuses on society from a scientific point of view. Sociology has a
vast scope. It ranges from Individual to grouped social systems. The principles of sociology
explain the behaviour of human beings and their existence with respect to their mutual
interaction.
SOCIOLOGY: MEANINGAND DEFINITION
Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among the social sciences, which
include economics, political science, anthropology, history and psychology. The ideas behind it,
however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a mixture of common human
knowledge and philosophy.
Sociology emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century, as a fundamentally
new type of society based on new principles of social organization and new ideas of
enlightenment. This led to a change in the mindset of people. Sociologists hoped not only to
understand what held social groups together but also to develop an antidote to the social
breakdown. In terms of science, sociology pertains to social groups, their hierarchies or forms of
organization. It combines functions which are inclined to maintain or modify these forms of
organization and their inter-group network.
Sociology is concerned with interaction itself. A social group is a system of social
interaction. Sociology is interested in social relationships, not because they are economic,
political, religious, legal or educational, but because they are social at the same time. Further, in
sociology, we do not study everything that happens in a society or under social conditions, but
we study culture, social relationships, their specific forms, varieties and patterns. We study the
combination of relations, how they build up smaller or greater systems, and how they respond to
changes and changing demands or needs.

French philosopher and sociologist Auguste Comte invented the term ‘sociology’ in the
year 1838. Comte attempted to combine all the faculties of mankind, including history,
psychology and economics. His own pattern of sociology was typical of the 19 th century; he put
across the theory that every man had experienced the same distinct historical stages and that the
success of this progress was the solution to every social ill. Sociology would lead social sciences
in the future. Comte defined sociology as the science of social phenomena, subject to natural
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation. He advocated for sociology
to be used as a positive method as in natural sciences. He further believed that social evolution
went hand in hand withprogress, in accordance with the law of three stages. These three stages
are: the theological-military, the metaphysical-legalistic and the positive-industrial laws.
According to Comte’s hierarchy of sciences, sociology occupies the summit. This is because it is
considered to be the most complex of sciences, as it deals with humanity.

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 The systematic study of society gained prominence due to the upheavals caused by the
French and industrial revolutions. The intellectual community of that time attempted to analyse
and establish reasons for these rapid changes. So the study of sociology emerged as a distinct
discipline dealing with social order and change. Although all social sciences study different
aspects of social life, the approach of sociology is distinct. It is a more detailed picture
explaining why things are the way they are. Sociology has also been labelled as a ‘debunking
science’ because a sociologist is interested in looking beyond the commonly accepted meaning
of social phenomenon and understands reality as a social construction; that is, how reality gets
established in the way we understand it.

American sociologist Peter Berger argued that ‘sociology is a distinctive way of thinking,
a particular awareness of the nature of social life, an unwillingness to accept the superficial and
the apparently obvious’.

French sociologist Emile Durkheim was a pioneer in demonstrating scientific

methodology in sociology. In his most acclaimed work,Rules of Sociological Method (1897), he
emphasized on the methodology that he has described in his study, Suicide (1897).

The discipline of sociology appeared in many universities in the 1890s. Urbanizationand

industrialization were posing several social issues and the sociologists of those times were trying
hard to find a scientific solution. However, they did not succeed. It was their strong belief that
sociology was the key to the scientific growth of the society.

Later, sociology emerged as a branch of scientific knowledge with theories resulting from
scientific inferences, rather than mere guesswork or comments that were based on impressions.

Popular definitions of Sociology

Sociology is the science of social phenomena ‘subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of
which is the object of investigation’.
—Auguste Comte
‘Sociology… is a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order
thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.’
—Max Weber
‘In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their
conditions and consequences.’
—Morris Ginsberg
‘Sociology is the study of man and his human environment in their relations to each other.’
—Henry Fairchild
On a broader platform, sociology is the study of human interactions, their conditions and
consequences. It is a type of science that comprises investigative techniques which are objective and
systematic. It gives rise to the evolution of the social truth that is based on empirical evidence and
interpretation. However, it cannot be directly based on natural sciences, since human behaviour is a
unique phenomenon. It also differs from natural sciences such that the contents of natural sciences
are constant, while human behaviour, exhibits variations and flexibility.

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 Sociology as a branch of knowledge has its own unique characteristics. It is different from
other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of internal logical characteristics helps one to
understand its main characteristics, which are discussed as follows:

(i.)Sociology is an independent science: It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other
science. As an independent science, it has its own field of study, boundary and method.

(ii) Sociology is a social science and not a physical science: As a social science, it focuses its
attention on man, his social behaviour, social activities and social life. It is related to other social
sciences such as history, political science, economics, and so on.

(iii) Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline: Sociology does not make any
kind of value judgments. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically
neutral. It makes no recommendations on matters of social policy or legislation or programme.
Sociology cannot deal with problems of good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral.

(iv) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science: The main aim of pure science is
acquisition of knowledge, irrespective of whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put
to use. On the other hand, applied science applies acquired knowledge into life.

(v) Sociology is relatively abstract and not concrete science: It is not interested in concrete
manifestation of human events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and their
patterns. For instance, sociology is not specifically concerned with wars and revolutions but in
the general social phenomena, as types of social conflict.

