PHILOSOPHY - “What is that one thing that

- Something greek or western perspectives comprises the universe?”

- “Ang pilosopiya ang ginagawa.” - Democritus - atoms
- Etymological definition: studies the origin - Pre-socratics: lived prior to
of the world. Socrates.
- Socrates, Plato, and
CLASSICAL DEFINITIONS OF PHILO: Aristotle
1. Pythagoras - Medieval
- Philosophy is the love for wisdom. - 600 AD to 1600s
- Philia: Love, and Sophia: Wisdom. - Faith and Reason
- Wisdom: something applied (heart - We use philosophy to
and mind) in or for experience. understand theodicy or
- Knowledge: something head-level religion.
(cognitive) and technical. - Proponents: St. Augustine
- Believes in 3 kinds of people: loves and St. Thomas Aquinas.
pleasure, loves success, and loves - Modern
wisdom. - Scientific method
2. Aristotelico-Thomistic - Rene’ Descartes - “Cogito
- “A science that investigates the ergo sum”, the father of
ultimate causes, principles, and Modern Philosophy
nature of all things in the light of - Post-modern
reason alone.” - Immanuel Kant. a german
- Man is a rational animal; reflects philosopher
and asks questions. - Started or pushed
- Reason should always prevail. postmodernism.
- Reason is an important tool for - 1900s
being a rational being. - Subjectivity
- Right; proof
“Philosophy begins in wondering.”
“Everything begins in philosophy.” !! ANCIENT TO MODERN ARE CALLED AS
“Philosophy starts with a question.” CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY

Essential Questions: B. Systematic (Classical Branches)

- What is Philosophy? - Metaethics - being
- How do we study philosophy? - Cosmology - order of the universe
- Theodicy - faith
3. Karl Jaspers - Psychology - mental processes
- “New concept and new beginning; and behavior
in which questions are more - Epistemology - knowledge
important than answers.” - Logic
- Post modern or Contemporary - Ethics
Period
- “Man is not anymore merely ESSENTIAL TERMINOLOGIES IN
rational being.” ETHICS
● Ethics
Questions always leave room for discussions. - Ethos, which means custom.
- Study of morality
APPROACHES IN PHILOSOPHY: - Mores (latin) means morals
A. Historical (4 major periods) - A discipline
- Ancient - 600 BC to 600 AD - Examines moral standards or
- Stuff? morality.
- A custom habit
 - Philosophical-academic discipline. - What morality itself is.
- Study of morality: (1) soundness, - Nature of moral claims
(2) reasonableness, and (3) - Morality is objective or
appropriateness of moral relative?
standards. - Who has moral rights?

● Morality ● Normative Ethics

- Set of standards of which is right - Prescribes theories
or wrong. - Moral standards to determine if it’s
- People can have different morality right or wrong.
of what is right or wrong. - Formulation of moral forms or rules
- Pertains to society’s standards of that can be a basis of actions.
what is right or wrong. - Concepts: consequentialism
(consequence), deontology
Plato’s Apology: (action), and virtue ethics
Socrates: corrupts the minds of Athens. (character).
“An unexamined life is not worth living.” - Ethical theories that will help our
- Drank poison morality.

