101.

TCP does not support broadcast and multicast because:

a. It is a point-to-point protocol

b. Broadcasting doesn`t require reliability

c. Because network layer enforces this rule

d. The designers of TCP forgot to include TCP

e. None

The correct answer is a. It is a point-to-point protocol.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is designed to provide reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery
of packets between two hosts on a network. It establishes a connection between the sender and
receiver and ensures that data is transmitted accurately and in the correct order.

Unlike UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which supports broadcasting and multicasting, TCP operates in a
point-to-point fashion, meaning it establishes a direct connection between a sender and a receiver. This
design choice makes TCP unsuitable for broadcasting or multicasting, as it is intended for point-to-point
communication only.

102. What is the port number of SMTP protocol?

a. 21

b. 25

c. 55

d. 143

e. None

The correct answer is **b. 25**.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) uses port number 25 to send email messages between servers.

SMTP is the standard protocol used for sending emails across the internet. When an email client, such as
Outlook or Gmail, sends an email, it communicates with an SMTP server using port 25 by default. This
port is specifically reserved for SMTP traffic, allowing servers to reliably send email messages to one
another.

Port numbers are like virtual doors on a computer that different applications use to communicate with
each other. By using port 25, SMTP servers can ensure that email traffic is directed to the appropriate
destination and that messages are transmitted securely and reliably.

103. We know the size of a TCP header is 20 bytes. Why do we need to include header length on every
segment?

a. Header length might be changed during fragmentation

b. Header length depends on the bandwidth

c. Header lengths depends on the size of data field

d. Header lengths depends on optional fields

e. None

The correct answer is d. Header lengths depend on optional fields.

The TCP header can include optional fields such as the options field, which can vary in size. Therefore,
including the header length field in every segment allows the receiver to accurately determine the
length of the header, including any optional fields, ensuring proper parsing of the TCP segment. This is
crucial for effective communication between network devices.

104. Which one of the following is not network layer service?

a. Path determination

b. Forwarding

c. Call setup for virtual circuit networks

d. TCP connection establishment

The correct answer is: **d. TCP connection establishment**

Explanation: The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to the destination
across multiple networks. Path determination, forwarding, and call setup for virtual circuit networks are
all services provided by the network layer. However, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connection
establishment is typically handled at the transport layer (Layer 4 of the OSI model), not the network
layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model). Therefore, it is not a network layer service.

105. How many different host addresses (including broadcast address) are there in the subnet
10.132.10.0/28?

a. 4

b. 16

c. 28

d. 255

e. None

The subnet 10.132.10.0/28 is a Class C subnet with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240. In CIDR
notation, /28 means that the first 28 bits are network bits, leaving 32 - 28 = 4 bits for host addresses.

To find the number of host addresses (including the network and broadcast addresses), we subtract 2
from the total number of possible addresses because the network address (10.132.10.0) and the
broadcast address (10.132.10.15) cannot be assigned to hosts.

Therefore, the correct answer is:

b. 16

106. What is the motivation for implementing NAT?

a. IP address scarcity

b. Security

c. Network failure recovery

d. Routing algorithm

e. None

The correct answer is:

a. IP address scarcity
Network Address Translation (NAT) is primarily motivated by IP address scarcity. NAT allows multiple
devices within a local network to share a single public IP address, helping to conserve the limited pool of
available IPv4 addresses. This is particularly important as the demand for IP addresses has increased
with the growth of the internet and the proliferation of connected devices.

107. How man bits are used for IPv6 address?

a. 16 bits

b. 32 bits

c. 48 bits

d. 128 bits

e. None

The correct answer is:

d. 128 bits

Explanation: IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) addresses are composed of 128 bits. This expanded
address space compared to IPv4 (which uses 32-bit addresses) allows for a significantly larger number of
unique addresses, accommodating the growing number of devices connected to the internet.

108. Which one of the following does not have impact on congestion?

a. Routing algorithm

b. Packet life time

c. Packet queuing and servicing policy

d. Packet processing order

e. None

The correct answer is: e. None

All of the options listed - routing algorithm, packet life time, packet queuing and servicing policy, and
packet processing order - can have an impact on congestion within a network. Therefore, none of them
can be said to have no impact on congestion.

109. From the four QoS parameters, email is highly sensitive to:

a. Reliability

b. Delay

c. Jitter

d. Bandwidth

e. None

Email is highly sensitive to delay.

Unlike real-time communication such as voice or video calls, email communication does not typically
require immediate delivery. However, emails are expected to be delivered within a reasonable
timeframe. Delay-sensitive applications, like email, are impacted by the time it takes for messages to
travel from the sender to the recipient. Users expect their emails to be delivered promptly, and any
significant delays can lead to frustration and impact productivity.

Factors that contribute to delay in email delivery include network congestion, server load, and routing
inefficiencies. Therefore, ensuring low latency and minimizing delays in email transmission is crucial for
maintaining a satisfactory user experience.

110. ICMP protocol is applicable at :

a. Physical layer

b. Data link layer

c. Network layer

d. Transport layer

e. None

The correct answer is: c. Network layer

Explanation: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network layer protocol used for sending
error messages and operational information indicating problems with the communication or network
infrastructure. It operates alongside the IP (Internet Protocol) and is primarily utilized for diagnostics
and troubleshooting purposes within the network layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model. Therefore, ICMP protocol is applicable at the network layer.

111. Which one of the following is not a service provided by link layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack?

a. Framing and link access

b. Reliable delivery from end-host to end-host

c. Flow control between directly connected nodes

d. Error detection and correction between directly connected nodes

e. None

The correct answer is:

b. Reliable delivery from end-host to end-host

Explanation:

The link layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack primarily focuses on tasks such as framing and link access,
flow control between directly connected nodes, and error detection and correction between directly
connected nodes. Reliable delivery is typically a responsibility of the transport layer, which ensures that
data is delivered reliably from one end-host to another.