(vi) Sociology is not based on particular subjects or individuals, but is a general science:
Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human interaction and associations
about the nature, forms, and content and structure of human groups and societies. It adopts a
general approach on the basis of a study of some selected events.

vii. Sociology is a rational and empirical science: There are two broad ways of approach to
scientific knowledge: one is empiricism and the other is rationalism. Empiricism emphasizes
experiences and facts that result from observation and experiment. Rationalism stresses on
reason and theories that result from logical inference. In sociological inquiry, both are significant

Scope of Sociology

According to the British sociologist Morris Ginsberg, the scope of sociology includes
abroad study of human interactions, their conditions and consequences. Some writers would
restrict its scope to the relations arising out of acts of will, but this is an unjustifiable and
unworkable limitation. Many interactions between individuals are not consciously determined or
apprehended. One of the most interesting problems confronting the student of society is to
determine the respective roles of reason or rational purpose, and of impulse and the
unconsciousness in social life.
In this case, sociology must be capable of dealing with the complete issue or network of
social relationships. However, these relationships are assumed to be dependent on the nature of
individuals, to one another, to the community, and to the external environment. This can be

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explained if every social event can be traced back to its origin, as influenced by complex
interactions. A combination of these interactions is comprised within a community, with respect
to external influences. But this ideal, if generously conceived, is clearly too ambitious.

Sociology involves a systematic and objective study of human society. Sociologists study
individuals’ social actions. Social relationships, for instance, those between a husband and a
wife, a teacher and a student, a buyer and a seller, and social processes, namely, cooperation,
competition, conflict and organizations, communities and nations, and social structures (family,
class and state), give rise to sociological queries. Explanations that are derived from norms and
values result in the formation of social institutions.

Thus, sociology can be defined as the study of social life. Sociology comprises a variety
of apprehensions and interests. It is aimed at providing classified forms of relationships within
societies, institutions and associations. These relationships pertain to economic, political, moral,
religious and social aspects of human life. Although, so far no collective agreement has been
reached on the essence of sociology, so for yet it is established that sociology deals with the
study of interaction systems, which shape social institutions, the state and the non-native order.
Therefore, in sociology, we study about social organization, social structure, institutions and
culture.
Sociology was defined differently by two schools of thought, pertaining to its range and theme:
(i) Formal school
(ii) Synthetic school

(i) Formal school

The formal school defined sociology as a social science that has definite characteristics.
This school was advocated by eminent sociologists including George Simmel, Ferdinand
Tonnies, Alfred Vierkandt and Leopord Von Wiese. On the other hand, the synthetic school with
well-known sociologists, namely, Durkheim, Hobhouse and Sorokin attempted to bring together
a type of coordination among all social sciences.

The formal school supported the idea of giving sociology a suitable subject matter to
make it a distinct discipline. It stressed on the study of forms of social relationships and
considered sociology as independent. Simmel defined sociology as a specific social science that
describes, organizes, analyses and visually explains the forms of social relationships. To put it in
a different way, social interactions should be classified into various forms or types and analysed.
Simmel argued that social interactions have various forms. He conducted researches on formal
relationships such as cooperation, competition, sub and super ordinate relationships, and so on.
He said, ‘however diverse the interests are that give rise to these sociations, the forms in which
the interests are realized may yet be identical.’ His main emphasis was to conceptualize these
forms from human relationships which are not affected by different scenarios. Vierkandt
believed that sociology should pertain to people being extremely attached mentally or psychically.
Von Wiese believed in the existence of two types of basic social processes in a human society. These
are as follows:
(i) Associative processes that are related to contact, approach, adaptation, and so on.
(ii) Disassociate processes like competition and conflict Additionally, a blend of associative and
disassociative processes also exists. Each of these processes can be further segregated into

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subclasses. These subclasses result in 650 categories of human relationships. Sociology should
concentrate on discovering a basic force of change and consistency, and should be influenced by the
history of concrete societies. Tonnies suggested two types of societies, namely Gemeinschaft
(community) and Gesellschaft (association). These were based on the level of closeness between
members of the society. Based on the types of relationships, he attempted to differ between
community and society. German sociologist Max Weber outlined a particular field for sociology.
He recommended that the aim of sociology was to identify or explain social behaviour. However,
social behaviour does cover all aspects human relations, since all exchanges between of human
beings cannot be called social.Sociology deals with learning and identifying the different types
of social relationships

(ii) Synthetic school of sociology

The synthetic school defines sociology as a combination of social sciences. It stresses on
widening the range of sociology. Durkheim divided sociology into three main sections. These
were social morphology, social physiology and general sociology.
Social morphology pertains to the lifestyle of people on the basis of their location or region. It
comprises factors like population, density, distribution and so on. One can further divide this into
two categories: (i) analysis of density and type of population that influences social relationships
and social groups, and (ii) learning about social hierarchy or details related to the main categories
of social groups and institutions, along with their operation.
Social physiology deals with the origin and character of different social institutions, namely
religion, morals, law, economic institutions, and so on. The prime objective of general sociology
is to frame general social laws. Efforts are still on to find out the links between different types of
institutions that are treated independently in social physiology and the possibilities of emergence
of general social laws as a byproduct.