● Valuation ● Applied Ethics

- A judgment for an action - Examines issues (personal and
- Right or wrong, good or bad. social spheres) that matters of
- Preference moral judgment.
- Attempts to analyze, clarify, and
“Are all valuations ethical?” shed light on various ethical issues
- No, not all are covered by ethics. with the goal of guiding our moral
- Should be deeper in context, and calls for judgment.
our morals. - Practical application of
- Serious, life, philosophical philosophical study of ethics to
various domains of knowledge
A. Aesthetics requiring moral judgment.
- “Aisthesis” (greek) means sense or - Descriptive Ethics:
feeling. - Presentation of what is
- Judgments (personal approval and right or wrong.
disapproval) about what we hear, - Understanding the moral
see, smell, and taste. norms that people follow or
- Preference of view, perfume, believe in.
music, or food. - Establish what the case is;
B. Etiquette not what should be the
- A sense of approval or disapproval case.
concerning certain actions which
can be considered trivial in nature.
C. Technique
- “Techne” (greek) means the proper ● Moral Issue
way of doing things. - Situations that call for moral
valuation.
● Metaethics - Source of considerable and
- Analytic Ethics inconclusive debate.
- Meta: going beyond
- Foundation of morality. ● Moral Decision
- Nature, meaning, scope and - Situation wherein one is
foundations of moral values and confronted by a choice of what to
discourses. act to perform.
 ● Moral Judgment 3. Culture
- Person is an observer who makes - Cultural relativism
an assessment on the actions or - What is ethical to one’s
behavior of someone. culture?
- Clear basis for valuations.
● Moral Dilemma - Something that is fixed.
- One is torn between choosing one - the reality of difference; no position
of the two goods or choosing the to render any kind of judgment on
lesser of two evils. the practices of another culture; no
position to render any kind of
● Moral Theory judgment on the practices of one’s
- Systematic attempt to establish the own culture; culture as something
validity of maintaining moral fixed.
principles.
- Referred as frameworks 4. Self
- Theories of interconnected ideas a. Subjectivism
- Structure through which we can - Thinking a person is at the
evaluate our reasons. heart of all moral decisions.
- Sole determinant of what is
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY IN morally good, bad, right, or
wrong.
MORALITY
“standards of moral valuation are imposed by a b. Psychological Egoism
higher authority that commands our obedience.” - Humans are naturally self-
centered.
1. Law - Actions are motivated by
- Rules and regulations that are self-interest.
posited or put forward by an - Ego - desires and interests.
authority figure that require - Self-serving actions
compliance. - Cynical-view of humanity.
- One-sided
- Prohibiting nature c. Ethical Egoism
- Not all legal are moral. - One way acts in a way that
is beneficial to others, but
2. Religion we should do that only if it
- Divine Command Theory ultimately benefits us.
- Permissive in the ideas to pursue. - Why should I have any
- Moral directives are general and concern about the interests
imprecise. of others?
- Can we really be certain what God - Potentially destructive of
wants us to do? both self and others.
- We are doing ourselves a
disservice if we base our judgment
of right or wrong on what the
CONSEQUENTIALISM:
religion dictates. UTILITARIANISM
- Morality should transcend religion; Proponents: Jeremy Bentham (An Introduction to
a matter of reason. the Principles of Morals and Legislation) and John
- Leads us to the purpose of Stuart Mill (Utilitarianism)
spirituality.
- Conflicting ethical standards due ● Utilitarianism
to the multiplicity of religions; the - Focuses on the results or
problem of ethics and the divine. consequences of our actions;
 intentions are irrelevant. - Actions governed by two masters:
(Consequentialist) pleasure and pain.
- Consequence is useful; action is - Principle of Utility: subjection to the
morality right for the greatest sovereign masters.
number of people.
- Argues for the goodness of ● Felicific Calculus - measures greatest
pleasure and the determination of number’s pleasure.
right behavior is based on the - Quantitative method
usefulness of an action’s - Calculates pleasure some actions
consequence/s. produce.
1. Intensity or strength
● Happiness 2. Duration or length
- Experiences of pleasure for the 3. Certainty, uncertainty,
greatest number of persons, even likelihood it will occur;
at the expense of some individual’s sureness
rights. 4. Propaivarity, remoteness,
- how soon?
“Actions should be measured in terms of
happiness and pleasure that they produce.” Masters can only quantitatively differ but not
qualitatively differ from other experiences of
Utilitarians agree that a moral theory should apply masters.
equally to everyone.
❖ John Stuart Mill
- There’s really nothing more basic than Work: Utilitarianism