112. What do you call the PDU at the link layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack?

a. Datagram

b. Segment

c. Message

d. Frame

e. None

The correct answer is: d. Frame

Explanation: At the link layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack, the PDU (Protocol Data Unit) is called a
"Frame." A frame is a formatted unit of data that is transmitted over a network and includes control
information, as well as the actual data being transmitted.

113. Which one of the following is not a multiple access protocol of shared media?

a. Channel partitioning

b. Point-to-point protocol

c. Random access protocol

d. Taking turns

e. None

The correct answer is b. Point-to-point protocol.

Explanation:

Point-to-point protocol is not a multiple access protocol for shared media. It is a communication
protocol used for establishing and maintaining direct communication links between two devices,
typically over a dedicated communication channel. In contrast, multiple access protocols are designed
for shared communication channels where multiple devices need to access the medium simultaneously.
Options a, c, and d represent different types of multiple access protocols, while option e indicates that
none of the given options is correct in this context.

114. Time Division Multiple access is:

a. Channel partitioning protocol

b. Point-to-point protocol

c. Random access protocol

d. Taking turns

e. None

The correct answer is:

a. Channel partitioning protocol

Explanation:
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel partitioning protocol. It divides the communication
channel into time slots, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency band by taking turns
transmitting within their assigned time slot. This method is efficient for managing and utilizing the
available communication resources in a time-based manner.

115. What is ARP?

a. Address Routing Protocol

b. Access Resource Protocol

c. Active Routing Protocol

d. Address Resolution Protocol

e. None

The correct answer is:

d. Address Resolution Protocol

Explanation:

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is a protocol used for mapping an IP address to a physical
machine address that is recognized in the local network. In other words, it resolves the layer 3 (IP
address) to layer 2 (MAC address) address. This is essential for communication between devices within a
local area network (LAN).

116. What type of medium is commonly used by Gigabit Ethernet?

a. UTP cable

b. Coaxial cable

c. Fiber optic

d. Bluetooth

e. None

The correct answer is c. Fiber optic

Gigabit Ethernet commonly uses fiber optic cables to transmit data at high speeds. Fiber optic cables
offer greater bandwidth and data transmission capabilities compared to other mediums like UTP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable, coaxial cable, and Bluetooth, making them suitable for Gigabit Ethernet
networks.

117. Layer-2 devices are plug-and-play and no configuration is required because:

a. They are difficult to configure

b. They are all-knowing devices

c. Manufacturing companies don't distribute the password

d. Most of them are wireless

e. None

The correct answer is e. None.

Layer-2 devices, such as switches, operate at the data link layer of the OSI model. They are designed to
be plug-and-play, meaning they can be simply connected to a network without the need for extensive
configuration. This is because Layer-2 devices typically use protocols like Ethernet, which automatically
handle tasks like addressing and frame forwarding without requiring manual configuration. Therefore,
there is no need for configuration due to their inherent functionality, not because they are difficult to
configure, "all-knowing," password-protected, or wireless.

118. What is an Ad-hoc wireless network?

A. A wireless communication with central server for authentication

B. A wireless technology with Gigabit backbone to datacenter

C. A wireless technology with peer-to-peer setup without center device

D. A wireless communication between a client and a stationary access point.

E. None

The correct answer is C. An ad-hoc wireless network is a type of wireless technology where devices
communicate directly with each other without the need for a central access point or server. This setup
allows for peer-to-peer communication among devices within the network without relying on a
centralized infrastructure.

119. Which topology requires a dedicated point-to-point connection between only the two neighboring
devices.
A. Star

B. Bus

C. Mesh

D. Ring

The correct answer is D. Ring.

In a ring topology, each device is connected directly to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop
or ring. This topology requires a dedicated point-to-point connection between only the two neighboring
devices, as data travels in one direction around the ring. Therefore, each device has a direct connection
only to its immediate neighbors, unlike in other topologies where there may be multiple connections or
a central point of connection.

120. If one computer becomes a at one time and remains a server at another time, such a network
application architecture is called

A. Ring topology

B. Bus topology

C. Client/server

D. Peer-to-peer

The correct answer is C. Client/server.

In a client/server network application architecture, one computer (the server) provides resources or
services to other computers (clients) in the network. The server is dedicated to serving the clients by
responding to their requests and managing shared resources. This architecture is commonly used in
various network setups where a central server facilitates communication and resource sharing among
multiple client devices.

121. Transmission impairment that refers to loss of strength of a signal is

A. Attenuation

B. Distortion

C. Noise

D. None
The correct answer is:

A. Attenuation

Explanation: Attenuation specifically refers to the loss of strength or intensity of a signal as it travels
through a medium. This loss can occur due to various factors such as absorption, scattering, or reflection
of the signal. Attenuation is a fundamental concept in signal transmission and is distinct from distortion
and noise, which refer to other types of signal impairments.

122. defines how a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.

A. Syntax

C. Accuracy

B. Semantics

D. Reliability

The correct answer is B. Semantics.

Semantics refers to the meaning conveyed by a particular pattern or arrangement of symbols. It defines
how a particular pattern is interpreted and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation. In
other words, semantics deals with the understanding of language or symbols in a specific context.
Syntax, on the other hand, focuses on the structure or arrangement of symbols within a language, while
accuracy and reliability are related to the correctness and consistency of the interpretation respectively.

123. Which service of a data-link layer imposes a mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver by
sending too much data which can't be absorbed by the receiver?

A. Flow control

C. Access control

B. Error control

D. Framing

The correct answer is A. Flow control.

Flow control is a service provided by the data-link layer that ensures the sender does not overwhelm the
receiver by transmitting data at a rate faster than the receiver can process it. This mechanism helps to
prevent data loss or congestion in the network. Flow control techniques include buffering, windowing,
and pacing to regulate the flow of data between sender and receiver.

124. Which of the following networks uses very expensive network equipment/infrastructure and can be
managed by multiple administrations.

A. MAN

C. WAN

B. LAN

D. None

The correct answer is C. WAN (Wide Area Network).

