Eastern Question and Road to World War I

Geopolitics
Ottoman Empire
• From mid-15th century to 1683 -
Ottoman Empire was among the most
successful states.
• Their influence spanned throughout
Anatolia, North Africa and in Eastern
Europe up to Italy.
• 1683 - Ottomans were defeated in
Italian expedition → decline started
• Throughout 18th century - fast decline
• Russian and Hambsburg expansion on
the cost of Ottomans
 Ethnic Complexities
• Ottomans conquered the Greeks, Serbians, Romanians, Bulgarians, etc. in the Balkans.
• Serbians and Bulgarians were Slavic people, whose symbolic leaders had been Russia.
• These states were given autonomy → retained individuality → never assimilated into
the national ethos
• These were treated as second-class citizens by Ottomans → Nationalism
Nationalities of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century:
• Turks
• Arabs
• Serbians
• Bulgarians
• Romanians
• Greeks
• Hungarians
 Why Ottoman’s were becoming the “Sick Man of
Europe”
• Rapidly deteriorated after the failed siege of
Vienna in 1683
• Russia defeated Ottomans several times in 18th
century No attempt at Assimilation of
• International powers did not pay heed minorities
• Corrupt administration
Poor Military Conditions
• Weak central control
• Provincial governors behaved like autonomous Poor economic and Fiscal
tributary princes conditions
• Dismemberment of Ottoman Empire was going
on even without Balkan nationalism
• Economic control was also poor and
industrialization attempts had failed
 The Eastern Question
• French Revolution- Nationalism
In the Context of Nationalism- Unification of Germany and Italy

Rapid decline of Military Power - Increasing Nationalism among provinces

Threat of collapse at any moment

Thus, questions about the future of Europe after fall of Ottomans was
raised.
What should happen to the Balkans if and when the Ottoman Empire
disappeared in Southeastern Europe?
 Why were the Balkans Important?

• Strategic location
• Home to several races and
ethnicities
• Central location connecting
Europe to Asian markets
• Controlled straits of the Black
Sea
• Controlled the Suez Canal in
Egypt
• Eastern Catholic Centre and
Islamic Caliphate
Want Ottoman Empire Interests of Great Powers
to Decline
Will Conquer and access Balkan Sector

Russia ● Neighbours France ● Preventing Russia from becoming too

● pan-Slavic nationalism powerful
● Access to Black Sea into ● France was a major creditor to
Mediterranean through Austria Ottomans
● Independence of ethnic minorities
Dardanelles would threaten Austrian Empire
● Small Balkan states would be
unstable
● Control of the coast
● After rise of Germany, only East
Great ● Preventing Russia from
Europe remained under Austrian
Britain becoming too powerful influence
● Access to India through
Suez Canal Germany ● No direct interests
● Trading interests ● Some economic interests
● Humanitarian interests ● Inlet into Mediterranean
● Long-term interest of gaining
Christians paramountcy in Europe
 Approach
• Wave of nationalism overwhelmed entire Europe in the 19th century.
• Opposing interests of different powers
Dual Knife
If minorities got
independence → If Ottoman Empire
instability, mutual strong → instability,
warfare, protectionist atrocities, revolutions
barriers

Thus - two contradictory policies:

But not too Strong
• Sustained the central Ottoman state
To keep the Ottomans weak
• Promoted local nationalism[Balkan Nationalism]
• Resulted in an empire which was only a loose agglomeration of
territories.
Road to World War I
 Serbian Revolution - 1804-1833 Greek Freedom Struggle -
1814-29

Crimean War, 1853-56

The Great Eastern Crisis, 1875-78

 Serbian Revolution (1804-1830)
• By 1800s - Austrian border came to Serbian Territory

• Austrian annexation of certain Serbian territories → Serbs gained military

experience + nationalism

• Revival of trade → Transfer of new ideas → Nationalism revived

• Appearance of a new Serbian elite who travelled across Europe

• Russia was also source of inspiration

 The second uprising
Serbia remained
First uprising lasted continued after
independent for almost
1804-1813. reannexation of Serbia
a decade.
(1815-17)

Serbia and the

Actual independence
Ottomans entered
would come only in
negotiations and Serbia
1878 after the Treaty of
became virtually
Berlin.
independent.
 Greek War of Independence
• Many Greeks shared power and Greece was never separated from
patronage with Ottomans in
Europe
various official capacities.
• Constantinople was the centre of the
• Small number of Greeks lived in Greek world throughout the first
modern Greece - other scattered
throughout Ottoman lands
millennium CE.
• Capture of Constantinople in 1453
• Considerable autonomy in by the Ottomans → Greeks fled to
Greek peninsula already
Italy → major role in Renaissance
• Greeks dominated the Balkan • As sailors and captains → they were
commerce - were shipmen,
traders, etc.
elite → greater interaction with
European world
• Thus - Greece position not as • Influx of nationalistic ideas,
bad as Serbs
especially under Napoleonic times
 As central authority
Failed law and order →
Corruption + weakened → provincial
countryside infested with
Maladministration governors behaved
bandits
independently

The underground society

Local resentment with Unlike Serbia, Greek
Filiki Eteria (Society of
governors turned into Revolution was a
Friends) planned an
full-fledged revolts planned conspiracy.
uprising in March, 1821

Inspired by the revolt →

Revolt began in North
The revolt was crushed revolts broke out in
Greece early in
by Ottomans. other Greek cities as
February, 1821
well → all were crushed
 International Intervention
• Greek Movement and its suppression created context for intervention
• Russia put pressure on the Sultan, helped Greece with money and troops
• Britain and France felt threatened by overt Russian influence in an independent
Greece
• Britain and France declared war and destroyed Ottoman Navy
• Russia also attacked Ottomans and defeated them
• Greece became independent by Treaty of Adrianople in 1829.