primal desire to seek pleasure and avoid - Moral good = happiness = pleasure
pain. - Intended pressure and privation of
pleasure.
- “We should act always so as to produce - Qualitative method
the greatest good for the greatest - Higher intellectual and lower base
number.” pleasure; we have to experience both
pleasure to weigh which one is much
- “Greatest pleasure of the greatest number higher.
of people.” - Human pleasures are qualitatively
different from animal pleasures.
A. Principle of Utility - An excessive quantity of what is
- Choose action that would produce pleasurable might result in pain.
the most overall happiness for the
group; though it produced less !! Theory of Life: to prefer pleasure to increase
happiness for you than other happiness.
alternatives would have. !! Hedonism: pleasure is always good, and pain is
- You do no more special than evil. Therefore, avoid pain.
anybody else.
- Utilitarians: moral decisions from B. Principle of the Greatest Number
the position of the benevolent, - Pleasure of the greatest number is
disinterested spectator. affected by the consequences of the
- Think what would you do or think if actions.
you are advising a group of - Not morally good if it only satisfies us/one
strangers. person.
- Consider everyone’s happiness
❖ Jeremy Bentham - Best consequences for the highest
Work: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals number of people.
and Legislation)
● Justice and Moral Rights
 A. Rights : God created us with capabilities and we must
- Valid claims on society and are follow or recognize it to live an ethical life and in
justified by utility. order to return to him.
- Interests serve general
happiness. “Actions are morally right if it is in accordance
B. Justice with our nature.”
- Respect for rights; pursuit for the
greatest happiness of the greatest ● Summa Theologica
number. - 6000+ pages
- “Magnum opus” - great work
Treated justly when legal and moral rights are - Theological summary
respected. - Written in latin
- Aims to explain relation of god,
● Legal Rights man, and how Jesus Christ
- If not morally justified; rights need became an important aspect of the
neither be observed, nor be relationship.
respected. - Three parts: On God, On Human
- Morally permissible to not follow, Life, and On Jesus our Savior.
even violate, an unjust law.
● Main arguments of the Natural Law
According to Mill, it is commendable to endure Theory
legal punishments for acts of civil disobedience - Deontological-ethical theory -
for the sake of promoting a higher moral good. relies on duty; gagawin kasi
‘dapat’.
Ramifications of utilitarianism in theory. 1. We must recognize the capabilities
(natural law, natural inclinations) created
Moral rights take precedence over legal rights. by god for us.
- Will’s moral rights and considerations of 2. We must use reason (conscience, free
justice are not absolute, bot are only will) in recognizing these capabilities.
justified by their consequences to promote 3. By recognizing those natural capabilities,
the greatest good of the greatest number we are living an ethical life.
- Justice = moral rights
- Promotes the greater social good. ● Variety of Laws
a. Eternal Law (God)
● Act Utilitarianism I. Natural Law (Man)
- Classical utilitarianism - Human Law
- Any situation, choose the action - Civil Law
that produces the greatest good for - Canon Law
the greatest number. - Divine Law
● Rule Utilitarianism
- We ought to live by rules Eternal Law
- Likely to lead to the greatest good - Highest law for all creation.
for the greatest number. - Purposes
- Refrain us from acts that might - Design created by god for us.
maximize utility in the short time. - Divine Wisdom directs each being toward
its end; the will of God for creation.
DEONTOLOGICAL-ETHICAL
Natural Law
THEORY: NATURAL LAW THEORY
- The participation of the rational creature to
Proponent: St. Thomas Aquinas
the eternal law.
Work: Summa Theologica
- A unique participation of a Human Being
to the eternal law with the use of
 REASON; human nature as the basis of - Perfection – returning to divine goodness.
actions
Each being is created as a determinate
Human Law substance, a particular combination of matter and
- Modesty human; order form. The unique way that we have been created
- Civil and Canon (church) Law can be called our NATURE.
- Should be based on natural law.
- Construct and enforce laws in their ● Essence of Laws
communities. - REASON will rightly direct our
- Specific precepts for a particular actions to their proper ends
community. - The common good.
- LAW – the determination of the
Divine Law proper measure of our actions.
- Bible - It is concerned with the
- Directing human beings to supernatural Common Good.
happiness; the scriptures as the basis for - Promulgation – laws must
moral actions. be communicated to the
people involved in order to
We are inclined to do good according to the enforce them and to better
nature of our reason. ensure compliance.