Hobhouse, a British sociologist, defined sociology as a field of science which focuses on the
whole social life of man. It relates to other social sciences in a way that can be regarded as a
blend of mutual exchange and stimulation. Classical sociologist Karl Mannheim has explained
sociology in terms of two key divisions: systematic, and general sociology and historical
sociology. Systematic sociology provides a methodical review of the main factors of coexistence,
such that they are evident in every kind of society. Historical sociology deals with the historical
array and existence of general forms of the society. This can be divided into two sectors:
comparative sociology and social dynamics. Comparative sociology basically deals with
identical historical changes and tries to highlight the general features by comparing them. It also
separates general features from industrial features. Social dynamics is concerned with the
interrelations that exist among different social factors and institutions in a given society, for
example, in an ancient society.

Ginsberg has combined the main features of sociology in a way that they classifythe different
types and structures of social relations, specifically those that are clearly specified as institutions
and associations. He tried to find connectivity between various parameters of social life, for
example, economic, political, moral and legal, intellectual and social elements. It attempts to
make the basic conditions of social change and persistence simpler, and evaluates the
sociological principles that influence social life.

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 Thus, on the basis of the viewpoints of many sociologists, the scope of sociology can be
generally defined. To begin with, sociology should be concerned with the analysis of various
institutions, associations and social groups, which have resulted from social relationships of
individuals. The second step is an understanding of the different linksbetween various sections of
the society. This objective is catered to by the functionalist school of sociology, as required. The
Marxist school also exhibits the same opinion. Thus, the main area of discussion of sociology
pertains to social structure. Sociology should also focus on aspects which are important in
bringing about social stability and social change. Finally, sociology should also tackle issues
related to the changes in pattern and the consequences of societal changes.

Sociology as a Science
The nature of sociology as a science has become a controversial issue. Some critics do
not support the ideology of sociology being regarded as a science like all other social sciences.
Sociology can be regarded as a science since it comprises objective and systematic
methodologies of examination and assessment. It can also be evaluated as a social reality on the
basis of empirical data and explanation. However, it cannot be directly compared to natural
sciences, since human behaviour is not similar to natural sciences. A science may be defined in
at least two ways:
(i) A body of organized, verified knowledge which has been secured through scientific
investigation
(ii) A method of study whereby a body of organized and verified knowledge is discovered
However, if the first definition is accepted, then sociology can be termed as a science,
based on the theory that it creates a body of organized and verified knowledge, after scientific
investigation. To the extent that sociology forsakes myth, folklore and wishful thinking and
bases its conclusions on scientific evidence, it is a science. If science is defined as methods of
study, then sociology can be defined as a science because it uses scientific techniques of study.

In the history of human thinking, few of our actions have been based on verified knowledge, for
people through the ages have been guided mainly by folklore, norms, values and anticipations.
Recently, very few people accepted the idea of systematic observations and analysis. W. F.
Ogburn, an American sociologist, opines that sociology is a science. According to him, science is
to be judged on the basis of the following three criteria:
• The reliability of its body of knowledge
• Its organization
• Its method
Sociology depends on reliable knowledge. Thus, sociological studies of population, families,
group behaviour, evolution of institutions and the process of social change are regarded as
considerably reliable. Secondly, disjointed collection of facts cannot be a science. Science should
be organized and the organization of science rests upon relationships. Sociology provides a scope
for interrelationships, which is enough to encourage more discoveries. Moreover, with reference
to method, a branch of knowledge can be called a science if it follows a scientific method in its
studies and investigations.

Sociological studies employ various methods such as the historical method, case study method,
social survey method, functional method and statistical method. Though sociology can be
considered as a science, its scientific character cannot be established because it is not as accurate

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as natural sciences. There is no denying the fact that sociology cannot experiment and predict in
the same way in which physical sciences do because human behaviour and relationships are
peculiar and uncertain. Objectivity in sociology is not possible as man has his own prejudices
and bias. Socialphenomena cannot be exact as it is too vast and human motivations are complex,
and it is difficult to make predictions about human behaviour.

However, such objectives raised against sociology as a science are refutable. Sociology
does make use of scientific methods in the study of its subject matter. Though sociology does not
support laboratory experiments, yet it does employ the techniques of science, such as the
measures of sociometry, schedule, questionnaire, interview and case history. These relate
measures of quantity with social phenomenon. Moreover, a sociologist also uses observation and
comparison. Sociology delineates the cause-effect relationship. So sociology is a scientific
discipline which obeys the demands of validity that are implied by the word ‘science’. It
classifies the form of social relationships and determines the connectivity between different
sectors of social life. American sociologist Robert Bierstedt in his book, The Social Order,
considered sociology as a social and not a natural science.

Thus, it can be said that science is a way to find out the truth, and if sociology involves
application of a range of techniques and methods in the right manner, then it will achieve a
scientific character.