A Wide Area Network (WAN) typically spans a large geographical area and connects multiple local area
networks (LANs) or metropolitan area networks (MANs) together. WANs often use very expensive
network equipment and infrastructure due to the extensive coverage and the need to support high-
speed data transmission over long distances. Additionally, WANs can be managed by multiple
administrations, allowing for collaboration and coordination among different organizations or entities
that share the network resources.

125. In a synchronous transmission, the transmitter and receiver pace are

A. Zero

C. Variable

B. Fixed

D. A function of the data rate

B. Fixed

Explanation: In synchronous transmission, the transmitter and receiver pace, or timing, are fixed. This
means that both devices operate based on a predetermined clock signal or timing mechanism, ensuring
that data is transmitted and received at a consistent rate. This fixed timing allows for efficient
communication between the transmitter and receiver without the need for constant synchronization
adjustments.

126. What is the signal encoding for Fiber optics cable?

A. Electrical impulses

C. Pulses of light

B. Electromagnetic waves

D. Radio waves

The correct answer is C. Pulses of light.

Fiber optics cables use pulses of light to encode signals for transmission. Light signals are sent through
the optical fibers, allowing for high-speed data transmission over long distances with minimal signal loss.

127. Communication between a computer and a keyboard is an example of transmission.

A. Half-duplex

C. Simplex

B. Full-duplex

D. Automatic

The correct answer is B. Full-duplex.

Explanation: Full-duplex communication allows data to be transmitted in both directions simultaneously.

In the context of communication between a computer and a keyboard, this means that both the
computer and the keyboard can send and receive data at the same time. This is necessary for real-time
interaction, such as typing on a keyboard and seeing the characters appear on the screen instantly.

128. Circuit switching takes place at the layer.

A. Data link

C. Network

B. Physical

D. Transport

The correct answer is B. Physical.

Circuit switching occurs at the Physical layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. The
Physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between
devices. Circuit switching involves establishing a dedicated communication path between two nodes
before the actual data transfer occurs, and this process of setting up and tearing down the circuit
happens at the Physical layer.

129. In , the resources need to be reserved during setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the
entire duration of data transfer phase until the teardown phase.

A. Packet switching

C. Datagram switching

B. Circuit switching

D. None of the above

The correct answer is B. Circuit switching. In circuit switching, resources are reserved during the setup
phase and remain dedicated for the entire duration of the data transfer phase until the teardown phase.

130. The process of transmitting two or more different signals simultaneously on the same medium is
called

A. Switching

C. Segmentation

B. Layering

D. None

The correct answer is A. Switching.

Switching is the process of transmitting two or more different signals simultaneously on the same
medium. This can be achieved through various techniques such as time-division multiplexing (TDM) or
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), where multiple signals are combined and transmitted over a
shared communication channel. This allows for efficient use of the communication medium by enabling
multiple signals to be transmitted concurrently.

The correct answer is A. Switching.

Switching is the process of transmitting two or more different signals simultaneously on the same
medium. This can be achieved through various techniques such as time-division multiplexing (TDM) or
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), where multiple signals are combined and transmitted over a
shared communication channel. This allows for efficient use of the communication medium by enabling
multiple signals to be transmitted concurrently.

131. In , resources are allocated on demand.

A. Datagram switching

C. Message switching

B. Circuit switching

D. None of the above

The correct answer is A. Datagram switching.

Datagram switching is a networking technique where resources are allocated on demand. In datagram
switching, data packets are forwarded independently based on their destination addresses without the
need for a pre-established communication path. This allows for more efficient resource utilization and
flexibility in handling varying network traffic patterns.

132. Every NIC has a unique serial number called a

A. WAN

C. IP address

B. MAC address

D. Default gateway

132. Correct Answer: B. MAC address

Explanation: Every NIC (Network Interface Card) has a unique serial number called a MAC (Media Access
Control) address. This address is assigned by the manufacturer and is used for identifying devices on a
network at the data link layer of the OSI model.

133. A network where there is no resource reservation is called

A. Circuit-Switched Networks

C. Packet-switched networks

B. message-switched networks
D. Satellite network

The correct answer is C. Packet-switched networks.

Explanation: In a packet-switched network, data is divided into packets, which are then routed
individually to their destination. Unlike circuit-switched networks, where a dedicated communication
path is established and reserved for the duration of the communication session, packet-switched
networks do not reserve resources beforehand. Instead, they dynamically allocate resources as needed,
making them more flexible and efficient in handling varying traffic loads.

134. In IEEE 802.11 frames, the value of 11 and its distribution system is

A. Local Area Network

C. Metropolitan Network

B. Wireless Area Network

D. None of the given

The correct answer is B. Wireless Area Network.

IEEE 802.11 frames are used in Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), making option B, "Wireless Area
Network," the correct choice. These frames are specifically designed for wireless communication within
a local area network environment, allowing devices to connect and communicate wirelessly within a
specific coverage area.

135. The standard describes the upper part of the data link layer.

A. IEEE 802.2

C. IEEE 802.11

B. IEEE 802.3

D. IEEE 802.5

The correct answer is A. IEEE 802.2.

IEEE 802.2 is a standard that defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer. The LLC
sublayer is responsible for providing a common interface and addressing scheme for the different
network protocols that operate at the network layer. It plays a crucial role in managing communication
between devices on a network and ensures proper data link layer functionality.

136. protocol is widely used on LAN in the MAC sub layer.

A. CSMA/CA

C. \( \mathrm{CSMA} / \mathrm{CD} \)

B. TCP

D. GSM

The correct answer is:

C. \( \mathrm{CSMA} / \mathrm{CD} \)

Explanation:

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a protocol used on Local Area
Networks (LANs) in the MAC (Medium Access Control) sublayer. It is specifically designed to manage
access to the shared communication medium to avoid collisions and ensure efficient data transmission
in Ethernet networks.

137. are wireless network standard with a data rate of only \( 11 \mathrm{Mbps} \).

A. IEEE 802.11a

C. IEEE803.11a

B. IEEE \( 803.11 \mathrm{~g} \)

D. IEEE802.1 lb

IEEE 802.11b is a wireless network standard that operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency range and has a
maximum data rate of 11 Mbps. This standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, was one of the earliest widely
adopted wireless networking standards. It uses the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance) protocol to manage access to the shared communication medium.