We are enjoined to make full use of our reason ● Five Principal Natural Inclinations
and determine when the performance of our 1. The good
natural inclinations is appropriate. 2. Self-preservation
3. Sexual Union
● Influences of Thomistic Ethics 4. Knowing the truth
1. Plato (World of Matter and World 5. Living in the Society
of Ideas)
- The Greek Influence ● Theodicy
- The Transcendent Good: The Actions are morally right if it is in accordance with
Good Is Real the natural law.
2. Plotinus (Neo-Platonist) - Theologica
- The Oneness Of Reality - Study/understanding of theos (god)
- The Good With The One And - God reveals himself in scriptures.
Beautiful.
3. Casualty (Aristotle) Nemesis
- The ONENESS OF REALITY - Faith and Reason
- The GOOD with the ONE - Science and Religion
- The FOUR causes
- Material Cause Challenges:
- Formal Cause Moral Principles are written in the laws of nature -
- Efficient Cause Darwinian Evolutionary Theory
- Final Cause - No God design.
- Potency and Act - Human beings developed into a complex
rational creature through the survival of
God as the causa causarem (cause of all causes) the fittest.

God is the supreme good. We participate in this DEONTOLOGY: KANTIAN ETHICS

goodness. Therefore, we have goodness. - Evaluates actions done
- Actions are done because of duty.
Our goodness is limited: - Deon (greek): being necessary
- Divine Providence – guiding us to our
perfection.
“Actions are morally right if it is in accordance - No exceptions to rules
with the categorical imperatives.” - Permissible
- Doesn’t have/care about the consequence
❖ Immanuel Kant or even the greatest pleasure.
Work: Groundwork Towards a Metaphysics of
Morals (1785) B. PRINCIPLE OF ENDS
Transitional Philosopher “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your
Modern then to Post-Modern person or in that of any other in every case as an
- Actions are anchored on the natural law. end and never as merely a means.”
- Every person is a law-making member of - Intrinsically valuable because of an
the moral community. inherent rational faculty.
- Criticism to natural law - It is not moral to use someone as a thing.
- Moral knowledge, prior to our human - When people are treated as means, we do
experience. not respect and recognize their dignity,
rights, and autonomy.
● Good Will
- Will means intention or motive. C. PRINCIPLE OF AUTONOMY
- Good will: does what is “So act as if you were always through your
right and does so with the maxims a law-making member of the kingdom of
correct motive. ends.”
- “The only correct motive for moral - Autonomy - freedom, independent to do
action is duty.” and decide for themselves.
- We are autonomous because we are
● Duty rational beings.
- Good will: right thing for right - Web of rational beings
reason - Moral rules must be freely chosen by us.
- Respect for moral law itself. - Autonomy and heteronomy
- Motivation: right conduct is our - Reason is what’s best for us.
reason rather than desire, feeling, - See others as the center of their own life
or inclination. plans and respect their decisions even
- Acting from duty. when we may disagree with them.
- Respect autonomy of people
● Categorical Imperatives - Advice, educate, encourage
1. Hypothetical Imperative - Heteronomy - external force to guide,
- If you want X, then do Y. help, or influence.
- There are conditions - - Natural law and Kantian Ethics VS
Conditional Imperative Utilitarianism.
2. Categorical Imperative
- Do Y. Challenges:
- Only reason is duty. - Absolutist and exceptionless.
- Show proper recognition of - Motivation is unrealistic and demanding.
the paramount importance - Rationally impaired people.
of being morally obliged.
- Heart of Kantian Ethics. VIRTUE ETHICS: NICOMACHEAN
PRINCIPLES ETHICS
A. PRINCIPLE OF UNIVERSAL LAW Proponent: Aristotle
“Act only according to such as maxi, by which you Focuses on the character of the person.
can at once will that it becomes a universal law.” “What kind of person should I be?” - Virtuous
- Actions must be universalizable person (Model of right actions)
- Maxim: general rule, personal to universal.
- Must consider our duties equal to those of It is more interested not with what makes an act
everyone else (impartiality). right, but what makes a person good.
The starting point of VIRTUE ETHICS: what
characters are virtuous or vicious?

● Nicomachean Ethics
- Work of Aristotle; based on son,
Nicomachus
- Compilation of lectures on Ethics
in the Lyceum. ● Eudaimonia
- How to live a good life. - The ultimate good, the end of all
human actions.
“What is the end of all human actions?” - The fulfillment of one’s nature is
- Happiness what leads to happiness.
- Attaining Eudaimonia - Sense of fulfillment, purpose,
- Ultimate goal: Being a virtuous person. contentment, flourishing.

We must practice virtues, consistently. The proper end of human beings is to live a life in
“The virtuous person is not simply one who does accordance with reason.
the right act; rather, the virtuous person is one
who consistently does right acts for the right Human Beings can act based on reason.
motives.”
If happiness lies in fulfilling one’s nature and
● Doctrine of Mean function, the key to human happiness is
Virtue cultivating and enhancing our rational faculty,
- One must develop virtue. making it prevail over the lower faculties of desire
- Mean, balance, moderation, middle and passion.
ground.
- The mean between the two extremes of We must practice virtues before we can acquire
our emotions and desires, as well as the them. Aristotle compared the practice of virtues to
actions that they motivate. acquiring skills in arts.

A. Intellectual Virtue - enables us to think Aristotle notes that the mean between extremes
rationally. does not lie in the act but is relative to the moral
B. Moral Virtue - enables us to handle our agent. This means that what is excessive,
desires and emotions rationally. deficient, and moderate depends on the person.

Vice According to Aristotle, not every action nor every

- The undesirable character trait of either emotion admits of a mean.
the extreme of excess or the extreme of
deficiency. Choosing the mean between extremes is the way
for reason to control the excesses of the emotions
1. Vicious and passions.
- Deficiency
- Excessive A life of moderation is not a life of safety or
- Leads to vice boredom, but a life where REASON IS
CONTROL.
2. Virtuous
- A person of balance and Challenges:
moderation. ● It has no clear basis to determine what we
- Mean, golden mean ought to do, and not to do.
- Achieve eudaimonia. ● The mean and situationism.
● Humans have only one distinctive
function: reasoning.
VIRTUE ETHICS concentrates on the character
of the person; not the act itself.

VIRTUES are right actions done repeatedly,

habitually.
Intellectual Virtues – enable us to think
rationally.
Moral Virtues – enable us to regulate our
emotions and desires.

REASON is essential in living a virtuous life; living

a virtuous life will lead to the ultimate happiness
(eudaimonia).

VIRTUES are the mean; VICES are the excesses

and deficiencies.

● Utilitarianism
Proponent 1: Jeremy Bentham
Work: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation

Proponent 2: John Stuart Mill

Work: Utilitarianism
● Natural Law
Proponent: St. Thomas Aquinas
Work: Summa Theologica (Summary of
Theology)
● Kantian Ethics
Proponent: Immanuel Kant
Work: Groundwork Towards a Metaphysics of
Morals (1785)
● Virtue Ethics
Proponent: Aristotle
Work: Nicomachean Ethics