Human social activities can be observed through scientific exploration just like any other natural
phenomenon. This exploration uses scientific techniques, such as scales of sociometry, schedule,
questionnaire, interview and case history. These, in turn, apply quantitative measurements to
social phenomenon. Hence, they can be compared to the technique of experimentation.
Sociology attempts to identify the types and forms of social relationships, especially of
institutions and associations.

It tries to establish relations between different factors of social life. It also involves the
deduction of general laws through a systematic study of its material. The outcome of the study of
sociological principles is used as a means to resolve social problems. Consequently, sociology
can be compared to a science, such as social psychology, clinical psychology and other sciences
that relate to the existence of mankind. A sociologist can also make optimum use of two other
fundamental techniques of scientific reasoning, which are observation and comparison.
Sociology can also be used in the building of laws and for futuristic calculations. These laws are
usually relevant and are independent of cultural changes. Sociology also explains the cause-
effect relationships by the analysis of social procedures and relationships.

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. Relationship between social and natural sciences
Social life is very complex. To understand this complex social life it is necessary to study
all the aspects minutely. The factors and elements that influence social life are affected by both
natural and social factors and elements. Hence, the subject matter of science has been
categorized into two parts
i.e. natural sciences and social sciences. The subject matter of natural sciences is the
forces of nature where of subject matter of social sciences is social phenomena. Goal of both
these sciences is same i.e. exploring the relationship between the natural world and the human
world. Hence, both are mutually related and influence each other. At the same time both are also
different from each other from multiple angles. While natural sciences are objective social
sciences are subjective. Natural sciences are studied through scientific method. Scope and
subject matter of both sciences also differ. But both are interrelated.
. Sociology and Anthropology Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. Hence it
has close and intimate relationship with Anthropology. The relationship is so close that
Anthropologists like A.L. Kroeber consider Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. They
often appear as two names for the same subject. R. Redfield recognizes the closeness between
these two social sciences.
Sociology is a science of society. It studies behaviour of man in groups. The term
Sociology has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ means society, companion or
association and the Greek word ‘logos’ means study or science. Hence Sociology is concerned
with the association of human beings. It is a science that deals with social groups.
Similarly the term Anthropology is derived from tow Greek words ‘anthropos’ meaning
man and ‘logos’ meaning study or science. Accordingly anthropology means study of man. As a
science of man it deals with man, his works and behaviour. Anthropology studies the biological
and cultural development of man. Anthropology has a wide field of study which can be broadly
divided into four main divisions such as physical anthropology, archeology, cultural
anthropology and social anthropology. Physical anthropology studies bodily characteristics of
early man and thereby tries to understand both primitive and modern cultures. Archeology
studies cultures of pre-historic period. This study facilitates sociologists to make a comparative
study of present social structure. It is concerned with the early periods of human existence. It
reconstructs the origin, spread and evolution of culture by examining the remains of the past
societies. Social anthropology deals with the behaviour of man in social institutions. Social
anthropology and sociology are one and the same. Evan Pritchard considers social anthropology
as a branch of Sociology.
However there exists a very close and intimate relationship between Sociology and
Anthropology. Both contribute to the growth of each other. Both have a symbiotic relationship.
Anthropology studies primitive man in a pre-literate society whereas sociology studies man in
modern complex societies. Anthropology is holistic in nature because it studies all aspects of
man in a social setting; whereas this is not possible in sociology because of its vastness and
complexity of modern life. However their close relationship can be known from the following.

Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology. Without the help of anthropology

the study of Sociology can’t be complete. It is a part of Sociology. Anthropology provides
knowledge about ancient societies. To have a comprehensive understanding of present society
Sociology takes the help of anthropology. Contributions of many Anthropologists like R.Brown,

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Linton, Mead and Pritchard enriches sociological knowledge. The origin of family, marriage,
religion etc. can be better understood through anthropological knowledge. Sociology accepts the
concepts like cultural area, cultural traits, and cultural lag etc. from anthropology. Sociology
accepts the anthropological conclusion that racial superiority is not responsible for mental
development. ‘Thus Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies. Similarly,
Sociology contributes richly towards the growth of anthropology. Anthropology accepts many
concepts of Sociology. Research and contributions of many Sociologists like Emile Durkheim,
Herbert Spencer is of great help to anthropology. Anthropologists greatly benefited by the
Sociological researches. Ideas and conclusions of Sociology contribute to the research in
anthropology.

Thus, there exists a close and intimate relationship between Sociology and Anthropology.
Both study human society and both are concerned with all kinds of social groups like families,
friends, tribes etc. Many of the ideas and concepts are used in both the discipline. Hence both are
interrelated and interdependent. However, in spite of the inter-relationship, both differ from each
other.

Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society whereas anthropology is a science of

man and his behaviour.
(2) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is very
limited
. (3) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas anthropology studies man as a part of
society.
(4) Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic on the other hand
Anthropology studies cultures which are simple and primitive.
(5) Sociology studies modern, civilized and complex societies whereas Anthropology
studies ancient and pre-literate societies.
(6) Sociology is concerned with social planning whereas anthropology is not concerned
with social planning. On the basis of social planning sociology make suggestion for future but
anthropology do not make any suggestion for future.
(7) In the words of Kluckhon, “The Sociological attitude has tended towards the
Practical and Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the past.”