The "b" in IEEE 802.11b signifies the version of the standard. It uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) modulation to transmit data over the airwaves. Despite its relatively lower data rate compared to
later standards like 802.11g and 802.11n, IEEE 802.11b played a significant role in popularizing wireless
networking and enabling the proliferation of Wi-Fi technology in homes, businesses, and public spaces.

It operates on the same 2.4 GHz frequency band as other Wi-Fi standards, which can lead to potential
interference issues in environments with multiple wireless devices. Over time, newer Wi-Fi standards
with higher data rates and improved features have been introduced to address the growing demands of
wireless connectivity.

138. Wireless transmission can be done via

A. Radio waves

C. Infrared

B. Microwaves

D. All of the mentioned

AnswerD

The correct answer is D. All of the mentioned.

Explanation:

Wireless transmission can indeed be accomplished through various means, including radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared. Each of these methods has its own advantages and applications, making them
suitable for different scenarios.

1. **Radio waves**: These are commonly used for long-distance communication and are the foundation
of technologies such as AM/FM radio, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

2. **Microwaves**: These are utilized in point-to-point communication links, such as satellite

communication, and also in microwave ovens. They offer high bandwidth and can carry large amounts of
data over long distances.

3. **Infrared**: Infrared waves are commonly used for short-range communication, such as remote
controls for TVs, DVDs, and other electronic devices. Infrared communication requires a direct line of
sight between the transmitter and receiver.
By utilizing these different transmission mediums, wireless communication technologies can meet a
wide range of requirements, from short-range control applications to long-distance data transmission.
Therefore, option D, All of the mentioned, is the correct choice.

139. The wireless LAN specification is defined by IEEE, called, which covers the data link and physical
layer

A. IEEEE 802.2

C. IEEE 802.3

B. IEEE 802.11

D. IEEE 802.5

The correct answer is:

B. IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is the specification that covers wireless LANs (Local Area Networks), defining the protocols
for implementing wireless communication in the data link and physical layers of the OSI model.

140. is the most widely used local area network protocol.

A. Token Ring

C. Ethernet

B. Token Bus

D. none of the above

The correct answer is:

C. Ethernet

Ethernet is the most widely used local area network (LAN) protocol. It is a widely adopted networking
technology that uses a bus or star topology and operates over twisted-pair, coaxial, or fiber-optic cables.

141. What command would you use on a windows system to find your IP address at the command line?
A. ifconfig

B. ipconfig

C. intconfig

D. Addconfig

The correct answer is:

B. ipconfig

Explanation: On a Windows system, you would use the "ipconfig" command at the command line to find
your IP address. This command displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values, including IP
address, subnet mask, and default gateway.

142. is the process of separating network functions in communication environment.

A. Segmentation

C. Layering Task

B. Encapsulation

D. Internetworking

The correct answer is C. Layering Task.

Layering is the process of separating network functions in a communication environment. It involves

organizing network protocols and functionalities into different layers, each responsible for specific tasks.
This helps in modularizing the network architecture, making it more manageable and scalable.

143. In , the resources need to be reserved during setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the
entire duration of data transfer phase until the teardown phase.

A. Packet switching

C. Datagram switching

B. Circuit switching

D. None of the above

The correct answer is B. Circuit switching.

Circuit switching involves reserving resources during the setup phase, and these resources remain
dedicated for the entire duration of the data transfer phase until the teardown phase. This ensures a
continuous connection between the communicating parties throughout the communication session.
Packet switching, on the other hand, does not require resource reservation and operates by dividing
data into packets that can take different routes to reach their destination.

144. Which processes does TCP, but not UDP, use?

A. a. Windowing

B. b. Acknowledgements

C. c. Both a and b

D. d. Destination Port

The correct answer is **C. Both a and b**.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) uses both windowing and acknowledgements processes, whereas
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) does not.

1. **Windowing**: TCP utilizes a flow control mechanism known as windowing, which allows for the
adjustment of the amount of data transmitted before requiring an acknowledgment. This helps in
optimizing the transmission process and preventing network congestion.

2. **Acknowledgements**: TCP requires acknowledgements to ensure reliable delivery of data. After

sending a segment of data, TCP expects an acknowledgment from the receiving end confirming
successful receipt. This ensures that data is successfully delivered and enables TCP to retransmit
segments if they are lost or corrupted.

Both of these processes contribute to the reliability and error recovery mechanisms of TCP,
distinguishing it from UDP, which does not provide these features.

145. A network administrator is connecting hosts A and B directly through their Ethernet interfaces, as
shown in the illustration. Ping attempts between the hosts are failed. What could be the reason for the
disconnectivity between these nodes?
A. The two IP addresses are located in different subnets

B. The connection path (physical path) is inappropriate

C. Due to the class of the network

D. There is no problem in the given network

B. The connection path (physical path) is inappropriate

The most likely reason for the failed ping attempts between hosts A and B is an issue with the physical
connection or path between them. This could include problems such as a faulty cable, misconfigured
connectors, or issues with the network interface cards (NICs) on the hosts. Checking and ensuring the
proper physical connectivity between the hosts would be a logical step in troubleshooting the
connectivity problem.

146. For which of the following would you not need to provide a crossover cable?

A. Connecting uplinks between Switches

B. Connecting Computers to Routers

C. Connecting Routers to Switches

D. Connecting Hubs to Switches

The correct answer is D. Connecting Hubs to Switches.

You typically don't need a crossover cable when connecting hubs to switches because switches and hubs
use the same type of ports (usually Ethernet ports), so a straight-through cable will suffice for
connecting them.

A crossover cable is typically used when connecting devices of the same type, like two computers
directly to each other (option B), or when connecting switches to switches (option A) or routers to
switches (option C), because these devices use different wiring schemes for their ports.

147. Which of the following wireless media used for Remote controls for TVs and Indoor wireless LANs.

A. Microwaves

B. Radio waves

C. Infrared waves
D. Wi-fi

The correct answer is C. Infrared waves.