To contain the Russian influence, the Great Powers:

• Installed a foreign king in Greece
• Decreased the size of Greece
• Through the 19th century - several coups, crises → Greece expanded to its present
boundaries
 Crimean War, 1853-56
• Weakening of the Ottoman Empire
• Russian expansionism at Ottoman expense
• Unwillingness of Britain and France to allow a powerful Russia
• Napoleon III’s intent to restore French prestige
• Immediate cause: religious dispute
• The immediate cause of the war involved the rights of Christian minorities in
Palestine, which was part of the Ottoman Empire.
• The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, and Russia promoted
those of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• Nicholas issued an ultimatum that demanded the Orthodox subjects of the
Ottoman Empire be placed under his protection.
• When the Ottomans demanded changes to the agreement, Nicholas recanted
and prepared for war. Russia attacked Ottomans in 1853.
 UK and French press
Battle of Sinop: hostilities favoured war and shaped UK and France allied with
started by Russia → captured public opinion. Austria, a Ottomans and reversed
Danube region Russian ally, remained Russian gains
neutral

The Tsar and the Sultan

agreed not to establish any The Treaty of Paris admitted
naval or military arsenal on the Ottoman Empire to the
Treaty of Paris- 1856-Both
the Black Sea coast. The European concert, and the
parties returned each others’
Black Sea clauses weakened Great Powers pledged to
captured territories
Russia, which no longer respect its independence and
posed a naval threat to the territorial integrity.
Ottomans.
 Consequences
• Widespread destruction → anti-war sympathy

• Florence Nightingale worked for soldier relief → establishment of Red Cross

• Neutralization of Black Sea

• Russia began military modernization

• Ottoman financial condition started weakening

• Ottomans granted Christians equal rights as Muslims

• Russia began expanding eastwards

 The Great Eastern Crisis, 1875-78
Encouraged the
Nationalism

Crimean War → Revolts started The Great Powers

throughout Bosnia, organized the
Ottoman Empire started
Russians encouraged Constantinople
taking foreign loans for Herzegovina and Conference, the
military modernization, the revolts.
Bulgaria → difficult outcomes of which was
railways, telegraph, etc. to be quelled ignored by the Ottomans.

Russo-Turkish War of Treaty of San Under the treaty, an

However, this alarmed
1877-78- Russia aligned enlarged autonomous
Stefano, 1878- the European powers
with the rebel states and Greater Bulgaria was
Ottomans lost huge leading to the call of
attacked Ottomans. formed in the
Russia inflicted searing amounts of land in Congress of Berlin,
Northern Ottoman
defeats on the Ottomans. the Eastern Europe. 1878.
lands.
New Map of Eastern
Europe
Congress of Berlin, 1878
Following representatives met in Berlin:
• 6 Great Powers of Europe (Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy and Russia)
• Ottoman Empire
• 4 Balkan states (Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro)
• Led by Bismarck.
• Treaty of Berlin was signed.
• It replaced the earlier treaty of San Stefano of 1878.
• Britain wanted to decrease Russian power.
• Ottoman Empire had to be conserved.
• The nationalist Balkan states had to be satisfied.
• Austria-Hungary wanted to expand its influence in Balkans.
 Alliance System
Apart from these, there were several points of
fiction, including:

Secret Alliances • Naval rivalry between Britain and Germany

Triple Alliance: 1882 Triple Entente • French resentment of loss of Alsace-Lorraine to

Germany
Germany Franco-Russian Alliance
• German concern of being encircled by Britain,
Austro-Hungary (1894)
Italy British-France “Entente
France and Russia
Cordiale” (1904) • Serbian nationalism
• Austria felt threatened by this because:
• Greater Serbia would become very strong
• Croats and Serbs lived in Austria too → could
October Manifesto,1905 lead to disintegration of Austrian Empire
• This had brought Europe to the verge of war
several times in the 1900s.
Germany is diplomatically humiliated Encircle Germany Germany Felt Threatened
and will develop hatred against French

The Moroccan British-Russia Bosnia Crisis

Crisis (1905-06) Alliance (1907) (1908)

Austria takes full

control of Bosnia

First Balkan Second Balkan

Sarajevo Crisis
War (1912) War (1913)

Balkan League vs Ottomans Serbia vs Bulgaria over Macedonia

which was captured by Serbia during
Britain and Germany Intervenes 1st Balkan War
Albenia created as a new Country
and Serbians are angry Serbia Wins
The Events
 The Flash Point
Sarajevo Crisis of 28th June, 1914
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the
throne of Austria and his wife were shot
by a Serbian terrorist, Gavrilo Princip

Austria blamed Serbia and sent an

ultimatum with multiple demands

Serbia accepted the ultimatum except

one demand[Bosnia]

28th July: With German support, Austria

declared war on Serbia
 Escalation

4th August- Britain

1st August- attacked Germany
29th July- Russia
28th July- Austria- Germans attack 3rd August- when Germany
orders general
Hungary declared Russia after Russia Germans attack violated Belgian
mobilization along
war on Serbia fails to cancel France neutrality which
Western border
mobilization was guaranteed by
Britain
Summary
Summary