. Sociology and Economics Sociology is mother of all social sciences. Hence, it has
close relationship with all social sciences and so also with Economics. The relationship of
Sociology with Economics is very close, intimate and personal. There exists close relationship
between these two because economic relationship bears a close relation to social activities and
relationships. Likewise social relationship is also affected by economic relationships. Economic
activities to a great extent are social activities. Hence both are mutually related.

Sociology is a science of society. It is concerned with the association of human beings.

Sociology is the study of human inter-actions and inter-relations their conditions and
consequences. But Economics deals with economic activities of man. It is a science of wealth
and choice. According to Prof.Robbins, Economics is a social “science which studies human
behaviour in relation to his unlimited ends and scare means which have alternatives uses. “It is
concerned with the activities of man such as production, consumption, distribution and

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exchange. It also studies the structure and functions of different economic organizations like
banks, markets etc. It is concerned with the material needs of man as well as his material welfare.
However, there exists a great deal of inter-relationship between these two sciences. Both
are interdependent and inter-related with each other. Due to this inter-relationship Thomas
opines that, “Economics is, in fact, but one branch of Sociology. “ Similarly, Silverman opines
Economics is regarded as offshoot of Sociology which studies the general principles of all social
relations. Their inter-relationships are as follows:
Economics takes the help of Sociology. For its own comprehension economics takes the
help of sociology and depends on it. Economics is a part of Sociology hence without the help
from Sociology, Economics can’t understand itself completely. Economics is concerned with
material welfare of man which is common welfare. Economic welfare is a part of social welfare.
For the solution of different economic problems such as inflation, poverty, unemployment etc,
Economists takes the help of Sociology and takes into account the social events of that particular
time. At the same time society controls other economic activities of man. Economics is greatly
benefited by the research conducted by Sociologists like Max Weber, Pareto etc. Some
economists also consider economic change as an aspect of social change. Economics draws its
generalization basing on the data provided by Sociology. Thus, Economics cannot go far or
develop without the help of Sociology.

Similarly Sociology also takes the help from Economics. Economics greatly enriches
sociological knowledge. Economic factors greatly influence each and every aspects of social life.
Economics is a part of sociology hence without the help of economics we can’t understand
sociology properly. Knowledge and research in the field of economics greatly contributes to
sociology. Each and every social problem has an economic cause. For the solution of social
problems like dowry, suicide etc Sociologists take the help form economics. Marx opines
economic relations constitute the foundation of Society. Economic factors play a very important
role in every aspect of our social life; that is why, Sociologists concerned with economic
institutions. For this reason sociologists like Spencer, Weber, Durkheim and others have taken
the help from economics in their analysis of social relationships. Thus both sociology and
economics are very closely related with each other. There are some problems which are being
studied by both sociologists and economics. Economic changes results in social changes and vice
versa. However, in spite of the above closeness, inter-relationship and inter-dependence both the
sciences have certain differences which are described below:
Differences: 1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationships whereas
economics is science of wealth.
(2) Sociology is a much younger science which has very recent origin whereas economics
is comparatively old.
(3) Sociology is an abstract science whereas economics is concrete in nature.
(4) Sociology is a general social science whereas economics is a special social science.
(5) Sociology is concerned with the social activities of man whereas economics is
concerned with the economic activities of man.
(6) Society is studied as a unit of study in Sociology whereas man is taken as a unit of
study in economics.
(7) Both Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of the methods and
techniques they use for their study.

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. Sociology and Political Science As a mother of social science, Sociology has close and
intimate relationship with all other social science. Hence, it has close relationship with political
sciences as well. Their relationship is so close and intimate that led G.E.C. Catlin to remark
“Political Science and Sociology are two faces or aspects of the same figure. “Similarly other
scholars could not find any difference between the two disciplines.

Sociology is a Science of society. It is a science of social groups and social institution. It

is a general science of society. It studies human interaction and inter-relations their conditions
and consequences. Political Science is a science of state and government. It studies power,
political processes, political systems, types of government and international relation. It deals
with social groups organized under the sovereign of the state. In the words of Paul Junet,
“Political Science is that part of social science which treats the foundation of the state and
principles of government. “It studies the political activities of man. It only studies the organized
society. However, their interrelationship can be known from their interdependence and mutual
relationship.

Sociology depends on political science. In the words of Morris Ginsberg, “Historically,

Sociology has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history.” Sociology is greatly benefited
by the books written by political scientists like Plato, Aristotle and Kautilya such as The
Republic, The Politics and Arthasastra respectively. Each and every social problem has a
political cause. Political Science is a part of Sociology. Hence sociology depends on Political
Science to comprehend itself. To understand different political events sociology takes the help
from political science. Sociology draws its conclusions being dependent on political science.
Any change in the political system or nature of power structure brings changes in society. Hence
Sociology takes the help of political science to understand the changes in society. Hence both are
interdependent.