Infrared waves are commonly used for remote controls for TVs and indoor wireless LANs (Local Area
Networks). These waves are ideal for short-range communication, such as controlling devices in the
same room, and they do not interfere with other wireless signals.

148. refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning and the order in which they are presented in
data communication.

A. Syntax

C. Semantics

B. Timing

D. All of the above

Answer(B) syntax

149. What is the signal encoding for each Fiber optics cable?

A. Electrical impulses

C. Radio waves

B. Pulses of light

D. . Electromagnetic waves

The correct answer is:

B. Pulses of light

Fiber optic cables transmit data using pulses of light, making them an efficient and fast means of
communication. Light signals travel through the fiber optic cable, bouncing off the walls due to total
internal reflection, thus preserving the signal integrity over long distances. This method of signal
encoding allows for high-speed data transmission with minimal loss or interference.

150. Transmission impairment that refers to changes of format/shape of a signal is

A. Attenuation
C. Noise

B. Distortion

D. None

The correct answer is B. Distortion.

Distortion refers to any change in the shape or form of a signal as it travels through a communication
channel. This alteration can result from various factors such as interference, non-linearities in the
channel, or limitations of the transmission medium. Attenuation specifically refers to the weakening of a
signal as it propagates, while noise refers to any unwanted random interference added to the signal.
Therefore, distortion best describes the transmission impairment related to changes in the format or
shape of a signal.

151. The range of addresses that can be used in the first octet of Class D addresses are

A. \( 192-223 \)

C. \( 224-239 \)

B. \( 240-255 \)

D. 8128-191

152 .

What is the prefix length notation for the subnet mask 255.255 .255 .248 ?

The correct answer is:

C. \( 224-239 \)

Class D addresses are reserved for multicast addresses in IPv4. The range of addresses that can be used
in the first octet of Class D addresses is from 224 to 239. These addresses are used for multicasting,
which allows one-to-many or many-to-many communication over an IP network.

152. What is the prefix length notation for the subnet mask 255.255 .255 .248 ?

A. \( / 30 \)

B. \( / 27 \)
C. \( / 28 \)

D. \( / 29 \)

The subnet mask 255.255.255.248 in prefix length notation represents a total of 5 bits allocated for the
network portion. To find the prefix length, count the number of consecutive 1s in the subnet mask,
which in this case is 29 bits.

Therefore, the correct answer is:

D. \( / 29 \)

153. To which class this IP address 241.0.200.141 belongs?

A. Class B

C. Class E

B. Class A

D. Class D

153. The IP address 241.0.200.141 belongs to Class E. Class E addresses are reserved for experimental or
research purposes and are not intended for general use. They fall within the range of 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.254.

154 . is a networking technique that enables us to transfer two or more different data signals
simultaneously on the same communication channel.

A. Switching

C. Multiplexing

B. Layering Task

D. None

The correct answer is C. Multiplexing.

Multiplexing is a networking technique that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple data
signals over the same communication channel. It enables efficient utilization of the available bandwidth
by combining different signals for transmission and then separating them at the receiving end. This
process is essential for optimizing communication channels and increasing overall network efficiency.

155. Which one of the following is true regarding multiplexing techniques?

A. In TDM all the signals operate at the same time with different frequencies

B. In FDM all the signals operate with same frequency at different times

C. Multiplexing is sharing of a medium and its link by several devices

D All

The correct answer is:

C. Multiplexing is sharing of a medium and its link by several devices

Explanation:

Multiplexing involves combining multiple signals or data streams into a single channel or medium for
transmission. Option C accurately describes multiplexing as the sharing of a medium and its link by
several devices.

156. Which one of the following is different from the other?

A. 172.16 .35 .12

B. 188.17 .12 .14

C. 130.17 .12 .24

D. 126.17 .12 .254

The correct answer is D. 126.17.12.254.

The other options (A, B, and C) share a similar structure where the first three octets represent private IP
addresses commonly used within local networks, such as Class B private IP addresses. However, option
D, 126.17.12.254, does not fall within the range of private IP addresses. Instead, it belongs to a public IP
address range.

157. refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically

A. Line configuration

B. Topology
C. Transmission mode

D. Modulation mode

The correct answer is B. Topology.

Explanation: Topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. It defines the
arrangement of nodes and the connections between them in a network. The different types of network
topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid configurations.

158. Which of the following is a basic network topology?

A. A Star

B. Mesh

C. Ring

D. all of the above

The correct answer is D. all of the above.

Explanation:

A star, mesh, and ring are all examples of basic network topologies:

- A Star Topology: In this topology, all nodes (computers or devices) are connected to a central hub or
switch. The central hub acts as a point of connection for all devices, and communication between
devices typically passes through this central hub.

- A Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, every node is connected to every other node in the network.
This provides redundant paths for data transmission, increasing reliability and fault tolerance.

- A Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a
closed loop or ring. Data travels in one direction around the ring until it reaches its destination.

So, all of the options (A, B, and C) represent basic network topologies.
159. Which of the following is a basic network topology?

E. A. Tree

F. B. point-to-point

G. C. multipoint

H. D. all of the above

The correct answer is E. Tree.

Explanation: A Tree topology is a basic network topology that combines characteristics of both Star and
Bus topologies. It consists of a central hub or switch, to which branches (nodes or other networking
devices) are connected in a hierarchical structure, forming a tree-like layout.

160. Which of the following is a basic network topology?

A half-duplex

B. multipoint

C. ring

D. all of the above

The correct answer is C. ring.

Explanation:

A network topology refers to the layout pattern of interconnections between devices in a network. In a
ring topology, devices are connected in a circular manner, where each device is connected to exactly
two other devices, forming a single continuous pathway for data transmission. This topology is
characterized by its simplicity and reliability. Therefore, "ring" is the basic network topology among the
options provided.

Options A (half-duplex) and B (multipoint) refer to different concepts in networking and do not
represent basic network topologies. Option D (all of the above) is incorrect because not all the options
listed are basic network topologies.