Similarly, political science also depends on Sociology. Political Science is a part of

sociology. To understand the part, it is necessary to understand the whole. Almost all political
problems have a social cause and for the solution of these political problems political science
takes the help of sociology. State frames its rules, regulations and laws on the basis of social
customs, tradition and values. Without Sociological background, the study of political science
will be incomplete. Political Scientists are largely benefited by the researches and research
methods of the Sociologist. Some consider political science as a branch of Sociology. State is
considered as a social group hence is a subject of Sociology.

Besides, there are some common topics which are being studied by both the subjects.
These topics include among other things War, Propaganda, authority, communal riots and law.
With the help of both political science and sociology, a new subject comes into existence which
is known as political sociology. Some political events like war are also significant social events.
Thus both political science and sociology contribute to each other. But in spite of their
interrelationship and interdependence both the sciences differ from each other in the following
way.

Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationship whereas political
science is a science of state and government.

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 (2) The scope of sociology is very wide but scope of political science is limited.
(3) Sociology is a general science but political science is a special science.
(4) Sociology studied organized, unorganized and disorganized society whereas political
science studies only politically organized society.
(5) Sociology studies the social activities of man whereas political science studies
political activities of man.
(6) Sociology is a new or young science but political science is an old science.
(7) Sociology studies man as a social animal whereas political science studies man as a
political animal.
(8) Sociology studies both formal and informal relations whereas political science
studies only formal relations.
(9) Sociology analyses both conscious and unconscious activities of man whereas
political science analyses only conscious activities of man.
(10) Sociology deals with all forms of association whereas political science deals with
only one form of association named state.

Sociology and History As a mother of social sciences, sociology has close and intimate
relationship with all other social sciences. It has close relationship with history, because present
society bears symbols of past. Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that scholars
like G. Von Bulow have refused to acknowledge sociology as a science distinct from history.
Sociology is the science of society. It is a study of systems of social action and their
interrelations. Sociology is a science of social groups and social institutions. History studies the
important past events and incidents. It records men’s past life and life of societies in a systematic
and chronological order. It also tries to find out the causes of past events. It also studies the past
political, social and economic events of the world. It not only studies the past but also establishes
relations with present and future. That is why it is said that “History is the microscope of the
past, the horoscope of the present and telescope of the future.
However, both the sciences are closely interrelated and interdependent on each other.
Both study the same human society. Their mutual dependence led G.H. Howard to remark that,
“History is past Sociology and Sociology is present history,” Both take help from each other. At
the same time one depends on the other for its own comprehension. History helps and enriches
Sociology. History is the store house of knowledge from which Sociology gained a lot. History
provides materials sociologists use. History is a record of past social matters, social customs and
information about different stages of life. Sociology uses this information. Books written by
historians like A. Toynbee are of great use for Sociologists. To know the impact of a particular
past event sociology depends of history.

Similarly Sociology also provides help to history and enriches it. A historian greatly
benefited from the research conducted by Sociologists. Historians now study caste, class and
family by using sociological data. Sociology provides the background for the study of history.
Now history is being studied from Sociological angle. Every historical event has a social cause
or social background. To understand that historical event history need the help from Sociology
and Sociology helps history in this respect. Sociology provides facts on which historians rely on.

Thus history and Sociology are mutually dependent on each other. History is now being
studied from Sociological angle and Sociology also now studied from historical point of view.

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Historical sociology now became a new branch of Sociology which depends on history.
Similarly Sociological history is another specialized subject which based on both the Sciences.
But in spite of the above close relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences differ from
each other from different angles which are described below.
Differences: (1) Sociology is a science of society and is concerned with the present
society. But history deals with the past events and studies the past society.
(2) Sociology is a modern or new subject whereas history is an older social science.
(3) Sociology is abstract whereas history is concrete in nature.
(4) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limed. Sociology
includes history within its scope.
(5) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.
(6) Attitude of sociology and history differ from each other. Sociology studies a
particular event as a social phenomenon whereas history studies a particular event in it’s entirely.
(7) Sociology is a general science whereas history is a special science.

Sociology and Psychology Sociology is a science of society. Hence it is closely related

to other social sciences and so also with psychology. Sociology and Psychology are very closely
interlinked, interrelated and interdependent. Relationship between the two is so close and
intimate that Psychologist like Karl Pearson refuses to accept both as special science. Both
depend on each other for their own comprehension. Their relationship will be clear if we analyze
their interrelationship and mutual dependency.

Sociology is a science of social phenomena and social relationship. It is a science of

social group and social institutions. It is a science of collective behaviour. It studies human
behaviour in groups. But psychology is a science of mind or mental processes. It is a science of
human behaviour. It analyses attitudes, emotions, perception, process of learning and values of
individuals and process of perception, process of personality formation in society. In the words
of Thouless, ‘Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviour.’ But both
the sciences are closely related to each other which can be known from the following.

Sociology receives help from Psychology. Psychology is a part of sociology hence

without the help from Psychology; Sociology can’t understand itself fully and properly. There
are many psychologists like Freud, Mac Dugal and others who have enriched Sociology in many
respects. They opine that the whole social life could be reduced finally to psychological forces.
Each and every social problems and social phenomenon must have a psychological basis for the
solution of which sociology requires the help form psychology. A new branch of knowledge has
developed with the combination of sociology and psychology which is known as social
psychology.