161. In a relationship, the link is shared equally between devices

I. A. peer-to-peer
J. B. point-to-point

K. C. primary-secondary

L. D. master-slave

The correct answer is A. peer-to-peer.

In a peer-to-peer relationship, devices are considered equal in terms of their roles and capabilities. Each
device has the ability to both send and receive data, and there is no central authority or hierarchy
among them. This setup allows for decentralized communication and sharing of resources between the
devices.

162. In a relationship, one device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it

M. A. peer-to-peer

N. B. point-to-point

O. C. primary-secondary

P. D. full duplex

The correct answer is C. primary-secondary.

In a primary-secondary relationship, one device acts as the primary, controlling the traffic flow, while
the others act as secondary devices that must transmit data through the primary device. This setup is
often used in networking environments where there is a designated central device (the primary) that
manages the communication flow among multiple secondary devices.

163. An Unauthorized access is network issue

a. Performance

b. Reliability

c. Security

d. Accountability

The correct answer is:

c. Security
Unauthorized access typically falls under the category of security issues in a network context. It refers to
the act of gaining access to a system or network without proper authorization or permission. This can
lead to various security breaches and compromises, making it a significant concern for network
administrators and organizations.

164. The rules that govern data communication is called

a. Syntax

b. Protocol

c. Standards

d. Semantics

The correct answer is b. Protocol.

Explanation:

Protocols are the set of rules that govern the exchange of data between devices in a network. They
define the format, timing, sequencing, and error control mechanisms necessary for reliable
communication. While the other options (Syntax, Standards, Semantics) are related to aspects of
communication or data processing, they do not specifically refer to the rules that govern data
communication like protocols do.

165. Topology that is multi-point is

a. Star

b. Mesh

c. Ring

d. Bus

The correct answer is:

a. Star

Explanation:
In a star topology, multiple devices are connected to a central hub or switch, forming a multi-point
configuration. Each device in the network is connected to the central hub, allowing for efficient
communication. This topology is commonly used in local area networks (LANs) due to its simplicity and
ease of management.

166. As the frequency increases the period

a. Increases

b. Remains unchanged

c. Decreases

d. Changes inconsistently

The correct answer is:

c. Decreases

Explanation: The period of a wave is inversely proportional to its frequency. As the frequency of a wave
increases, the period decreases. This relationship is described by the formula: Period (T) = 1 / Frequency
(f). Therefore, as frequency increases, the period decreases.

167. Error Control is a function of

a. Physical Layer

b. Network Layer

c. Datalink Layer

d. None of the above

The correct answer is c. Datalink Layer. Error control is a function of the Datalink Layer in the OSI model.
This layer ensures reliable transmission of data over the physical layer by detecting and correcting errors
that may occur during transmission. It involves techniques such as checksums, acknowledgments, and
retransmissions to ensure data integrity and reliability.

168. HDLC is

a. High Density Layer Control

b. High Definition Layer Control

c. High-level Data Link Control

d. None of the above

The correct answer is:

c. High-level Data Link Control

Explanation: HDLC stands for High-level Data Link Control. It is a bit-oriented protocol for
communication over point-to-point and multipoint links. HDLC is commonly used in synchronous data
transmission and provides reliable and efficient data transmission between nodes in a network.

168. HDLC is

a. High Density Layer Control

b. High Definition Layer Control

c. High-level Data Link Control

d. None of the above

The correct answer is:

c. High-level Data Link Control

Explanation:

HDLC stands for High-level Data Link Control. It is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-
to-point and multipoint links. HDLC is commonly used in networking protocols and is often employed in
wide area network (WAN) connections.

169. Checksum is used to

a. Detect errors in the data

b. Recover the data from errors

c. Both \( \mathrm{a} \) and \( \mathrm{b} \).

d. None of the above

The correct answer is option a. "Detect errors in the data."

Checksums are used to detect errors in data transmission or storage. They work by generating a
checksum value based on the data being transmitted or stored, and this value is then compared to the
checksum calculated at the receiving end. If the two checksums match, it indicates that the data has
been transmitted or stored correctly. If they don't match, it suggests that errors have occurred during
transmission or storage. Checksums do not, however, facilitate data recovery; they simply help in
identifying errors.

170. Go-Back-N Protocol ensures

a. Retransmission of all frames

b. Retransmission of only corrupted frames

c. Retransmission of corrupted frames and subsequent frames.

d. All the above

171. A Local Area Network(LAN ) is confined to

a. Large area

b. Small area

c. Both a and b.

d. None of the above

The correct answer is: b. Small area.

Explanation: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small geographic
area, such as a single building or a campus. It typically covers a small area, such as an office, home, or
group of buildings close together. LANs are designed to facilitate communication and resource sharing
among devices in close proximity to each other. Therefore, option b, "Small area," is the correct choice.

172. Baseband LAN is a

a. Single channel, analog LAN

b. Multichannel, analog LAN

c. Single channel, digital LAN

d. Multichannel, digital LAN

The correct answer is c. Single channel, digital LAN.

Baseband LAN operates on a single channel and uses digital signaling for communication. Unlike
broadband LAN, which can transmit multiple signals simultaneously using different frequency channels,
baseband LAN transmits data using only one channel. Additionally, baseband LAN uses digital encoding,
which means it represents data using binary signals (0s and 1s), making it more reliable and less prone
to interference compared to analog signals.

173. IEEE 802.2 standard works on

a. Connectionless mode

b. Connection-oriented mode

c. Both \( \mathrm{a} \) and \( \mathrm{b} \).

d. None of the above.

The correct answer is:

c. Both a and b.

Explanation:

IEEE 802.2 standard operates on both connectionless mode and connection-oriented mode. It defines
the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer in the OSI model, which supports both
connectionless and connection-oriented communication. Therefore, IEEE 802.2 standard encompasses
both modes of communication.

174. Size of source address field iu an Ethernet frame is

a. 2 bytes

b. 6 bytes

c. 4 bytes

d. 3 bytes

The correct answer is b. 6 bytes.