Similarly, psychology depends on Sociology to comprehend itself fully. Psychology also

requires help from sociology in many cases. As human mind and personality is being influenced
by social environment, culture, customs and traditions hence psychology takes the help form
Sociology to understand this. To understand human nature and behaviour properly psychology
depends on sociology. There are many Psychological problems which must have a social cause.
Psychology requires the help from Sociology to understand these social problems. Research in

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Sociology richly contributes to psychology. Contributions and theories of many Sociologists also
are of great help to Psychologists.

Thus, Sociology and Psychology are mutually dependent on each other. One can’t
comprehend itself without the help form others. Besides there are some common area of study
such as social disorganization, public opinion etc. which are being studied by both Sociologists
and Psychologists. Social Psychology a branch of Psychology is developed with the combination
of the two. In the words of Kretch and Crutchfield, Social Psychology is the science of behaviour
of the individuals in society.

Differences: However, in spite of the mutual relationship and dependence both the
sciences differ from each other in the following ways.
(1) Sociology is a science of society but Psychology is a science of mind.
(2) Scope of Sociology is wide whereas scope of Psychology is limited.
(3) Society is the unit of study in sociology but individual is the unit of study in case of
Psychology.
(4) Sociology studies social processes whereas Psychology studies mental processes.
(5) Sociology studies and analyzes human behaviour from Sociological angle whereas
psychology studies and analyses human behaviour form Psychological angles.

. Sociology and Ethics Sociology is the science of society. Hence, it is closely related to
all other social sciences and so also with ethics. Different social sciences are interrelated. Hence,
there exists some interrelationship between sociology and ethics.

Ethics is the science of morality. Ethics is concerned with good or bad, ‘paapa’ or
‘punya’ and with the moral rightness and wrongness of human action. It conditions social action.
Ethics aims at the ideals of ‘satya’ and fair play. Ethics wants individuals to be ethical which is
in the interest of society. Ethics throw light on the moral life of individuals and institutions.
Ethics is a normative science. Ethics studies individuals as moral agents of society.

Sociology and ethics are very closely and intimately related to each other. Ethics wants
individuals to be ethical which is in the interest of society. Good ethical standards provided solid
foundations to society. Society make him believe. Hence, ethics and sociology go together.
Individual good must be in harmony with the general good of society. It is here that sociology
and ethics come close to each other. Ethics influences the social institutions. As a social animal,
man acquires moral values as a member of a social group. Moral life of individuals lies amidst a
social group. Degree of moral standards of individuals decides the nature of a society. Ethics is
concerned with the moral progress of society which decides the general progress of society.
Thus, there exists a close relationship between the two. This led many scholars to consider ethics
as a branch of sociology.

Besides, the above close relationships, both the science differ in many respects.
Sociology and Ethics are two distinct disciplines. As a science of society sociology is concerned
with group not individual. But Ethics mainly concerned with individual and its morality.
Sociology is a positive science but Ethics is a normative science. Scope of sociology is very wide
while that of Ethics is limited. Sociology studies individuals and their social relations but Ethics

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studies moral life of individuals. Sociology is the science of society where of Ethics is the
science of morality.

Recent View No doubt, all social sciences study their own specific aspects in the social
phenomenon. All social sciences share the same subject but their different attitudes create
difference among them. According to Simpson, social sciences are united and this unity is not
imaginary. It is the dynamic unity of different parts and every part is necessary for another and
all other parts. One can’t deny the desired and necessary unity among one specific and general
social science. But the recent view regarding the relationship between sociology and other social
sciences is different from any view which makes a sharp difference between social sciences. In
recent years, the social scientists recognize the need for a comprehensive study of society which
can’t be made in a fragmented manner. The interdisciplinary approach is one of the basic and
fundamental developments in the area of social science. Now, sociology, social anthropology,
political science, economics, history, psychology, ethics etc. share most of their views and
method

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Relationship between Individual and Society
There would be no society if there were no people talking to one another, acting and
interacting, cooperating with one another. But how to behave in one’s society or what is right
and what is wrong in the society, all these things one -has to learn in the society. Each society
has its own special set of rules, its own customs and traditions, its own set of values and beliefs,
and each must teach its members to fit into the society.
The idea of society implies a mutual give-and-take by the individuals concerned either in
the form of mutual glances, waving of hand, greeting, handshake, conversation or the more
subtle forms of give-and-take such as letter writing, season or festival greeting, sending and
acknowledging of gifts, talking on phone, e-mailing, Internet chatting and participating in public
affairs.
The relationship between individual and society can be viewed from three angles:
(i) Functionalist,
(ii) Inter-actionist, and
(iii) Culture and personality
Functionalist view: How society affects the individual?
What is the relationship of the individual to society? Functionalists regard the individual
as formed by society through the influence of such institutions as the family, school and
workplace. Early sociologists such as Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and even Karl Marx,
who was not a functionalist, examined society as existing apart from the individual. For
Durkheim, society is reality; it is first in origin and importance to the individual.