In an Ethernet frame, the source address field is 6 bytes long. This field contains the MAC (Media Access
Control) address of the device that originated the frame. The MAC address uniquely identifies each
device on a network segment. Therefore, the correct option is b.
175. In which type of switching all packets of a message follow same channel

a. Datagram packet switching

b. Virtual circuit switching

c. Message switching

d. None of the above.

The correct answer is b. Virtual circuit switching.

In virtual circuit switching, once a connection is established between the sender and receiver, all packets
of a message follow the same channel, which is predetermined during the setup phase. This approach
ensures that packets are delivered in order and without the need for addressing information in every
packet, leading to efficient data transmission. In contrast, in datagram packet switching, each packet is
treated independently and can take different routes to reach the destination, while in message
switching, the entire message is forwarded as a unit, potentially leading to slower transmission times
and less efficient network utilization.

176. is a device that connects \( \mathrm{n} \) inputs to \( \mathrm{m} \) outputs.

a. Modem

b. Cross point

c. Cross bar

d. RAM

The correct answer is c. Cross bar.

A crossbar is a device that connects \( \mathrm{n} \) inputs to \( \mathrm{m} \) outputs. It is commonly

used in electronic and telecommunication systems to manage routing and switching of signals. Crossbars
are often utilized in various applications, such as in networking switches, telecommunication switches,
and digital circuit designs, where multiple inputs need to be connected to multiple outputs efficiently
and flexibly.

177. How many OSI layers are covered in X. 25 standard?

a. Two

b. Three
c. Six

d. Seven

The correct answer is:

c. Six

Explanation:

The X.25 standard covers the first three layers (Physical, Data Link, and Network) of the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model, which are essential for network communication. The upper layers
(Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application) are not specified by the X.25 standard.

178. is a unique identifier which indicates a particular Virtual Circuit on a network.

a. Virtual Channel number

b. Virtual Path identifier

c. Virtual Channel identifier

d. None of the above

The correct answer is c. Virtual Channel identifier.

Virtual Channel identifier (VCI) is a unique identifier that indicates a particular Virtual Circuit on a
network. It helps in distinguishing different channels within a virtual circuit, allowing for efficient routing
and management of network traffic.

179. An IP address consists of bits.

a. 4

b. 8

c. 32

d. Any of the above

The correct answer is: c. 32

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IPv4 addresses consist of 32 bits, typically
represented as four octets separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1). Each octet represents 8 bits, totaling
32 bits for the entire address. IPv6, on the other hand, uses 128-bit addresses.

180. Identify the class of IP address 191.1.2.3

a. Class A

b. Class B

c. Class C

d. Class D

The correct answer is:

a. Class A

Explanation:

In the given IP address 191.1.2.3, the first octet (191) falls within the range of Class A addresses, which
are defined as having a first octet range from 1 to 126.

181. An ARP reply is to

a. Unicast; one host

b. Unicast; all hosts

c. Multicast; One host

d. Broadcast; all host

The correct answer is:

a. Unicast; one host

An ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) reply is sent as a unicast message to the specific host that initiated
the ARP request. The reply contains the MAC address corresponding to the IP address in the request,
and it is directed only to the requesting host.

182. Which of the following function does UDP perform?

a. Process to process communication

b. Host to host communication

c. End to end reliable data delivery

d. All the above

The correct answer is b. Host to host communication. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a transport layer
protocol that provides a connectionless and unreliable communication between hosts. It does not
guarantee end-to-end reliable data delivery like TCP, and it is commonly used for applications where low
latency is more critical than guaranteed delivery.

183. Out-of-band data is called.

A. The urgent data

B. The lost dataP

C. Internet data

D. None of the above

The correct answer is A. The urgent data.

Out-of-band data refers to data that is sent separately from the main data stream and is typically used
for urgent or priority information. This data is often signaled separately from the regular data flow to
ensure immediate attention or processing. Therefore, it is commonly referred to as "the urgent data."

184. The maximum size of an IP datagram is

A. 65,537

B. 65,536

C. 65,538

D. None of the above

The correct answer is B. 65,536.

Explanation: The maximum size of an IP datagram is determined by the Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU) of the underlying network. The MTU specifies the maximum size of a packet that can be
transmitted over the network without fragmentation. For IPv4, the maximum size of an IP datagram,
including the IP header, is 65,536 bytes.

185. How many layers in XNS?

1. 5

2. 6

3. 4

4. None of the above

The correct answer is 2. 6. XNS, or Xerox Network Systems, typically consists of six layers, including the
Physical, Data Link, Routing, Transport, Session, and Application layers. These layers facilitate
communication within the XNS architecture, providing various functionalities such as data transmission,
routing, and session management.

186. What are the nodes of SNA?

A. End-user

B. Logical Unit

C. Physical Unit and Datalink

D. all of the above

The correct answer is D. all of the above.

In Social Network Analysis (SNA), nodes represent individual actors within the network. These actors can
be various entities depending on the context of the analysis. In the context of computer networks,
nodes can include end-users, logical units (such as computers or devices), physical units (hardware
components), and datalink connections. Therefore, all of the options listed (end-users, logical units,
physical units, and datalink) are types of nodes that can be present in a network when conducting SNA.

187. The maximum size of an IP datagram is

A. 65,537

B. 65,536

C. 65,538

D. None of the above

The correct answer is B. 65,536.

Explanation:
The maximum size of an IP datagram, including both the header and the data, is 65,536 bytes. This value
is determined by the 16-bit length field in the IP header, which allows for a maximum value of 2^16 - 1 =
65,535. However, this includes the 20-byte IP header, leaving 65,536 bytes for the data payload.
Therefore, option B is the correct answer.

188. How many layers in XNS?

A. 5

B. 6

C. 4

The correct answer is B. 6.

XNS (Xerox Network Systems) typically consists of six layers. These layers include the Physical, Link,
Internetwork, Transport, Session, and Presentation layers. Each layer serves a specific function in the
communication process within the XNS protocol suite.

189. What are the nodes of SNA?

A. End-user

B. Logical Unit

C. Physical Unit and Datalink

D. all of the above

The correct answer is A. End-user. In Social Network Analysis (SNA), nodes represent entities, and in this
context, end-users are the entities being considered.