Durkheim’s keen discussion of the collective consciousness showed the ways in which social
interactions and relationships and ultimately society influence the individual’s attitudes, ideas
and sentiments. He utilised his theory of ‘collective representation’ in explaining the phenomena
of religion, suicide and the concept of social solidarity.

Thus, Durkheim is classed as a ‘social realist’, a champion of ‘sociologism’, for he propounded

the kind of ‘social realism’ that gave ultimate social reality to the group, not to the individual.
Durkheim’s conception left little room for individual initiative and freedom.

In contrast to Auguste Comte (known as father of sociology), who regarded the

individual as a mere abstraction, a somewhat more substantial position by Durkheim held that
the individual was the recipient of group influence and social heritage. In sociological circle, this
was the ‘burning question’ (individual v/s society) of the day.

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 How society is important in the formation of individual’s personality is clearly reflected
in the cases of isolated and feral children (children who were raised in the company of animals
such as bears and wolves). The studies of feral children, referred to earlier (Anna, Isabelle,
Kamla, Ramu etc.), have clearly demonstrated the importance of social interaction and human
association in the development of personality.

Interactionist view: How is society constructed?

How an individual helps in building society? For inter-actionists, it is through the
interaction of the people that the society is formed. The main champion of this approach was
Max Weber (social action theorist), who said that society is built up out of the interpretations of
individuals.
The structuralists (or functionalists) tend to approach the relationship of self (individual) and
society from the point of the influence of society on the individual. Inter-actionists, on the other
hand, tend to work from self (individual) ‘outwards’, stressing that people create society.

This perspective is sometimes referred to as ‘symbolic interactionism’. W.I. Thomas, George

Mead and Herbert Blumer were the most influential figures among the inter-actionists. Other
recent approaches, which also place emphasis on individual, are ethnomethodology and
phenomenology which is basically a philosophical perspective.

Symbolic interactionism emphasises the importance of symbolic means of communication—

language, gesture and dress etc. Inter-actionists fully accept that society does constrain and form
individuals but they also consider that there is invariably opportunity for some ‘creative’ action
(W.I. Thomas).

A prominent theorist of the last century, Talcott Parsons (1937, 1951) ignored the
American symbolic interactionists and tried to attempt a grand synthesis of individual action and
large-scale structure in his theory. But, his emphasis was heavily on the large-scale structure
(society).
He believed that it is the structure of society which determines roles and norms, and the
cultural system which determines the ultimate values of ends. His theory was severely criticised
by George Homans (1961). In his Presidential address (1964), “Bringing man Back In”, Homans
re-established the need to study individual social interactions, the building blocks of society.

A recent well-known theorist Anthony Giddens (1984) has not accepted the idea of some
sociologists that society has an existence over and above individuals. He argues: “Human actions
and their reactions are the only reality and we cannot regard societies or systems as having an
existence over and above individuals.”

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 Man and society- interrelationships Sociology is mainly concerned with the study of
society. Society refers to a complicated network of social relationships by which every human
being is interconnected with his fellow. Sociology gives stress on the interactions and
relationships among human beings. This relationships and interactions takes up to that of society.
Origin of society is as old as man itself. Society is the sum total of interactions among
individuals. When more than one individual live together, mutual relationships develop among
them, society is created. This process of mutual relationships and interactions creates among
them the spirit of mutual cooperation, harmony, competition, conflict and accommodation. Such
processes are continuously taking place in society. The relationships and interactions established
around these human activities create society. Hence, there exists a very close relationship
between man and society.

For the Development of Mind and Personality man lives in Society :

This is yet another reason for which man is a social animal. Society not only fulfills his
physical needs and determine his social nature but also determines his personality and guides the
course of development of human mind. Development of human mind and self is possible only
living in society. Society moulds out attitudes, beliefs, morals, ideals and thereby moulds
individual personality. With the course of living and with the process of socialization man’s
personality develops and he became a fully fledged individual. Man acquires a self or personality
only living in a society. From birth to death individual acquires different social qualities by
social interaction with his fellow beings which moulds his personality. Individual mind without
society remains undeveloped at infant stage. Society preserves and transmits culture to
succeeding generations. The cultural heritage determines man’s personality by moulding his
attitudes, beliefs, morals and ideals. With the help of social heritage man’s in born potentialities
are unfolded

Individual mind or individual self develops through interaction with others. Famous
sociologist Charles. H. Cooley opines Child’s conception of self develops by way of imagining
what others think about him through “looking glass self”. Famous Psychologist G.H. Mead
opines that self is social.

Besides Man acquires or learns education from society. This education plays an
important role in the development of human mind, self and personality. His potentialities
develop only within society. Thus, man for the development of his self, mind and personality
lives in society.

Thus, from the above discussion we conclude that Man is a social animal. His nature and
necessities makes him a social being. He also depends on society to be a human being. He
acquires personality within society. There exists a very close relationship between individual and
society like that of cells and body. Both are complementary and supplementary to each other.
There can be no society without individuals. Similarly individual can’t be a social animal unless
he lives in society. This close relationship and mutual dependence between society and
individual justify the famous statement of Aristotle that “Man is a social animal, He who lives
without society either a beast of God”.

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