190. SNA network is classified into two types. They are.

A. Subarea Network and APPN(Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN))

B. Only Sub area Network

C. Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN)

D. None of the above

The correct answer is A. Subarea Network and APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking).
Subarea Network (SNA) is a term used in IBM systems networking to refer to a network that is
connected to a mainframe computer. It can be further classified into two types: Subarea Network and
APPN. Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN) is a specific protocol suite within SNA that enables
peer-to-peer communication between devices in a network, allowing for more efficient and dynamic
routing of data. Therefore, option A is the correct answer as it accurately identifies the two types of SNA
networks.

The correct answer is A. Subarea Network and APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking).

Subarea Network (SNA) is a term used in IBM systems networking to refer to a network that is
connected to a mainframe computer. It can be further classified into two types: Subarea Network and
APPN. Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN) is a specific protocol suite within SNA that enables
peer-to-peer communication between devices in a network, allowing for more efficient and dynamic
routing of data. Therefore, option A is the correct answer as it accurately identifies the two types of SNA
networks.

191.

GDS stands for .............

A. Generalized Data Stream

B. Generalized Date Stream

C. General Data Stream

D. None of the above

The correct answer is:

C. General Data Stream

Explanation: GDS stands for General Data Stream. This term is often used in the context of computer
science and data processing to refer to a continuous flow of data.

192. The Unix system deals with two important API .............

A. BSD -Berkeley Software Distribution and Transport Layer Interface (TLI)

B. only BSD -Berkeley Software Distribution

C. only Transport Layer Interface

D. None of the above

The correct answer is A. BSD - Berkeley Software Distribution and Transport Layer Interface (TLI). These
are the two important APIs that the Unix system deals with.

The Unix system deals with two important APIs:

A. BSD - Berkeley Software Distribution and Transport Layer Interface (TLI).

Explanation:

1. BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution): BSD is a Unix-like operating system that originated from the
University of California, Berkeley. The BSD API includes a set of system calls, libraries, and utilities that
extend the functionality of the Unix operating system. It encompasses various enhancements and
features that were developed at Berkeley, contributing to the evolution of Unix.

2. Transport Layer Interface (TLI): TLI is an API that provides a standardized interface for communication
between applications at the transport layer of the OSI model. It is specifically designed to support
communication protocols like TCP/IP. TLI simplifies the development of networked applications by
offering a consistent set of functions and services for managing connections, data transfer, and error
handling.

In summary, the Unix system leverages the BSD API for general system functionality and the TLI API for
facilitating communication at the transport layer, ensuring compatibility and ease of development for
networking applications. Therefore, option A, which includes both BSD and TLI, is the correct answer.

193. The connection-oriented and connectionless services are provided by which protocol?

A. Linux protocol

B. unix domain protocols

C. both a) and b)

D. None of the above

The correct answer is D. None of the above.

Connection-oriented and connectionless services are typically provided by transport layer protocols in
the networking stack, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for connection-oriented services and
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for connectionless services. The options A and B are specific to operating
systems (Linux and Unix) rather than protocols that provide these networking services.

194. Which method is often called a "reliable" network service?

A. Connection-oriented

B. object-oriented

C. both a) and b)

D. None of the above

The correct answer is:

A. Connection-oriented

A connection-oriented method is often referred to as a "reliable" network service because it ensures

that data is delivered reliably and in order to the recipient. This method establishes a dedicated
connection between the sender and receiver before transferring data, confirming the successful delivery
of packets, and handling retransmissions if any packets are lost or corrupted during transmission. This
ensures the integrity and reliability of the data being transmitted over the network.

195. The client in socket programming must know information .............

a. The IP address of Server

b. Port number

c. Both IP address of Server \& Port number

d. Only its own IP address

The correct answer is: c. Both IP address of Server & Port number

In socket programming, the client needs to know both the IP address of the server it wants to
communicate with and the port number where the server is listening for incoming connections. This
information is essential for establishing a connection between the client and the server.

196. What is the size of MAC Address?

a. 16-bits

b. 32-bits

C. 48-bits

d. 64-bits

The correct answer is:

c. 48-bits

Explanation:

A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for
communications on a network. The size of a MAC address is typically 48 bits, represented as 12
hexadecimal characters.

197. Which of the following term describes PDU encapsulated at Transport Layer?

a. Frame

b. Packet

c. Data

d. Segment

The correct answer is:

d. Segment

Explanation:

At the Transport Layer of the OSI model, data is encapsulated into segments. Segments contain
information such as sequence numbers and checksums for reliable data transfer between hosts.
Therefore, the term that describes the PDU (Protocol Data Unit) encapsulated at the Transport Layer is
"Segment."

198. A list of protocols used by a system, one protocol per layer, is called

a) protocol architecture
b) protocol stack

c) protocol suite

d) protocol system

The correct answer is:

b) protocol stack

A protocol stack is a collection of protocols arranged in a hierarchical manner, with each protocol
responsible for a specific layer of communication within a network system. It follows the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model or the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model,
where each layer corresponds to a specific set of functions and protocols.

199. Connector RJ-45 contains?

a. Two pins

b. Four pins

5 University Academy

c. Eight pins

d. Ten pins

The correct answer is:

c. Eight pins

Explanation: Connector RJ-45, commonly used for Ethernet networking, typically contains eight pins.
These pins are used to transmit data signals in networking cables.

The correct answer is:

c. Eight pins
Explanation: Connector RJ-45, commonly used for Ethernet networking, typically contains eight pins.
These pins are used to transmit data signals in networking cables.

200. A set of rules that governs data communication is called

a. Protocols

b. Standards

c. RFCs

d. Servers

The correct answer is:

a. Protocols

Explanation:

Protocols are a set of rules that define how data is transmitted over a network. They specify the format
of the data, the order in which it is transmitted, and the actions that should be taken in various
situations. Standards, RFCs (Request for Comments), and servers are related concepts but do not
specifically refer to the set of rules governing data communication.